HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


Paint ed  hi  Henri  Reuterdahl  for  the  Hiitorj  of  the  Panama  Canal. 


FROM  SEA  TO  SEA 

The  S.  S.  silicon  passing  through  the  Pedro  Miguel  lock  —  the  first  steamer  through  the  canal. 


HISTORY 

OF  THE 

PANAMA    CANAL 

ITS  CONSTRUCTION  AND  BUILDERS 


BY 

IRA  E.  BENNETT 


ASSOCIATE  EDITORS 

JOHN  HAYS  HAMMOND 

PATRICK  J.  LENNOX,  B.A.,  Lixx.D. 

WILLIAM  JOSEPH  SHOW  ALTER 

CAPT.  PHILIP  ANDREWS,  U.  S.  N. 

RUPERT  BLUE,  M.D.,  D.P.H. 

J.  HAMPTON  MOORE 


BUILDERS'  EDITION 


WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 
HISTORICAL   PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

DISTRICT  NATIONAL  BANK  BUILDING 
1915 


Copyright  19  is,  by 
IRA  E.  BENNETT 

Washington,  D.  C. 


Rogers  8t  Company.  Chicago  and  New  York 


PREFACE 

IN  THE  ensuing  pages  an  effort  has  been  made  to   tell  the   plain,  un- 
varnished story  of  Panama  and    the  Panama   Canal.     The   informa- 
tion contained  herein  has  been  gathered  from  many  publications  and 
from  public  and  private  persons.     The  records  of  the  Government  have 
been  available  at  all  times,  to  the  writer,  thanks  to  the  courtesy  of  the 
authorities  at  Washington  and   of   Major-General  Goethals.     Special  ac- 
knowledgments are  due  to  the  Hon.  William  H.  Taft,  who,  as  Secretary  of 
War  and  President  of  the  United  States,  from  1904  to  1913,  directed  the 
affairs  of  the  Panama  Canal  from  its  beginning  to  its  virtual  completion. 
In  1912  President  Taft  wrote  to  the  author  as  follows: 

THE  WHITE  HOUSE,  Washington,  March  25,  1912 
MY  DEAR  Mr.  BENNETT: 

I  am  very  glad  to  hear  from  you  that  you  contemplate  publishing  a  history  of  the 
construction  of  the  Panama  Canal.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  detail  connected  with  it 
which  is  forgotten  and  yet  which  is  interesting  to  know  with  respect  to  the  great  work. 
There  are  a  good  many  facts,  indeed,  that  have  never  been  brought  to  the  public  attention, 
that  are  of  record  and  ought  properly  to  be  put  in  an  historical  form. 

I  shall  be  very  glad  myself  to  furnish  you  with  all  the  data  that  I  have  in  my  cor- 
respondence, which  covers  the  whole  life  of  the  Canal  from  the  very  day  that  the  Canal 
Zone  was  turned  over  by  the  Republic  of  Panama  to  the  United  States. 

I  am  glad  that  such  an  enterprise  is  on  foot. 

Sincerely  yours,  WM.  H.  TAFT. 

Cordial  encouragement  was  extended,  also,  by  the  Hon.  Henry  L. 
Stimson,  Secretary  of  War,  and  Col.  George  W.  Goethals,  Chairman  and 
Chief  Engineer  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission.  Mr.  Stimson  wrote: 
"I  think  it  is  very  important  that  a  full  and  careful  history  of  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Panama  Canal  should  be  written  while  people  are  still  alive 
in  whose  memories  many  of  the  most  important  events  will  rest,  and  I 
am  very  glad  to  hear  that  you  are  contemplating  publishing  such  a  his- 
tory. I  should  be  glad  to  put  at  your  disposal  all  the  data  that  I  properly 
can  while  in  office  here  in  the  Department  which  has  had  supervision  to  a 
certain  extent  over  the  work." 

Col.  Goethals  wrote:  "I  am  very  glad  to  hear  from  you  that  you 
contemplate  publishing  a  history  of  the  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal. 
To  facilitate  you  in  the  enterprise  I  will  take  pleasure  in  authorizing  you 
to  collect  information  from  any  reliable  source  and  give  you  access  to 
the  records  for  verification  of  such  information  or  any  additional  data  that 
may  be  available." 

The  author  is  indebted  to  Prof.  Patrick  J.  Lennox,  Professor  of  English 
Language  and  Literature  at  the  Catholic  University  of  America,  for  valua- 
ble assistance  in  preparing  the  history  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  A  master 
of  the  subject,  his  aid  in  critical  researches  through  an  extensive  bibliog- 


viii  HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 

•* 

raphy  served  to  bring  out  what  is  believed  to  be  a  clear  and  concise  account 
of  the  romantic  developments  that  followed  the  discovery  of  Tierra  Firme. 

Equally  important  was  the  assistance  rendered  by  Mr.  William  Joseph 
Showalter  in  the  preparation  of  the  history  of  canal  construction.  In 
conversation  with  the  writer,  Col.  Goethals  expressed  his  pleasure  upon 
being  informed  that  Mr.  Showalter  was  engaged  in  this  task,  and  he  added: 
"Mr.  Showalter  knows  more  about  the  Panama  Canal  than  any  other 
man  except  myself.  I  wish  some  of  my  engineers  knew  as  much." 

No  doubt  many  details  of  canal  history  cannot  be  ascertained  or 
accurately  weighed  at  this  time;  but  it  has  been  deemed  wise  to  obtain 
from  some  of  the  makers  of  this  history  their  own  version  of  their  activi- 
ties, for  the  information  of  future  historians.  In  this  regard  the  chapters 
contributed  by  Messrs.  John  F.  Wallace  and  John  F.  Stevens,  respectively 
chief  engineers  of  the  Canal,  are  especially  notable. 

To  the  Associate  Editors,  contributors,  and  numerous  American  en- 
gineers, contractors,  and  industrial  corporations  cordial  thanks  are  extended 
for  co-operation  and  advice. 

Although  care  has  been  taken  to  insure  the  accuracy  of  technical 
descriptions  of  equipment,  machinery,  and  operations,  it  is  hoped  that 
the  reader  will  bear  in  mind,  when  errors  are  noted,  that  the  construction 
of  the  Panama  Canal  involved  the  energies  of  almost  all  branches  of  Amer- 
ican industry,  and  that  a  review  of  these  operations  is  almost  equivalent  to 
a  description  of  a  ten  years'  war. 

Happily,  however,  the  campaign  conducted  at  Panama  was  construct- 
ive, not  destructive;  for  the  benefit  of  mankind,  not  for  the  killing  of  men 
and  the  conquest  of  nations;  and  more  permanent  glory  was  won  by  the 
gallant  soldier  who  lost  his  life  in  the  struggle  at  Panama  than  by  those 
who  count  their  triumphs  in  the  number  of  men  slaughtered  in  Europe. 
The  name  of  the  late  Lieutenant-Colonel  David  DuBose  Gaillard  is  perpetu- 
ated, not  only  by  the  renaming  of  Culebra  Cut,  but  by  the  record  of  his 
own  devotion,  which  will  endure  even  if  Gaillard  Cut  should  be  swept  away. 

The  Panama  Canal  was  completed  at  a  time  when  war  enveloped  Eu- 
rope. The  story  of  its  construction  is  offered  in  the  hope  that  it  will  aid  in 
reminding  the  world  that 

"Peace  hath  her  victories, 

No  less  renowned  than  war." 
WASHINGTON, 

May,  1915. 


TABLE  OF   CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I     THE  DISCOVERY  OF  PANAMA 5 

II     EARLY  SETTLEMENTS 10 

III  DISCOVERY  OF  THE  SOUTH  SEA 15 

IV  BALBOA'S  FALL 19 

V    SPANISH  RULE  ON  THE  ISTHMUS 28 

VI    TURMOIL  IN  THE  COLONIES 35 

VII     RAIDS  BY  THE  ENGLISH 43 

VIII     PANAMA'S  EARLY  GROWTH  AND  DECLINE 51 

IX    THE  BUCCANEERS 55 

X    THE  DARIEN  SCHEME 63 

XI    THE  ENMITY  OF  ENGLAND 69 

XII     PANAMA  REVOLTS  AGAINST  SPAIN 75 

XIII  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  COLOMBIA 81 

XIV  THE  PANAMA  RAILROAD 86 

XV     EARLY  CANAL  PROJECTS 96 

XVI     DE  LESSEPS'S  COLOSSAL  FAILURE 102 

XVII     How  PANAMA  TRIUMPHED  OVER  NICARAGUA 106 

XVIII  CONTROVERSY  WITH  COLOMBIA  AND  ACQUISITION  OF  THE  CANAL  ZONE  no 

XIX    THE  COMPLETED  CANAL 114 

XX    THE  SANITARY  DEPARTMENT 121 

XXI     THE  CANAL  UNDER  WALLACE T~.- 126 

XXII     THE  STEVENS  REGIME 130 

XXIII  THE  COMING  OF  GOETHALS 134 

XXIV  CULEBRA  CUT 140 

XXV    BUILDING  THE  DAMS 146 

XXVI     THE  STORY  OF  THE  LOCKS 150 

XXVII     HAMMERED  DOWN  UNIT-COSTS 156 

XXVIII     THE  CANAL  ARMY 160 

XXIX     QUARTERING  AND  FEEDING  THE  CANAL  ARMY 165 

XXX     LIVING  CONDITIONS  IN  THE  ZONE 169 

XXXI     THE  CANAL  FORTIFICATIONS 172 

XXXII     TERMINAL  FACILITIES 175 

XXXIII  THE  CANAL  IN  OPERATION 179 

XXXIV  THE  CANAL  GOVERNMENT 183 

XXXV    BUILDING  THE  FOUNDATIONS..  .BY  JOHN  F.  WALLACE 187 

XXXVI  THE  RAILROAD  MEN  AT  PANAMA 

BY  THEODORE  P.  SHONTS 202 

\   XXXVII    THE  TRUTH  OF  HISTORY BY  JNO.  F.  STEVENS 210 

XXXVIII  How  THE  UNITED  STATES  ACQUIRED  THE  RIGHT  TO  DIG  THE  PANAMA 

CANAL BY  THEODORE  ROOSEVELT 225 

ix 


x  HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 

XXXIX     PANAMA  CANAL  LEGISLATION.  .  BY  J.  HAMPTON  MOORE 231 

'  XL     PROBLEMS  OF  QUARANTINE  ....  BY  RUPERT  BLUE 244 

XLI     THE  PROPOSAL  TO  COMPLETE  THE  CANAL  BY  CONTRACTORS'  GROUPS 

BY  ARTHUR  F.  MACARTHUR 250 

XLII     THE  NAVY  AND  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 

BY  CAPT.  HARRY  S.  KNAPP,  U.S.N.  255 

XLII  I     THE  DEFENSE  OF  THE  CANAL  ZONE 

BY  MAJ.-GEN.  LEONARD  WOOD 266 

XLIV    THE  CANAL  FROM  A  NAVY  STANDPOINT 

BY  CAPT.  PHILIP  ANDREWS,  U.S.N.  267 

XLV    OUR  FOREIGN  COMMERCE BY  JOHN  HAYS  HAMMOND 271 

XLVI    THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL  ON  HAWAII 

BY  LORRIN  A.  THURSTON 278 

XLVII     THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE  AND  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 

BY  SIR  HIRAM  S.  MAXIM 291 

XLVI  1 1     THE  DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC  AND  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 

BY  FRANCISCO  J.  PEYNADO 293 

XLIX     BOLIVIA  AND  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 

BY  IGNACIO  CALDERON 296 

L    THE  REPUBLIC  OF  PANAMA 298 

LI    THE  CANAL'S  FIRST  EFFECTS  ON  TRADE,  PORTS,  AND  TRANSPORTATION  302 

LII    AMERICAN  INDUSTRIES  AND  THE  CANAL 322 

LIII     INDUSTRIAL  ROLL  OF  HONOR,  PANAMA  CANAL 436 

BIOGRAPHICAL 461 

APPENDIX 487 

INDEX 519 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 

FROM  SEA  TO  SEA.  BY  HENRY  REUTERDAHL,  Frontispiece 

SPANISH  EXPLORERS 10 

PANCIACO  TELLS  BALBOA  OF  THE  SOUTH  SEA  . .  20 
BALBOA  TAKES  POSSESSION  OF  THE  PACIFIC 

OCEAN 20 

PIZARRO,  ALMAGRO,  AND  LUQUES  AT  PANAMA  21 

NICUESA  REBUILDING  His  CARAVEL 21 

EMPEROR  CHARLES  V,  PHILIP  II,  AND  EX- 
TRACT FROM  ACOSTA'S  HISTORY 28 

PIRATES  AND  BUCCANEERS 44 

RAIDS  OF  THE  BUCCANEERS 60 

SCENES  OF  OLD  PANAMA  AND  SANTO  DOMINGO  76 

BUILDING  THE  PANAMA  RAILROAD 92 

PRESIDENTS  UNDER  WHOM  PANAMA  CANAL 

WAS  CONSTRUCTED 108 

CHIEF  ENGINEERS 109 

SECRETARIES  OF  STATE 116 

SECRETARIES  OF  WAR 117 

GORGONA  AND  TABOGA  ISLAND 124 

GOETHALS'S  CHIEF  AIDS 125 

SCENES  SHOWING  SANITARY  WORK 132 

CITY  OF  COLON  BEFORE  AND  AFTER  SANITARY 

WORK 133 

COLONEL  GAILLARD  AND  VIEWS  OF  CULEBRA 

CUT 140 

BASALT  FORMATIONS  IN  CULEBRA  CUT 141 

SLIDES  IN  CULEBRA  CUT '. 144 

GENERAL  SIBERT  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF  GA- 

TUN  DAM 148 

VIEWS  OF  GATUN  SPILLWAY  DAM 149 

GAMBOA  DIKE 152 

GENERAL   HODGES   AND  LOCKS   AT    GATUN 

AND  PEDRO  MIGUEL 156 

VIEWS    SHOWING    CONSTRUCTION    OF    LOCK 

CHAMBERS  AND  CULVERTS 157 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  PEDRO  MIGUEL  LOCK 164 

LOCK  GATES  AT  GATUN 165 

DEFENSES  OF  THE  CANAL 172 

FIRST  STEAMER  PASSING  THROUGH  CULEBRA 

CUT 180 

VIEWS  NEAR  EMPIRE  BEFORE  AND  AFTER  COM- 
PLETION OF  CANAL 181 

FRENCH  LOCOMOTIVES  AND  DREDGES 188 

FRENCH  AND  AMERICAN  OPERATIONS   COM- 
PARED    189 

STEAM  DRILLS  AND  SHOVELS  IN  OPERATION  . .  204 

WELL  AND  TRIPOD  DRILLS  AT  WORK 205 

TYPICAL  VIEWS  OF  LABORERS 212 

AT  LUNCH  TIME 220 

PAYMASTER  WILLIAMS  AND  His  PAY  CAR.  ...  221 

PUBLIC  BUILDINGS  ON  THE  ISTHMUS 228 

TWO  VIEWS  OF  CUCARACHA  SLIDE 236 

LABORERS  ATTACKING  CUCARACHA  SLIDE  —  237 

PANAMA  AND  ANCON  HOSPITAL  GROUNDS  . . .  244 
MARINES  AT  ANCON  AND  PANAMA  RAILROAD 

DOCK.  .                                          200 


PAGE 

THREE  SCENES  OF  THE  CANAL  AS  COMPLETED  276 

PEDRO  MIGUEL  AND  GATUN  LOCKS 292 

STEAMERS  OF  UNITED  FRUIT  COMPANY 308 

PANAMA-PACIFIC  EXPOSITION 310 

BREAKWATERS  AT  NAOS  ISLAND  AND  TORO 

POINT 316 

REAR  ADMIRAL  ROUSSEAU  AND  VIEWS  OF 

TERMINALS 317 

LOCK  GATES  AT  GATUN  BEFORE  AND  AFTER 

COMPLETION 322 

ELECTRICALLY  OPERATED  CARGO  DERRICKS  .  324 

LOCK  CONTROL  SYSTEM,  MIRAFLORES  LOCKS.  326 

TYPES  OF  DRILLS 332 

OLD  AND  NEW  METHODS  OF  TRACK  SHIFTING  333 

PNEUMATIC  DRILL  TOOLS 338 

TYPES  OF  DRILLS  AND  CHANNELERS 340 

HANDLING  OF  EXPLOSIVES 342 

HANDLING  OF  EXPLOSIVES 344 

USES  OF  WIRE  ROPE 348 

USES  OF  WIRE  ROPE 349 

USES  OF  WIRE,  ROPE 352 

BUCYRUS  STEAM  SHOVELS  AT  WORK 354 

LIDGERWOOD  CABLEWAYS  AND  UNLOADERS  . .  356 

HOPPER  DREDGE  "COROZAL" 358 

TYPES  OF  DUMP  CARS 360 

HYDRAULIC  PIPE-LINE  DREDGE 364 

HYDRAULIC  EXCAVATOR  AND  PUMPS 365 

BOILER  PLANT  EQUIPMENT 368 

CANTILEVER  CRANES 370 

STONE-CRUSHING  MACHINERY 372 

COLLAPSIBLE  STEEL  FORMS 373 

CONCRETE  MIXERS 374 

USES  OF  CEMENT 376 

LOCK  AND  DAM  MECHANISMS 380 

STEEL  AND  CONCRETE  EQUIPMENT 381 

HANDLING  CEMENT 384 

TYPES  OF  MACHINE  SHOP  TOOLS 386 

BELTING  IN  MACHINE  SHOPS 388 

TYPES  OF  TOOL  MACHINERY 389 

AMERICAN  BUSINESS  MEN  AND  THE  CANAL  . .  390 

EMERGENCY  DAM  AT  GATUN 396 

MACHINERY  FOR  EMERGENCY  DAM 397 

LIGHTING  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 402 

STEEL  BINS  AND  SHELVING 404 

REPAIRS  BY  GOLDSCHMIDT-THERMIT  PROCESS  408 

CRANES  AND  REFUSE  DESTRUCTORS 409 

LANSTON  MONOTYPE  MACHINES 412 

AMERICAN  BUSINESS  MEN  AND  THE  CANAL  . .  414 

TYPES  OF  FURNITURE  AND  BUILDINGS 418 

METHOD  OF  OPERATING  GATES 420 

WRECKS  CAUSED  BY  SLIDES 428 

TOWING  LOCOMOTIVES  AND  WALL  CULVERTS  429 

DIRT  SPREADERS  AT  WORK 436 

MEDAL  OF  AWARD 468 

UNIVERSITY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA  BUILDINGS  . . .  484 

MAP  OF  PANAMA  CANAL 520 


CHAPTER    I 
THE   DISCOVERY   OF   PANAMA 

DISCOVERIES  OF  CHRISTOPHER  COLUMBUS — OTHER  EXPEDITIONS  :  OJEDA,  NINO,  PINZON, 
LEPE,  AND  BASTIDAS — DISCOVERY  OF  PANAMA  BY  BASTIDAS — COLUMBUS'S 
THIRD  AND  FOURTH  VOYAGES — DISCOVERY  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA — SEARCH  FOR 
THE  STRAIT — DISCOVERY  OF  WESTERN  PANAMA — EXPLORATION  OF  VERAGUA 
— ESTABLISHMENT  OF  THE  COLONY  OF  BELEN — ITS  ABANDONMENT — RETURN 
OF  COLUMBUS  TO  SPAIN — His  DEATH. 


CHRISTOPHER  COLUMBUS'S  dis- 
covery of  previously  unknown  lands 
lying  in  the  western  sea,  on  his 
celebrated  first  voyage  in  1492,  naturally 
attracted  the  attention  of  adventurous 
spirits  to  the  glorious  possibilities  of  fame 
and  fortune  which  the  New  World  seemed 
to  offer.  Hence  we  find  that  expedition 
after  expedition  was  fitted  out  in  rapid 
succession  to  explore  and  exploit  the  terri- 
tory which  the  intrepid  admiral  from  Genoa 
had  added  to  the  dominions  of  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella  of  Spain.  Most  interest  was 
at  first  taken  in  the  islands  of  which  Colum- 
bus had  actually  acquired  possession,  and 
in  the  surrounding  islands;  but  soon  wider 
vistas  opened  before  the  gaze  of  the  navi- 
gators, when  what  was  at  first  vague,  if 
hopeful,  impression  deepened  into  the 
certainty  that  a  great  continent  was  at 
hand  for  the  enrichment  and  aggrandise- 
ment of  courageous  explorers. 

Already  while  Columbus  was  absent 
from  Spain  on  his  second  voyage  (1493- 
1496),  there  was  issued,  on  April  10,  1495, 
a  royal  proclamation  giving  Spaniards 
permission  to  settle  in  Hispaniola,  and  al- 
lowing private  voyages  elsewhither  for 
discovery,  exploration,  and  barter.  Under 
licenses  granted  in  accordance  with  this 
proclamation  five  different  expeditions  left 
Spain  for  the  new  lands  during  1499  and 
1500. 

The  first  of  these  was  led  by  Alonso  de 
Ojeda,  who  had  been  with  Columbus  on 
his  second  voyage.  With  Ojeda  there  went 
at  least  two  men  of  note.  One  was  Juan  de 
la  Cosa,  the  celebrated  pilot,  who,  accom- 


panying Columbus  in  1493,  made  the 
earliest  map  of  the  western  world.  The 
other,  a  native  of  Florence,  was  Amerigo 
Vespucci,  from  whom,  by  a  strange  freak 
of  fortune,  all  America  was  destined  to 
take  its  name.  Ojeda  had  four  ships,  and 
setting  sail  from  Santa  Maria,  near  Cadiz, 
on  May  20,  1499,  he  reached  the  coast 
of  South  America,  some  two  hundred 
leagues  east  and  south  of  the  river  Orinoco. 
He  then  skirted  the  coast  in  a  north- 
westerly direction  until  he  reached  Cape 
de  la  Vela,  from  which  point  he  appears  to 
have  left  the  mainland  and  steered  for 
Hispaniola.  A  claim  is  sometimes  made 
for  Ojeda  that  he  was  the  first  to  sight  the 
country  now  known  as  Panama.  This 
claim  rests  on  the  assumption  that  his 
coasting  cruise  did  not  stop  at  Cape  de  la 
Vela,  but  that  he  continued  his  course  as 
far  as  Cabo  Tiburon  in  Darien;  but  this 
opinion  is  not  now  generally  held.  He 
returned  to  Spain  in  June,  1500,  arriving 
at  Cadiz  with  a  great  number  of  Indian 
slaves. 

The  second  expedition  was  in  command  of 
Pedro  Alonso  Nino,  who  had  also  been 
with  Columbus  on  his  second  voyage. 
With  Nino,  there  also  went  Cristobal 
Guerra.  With  only  one  small  caravel  of 
fifty  tons,  and  thirty-three  men,  they 
sailed  from  Palos  on  or  about  June  I,  1499, 
and,  like  Ojeda,  successfully  made  the 
South  American  coast.  Nino  also  sailed 
in  a  north-westerly  direction,  trading  as 
he  went  for  guanin  and  pearls.  He  re- 
turned to  Spain  in  April,  1500,  with  a 
goodly  number  of  pearls;  but,  on  a  charge 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


of  not  fully  accounting  for  his  treasure,  he 
was  cast  into  prison,  from  which  he  was 
not  freed  for  some  time. 

The  next  to  try  his  fortune  was  Vicente 
Yanez  Pinzon,  who  had  been  captain  of 
the  Nina  on  Columbus's  first  voyage. 
Sailing  from  Palos  in  December,  1499, 
Pinzon  had  four  caravels,  with  which  he 
reached  the  coast  of  Brazil,  at  a  point  now 
known  as  Cape  St.  Augustine,  on  January 
20,  1500.  He  took  possession  of  the  coun- 
try in  the  prescribed  form  for  Spain,  giving 
it  the  name  of  Santa  Maria  de  la  Conso- 
lacion,  but,  as  we  shall  see  later,  this  act 
of  his  was  of  no  avail,  and  Brazil  was  sub- 
sequently ceded  to  Portugal.  To  Pinzon 
belongs  the  distinction  of  being  the  first  to 
cross  the  equator  in  the  western  part  of  the 
Atlantic.  He,  like  the  others  who  had 
preceded  him,  sailed  north  and  west  and 
discovered  the  Amazon.  In  the  Gulf  of 
Paria  he  landed  and  cut  a  cargo  of  Brazil- 
wood. On  the  way  home  he  had  the  mis- 
fortune to  lose  two  of  his  vessels  and  many 
of  his  men,  so  that  when  he  arrived  back 
at  Palos  his  welcome  was  none  too  cordial. 

A  fellow  townsman  of  Pinzon's,  Diego  de 
Lepe,  sailed  from  Palos  early  in  1500  with 
two  vessels.  He  went  farther  south  along 
the  American  coast  than  any  of  his  prede- 
cessors, and  in  this  respect  set  up  a  record 
that  stood  for  more  than  ten  years. 

In  1500  Cristobal  Guerra  made  a  second 
voyage  to  the  Pearl  Coast,  which  had  some 
financial  success.  He  was  back  in  Spain 
before  November  i,  1501. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  this  history 
the  most  important  of  the  five  expeditions 
was  the  last.  Its  leader  was  Rodrigo  de 
Bastidas,  a  notary  of  Triana,  a  suburb  of 
Seville.  He  was  a  man  of  position  and 
education,  and  in  character  formed  a  strong 
contrast  to  most  of  the  explorers  who  had 
preceded  him,  or  were  to  come  after  him. 
Taking  with  him  Juan  de  la  Cosa,  who  had 
just  returned  with  Ojeda,  and  accom- 
panied also  by  Vasco  Nunez  de  Balboa,  of 
whom  we  shall  hear  more  presently,  Bas- 
tidas set  out  from  Cadiz  in  two  ships  in 
October,  1500.  He  reached  that  portion  of 


South  America  which  is  now  known  as 
Venezuela,  and,  steering  westward,  he 
passed  Cape  de  la  Vela,  explored  the 
Gulf  of  Darien  and  the  mouth  of  the 
Atrato  River,  and  sailed  along  the  north- 
ern shore  of  the  isthmus  as  far  as  El 
Retrete,  perhaps  even  as  far  as  the  site 
of  Nombre  de  Dios,  and  possibly  as  far 
as  Porto  Bello.  To  Bastidas,  therefore, 
belongs  the  credit  of  the  discovery  of  the 
country  now  called  Panama.  He  had 
great  success  in  trading  for  guanin,  pearls, 
and  gold,  and  he  also  took  a  number  of  the 
natives  as  slaves.  His  career  of  explora- 
tion was  brought  to  an  end  by  the  leaky 
condition  of  his  ships,  caused  by  the  ravages 
of  the  teredo.  He  accordingly  proceeded  to 
Hispaniola,  intending  to  sail  thence  for 
Spain,  but  his  two  ships  sank  in  the  port 
of  Jaragua,  and  most  of  his  slaves  were 
drowned  and  some  Brazil-wood,  gold,  and 
pearls  were  also  lost.  He  managed  to 
save  the  most  precious  and  portable  part 
of  his  cargo,  and,  placing  it  on  the  backs  of 
the  surviving  slaves,  he  started  to  march  for 
Santo  Domingo,  which  was  about  seventy 
leagues  distant  in  an  easterly  direction. 
Arrived  there,  he  was  seized  and  thrown 
into  prison  by  the  governor  of  Hispaniola 
on  the  charge  of  illicit  trading  with  the 
Indians.  Francisco  de  Bobadilla,  the 
retiring  governor,  who  had  recently  been 
superseded  by  Don  Nicolas  de  Ovando, 
was  about  to  return  to  Spain  with  the 
large  fleet  that  had  brought  out  his  suc- 
cessor. Accordingly,  Bastidas  was  ordered 
to  accompany  him  thither  to  have  his  case 
tried.  Those  who  are  familiar  with  the 
career  of  Columbus  will  remember  that  he 
was  just  then  in  the  vicinity  of  Santo 
Domingo,  on  his  fourth  voyage.  His 
former  experience  enabled  him  to  predict  a 
hurricane,  and  he  begged  of  Ovando  not  to 
allow  the  fleet  to  start  on  the  homeward 
voyage  for  at  least  eight  days.  He  was 
laughed  to  scorn  for  his  pains,  and  the  fleet 
set  out  (July,  1502),  but  it  had  no  sooner 
cleared  the  island  than  a  fierce  storm  broke, 
which  sank  more  than  twenty  of  the  ships. 
Among  those  lost  was  Bobadilla,  who,  in 


LAST  VOYAGES  OF  COLUMBUS 


1500,  had  sent  Columbus  home  to  Spain  in 
chains.  The  Admiral's  own  little  fleet  of 
four  vessels,  being  handled  with  superior 
seamanship,  managed  to  ride  out  the 
storm.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  only  one 
vessel  of  Bobadilla's  fleet,  and  that  the 
worst,  La  Aguja,  with  gold  and  other 
goods  belonging  to  Columbus  aboard,  sur- 
vived the  hurricane  in  sufficiently  good 
shape  to  proceed  onward  to  Spain.  All  the 
circumstances  considered,  it  is  no  wonder 
that  the  ordinary  seamen  believed  that 
their  Admiral  had  used  "art  magic"  to 
confound  and  destroy  his  enemies  and  at 
the  same  time  save  himself,  his  ships  and 
crews,  and  his  possessions. 

Out  of  the  great  Ovando-Bobadilla  fleet 
a  few  badly  battered  vessels  crawled  back 
to  Santo  Domingo,  and  on  one  of  them  was 
Bastidas.  When  he  ultimately  reached 
Spain,  he  had  no  trouble  in  establishing  his 
innocence  before  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 
From  the  salvage  he  had  made  when  his 
two  vessels  sank  in  Jaragua  Harbour,  he 
paid  a  goodly  royalty  into  the  Spanish 
treasury,  and  he  and  Cosa  were  each 
granted  a  yearly  pension  of  50,000  marave- 
dis,  Cosa,  in  addition,  receiving  the  ap- 
pointment of  alguacil  mayor  of  Uraba. 
As  an  inducement  to  other  intending 
explorers,  three  chests  of  gold  and  pearls, 
which  Bastidas  had  collected,  were  dis- 
played by  royal  order  in  all  the  towns 
through  which  he  passed. 

While  these  smaller  men  were  thus  en- 
gaged, the  great  high  admiral  himself  was 
making  his  third  and  fourth  voyages.  On 
his  third  expedition  he  discovered  the 
mainland  of  South  America  on  August  I, 
1498,  and,  in  the  belief  that  it  was  an 
island,  he  named  it  La  Isla  Santa,  or  Holy 
Island.  A  few  days  later  he  explored  the 
land  around  the  cape  and  gulf  of  Paria 
and,  still  in  the  same  belief,  called  it  Isla 
de  Gracia,  or  Island  of  Grace.  A  coasting 
cruise  of  about  150  miles  westwardly  along 
the  northern  coast  of  Paria  at  length  con- 
vinced him  that  he  was  dealing,  not  with 
an  island,  but  with  a  Tierra  Firme  or 
continent.  He  had  now,  as  he  thought, 


discovered  two  continents:  Cuba  on  the 
north  with  its  western  coast  extending 
indefinitely  to  the  south,  and  Paria  on  the 
south  with  its  shores  extending  indefinitely 
to  the  west.  The  object  of  his  fourth 
voyage  therefore  was  to  discover  a  narrow 
water-passage,  running  between  these  two 
mainlands,  through  which,  as  he  imagined, 
the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  flowed  into  the 
Indian  Ocean.  This  strait  once  discovered, 
he  could  sail  around  the  world  and  get 
back  to  Spain  by  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope. 

Accordingly,  armed  with  credentials  to 
the  eastern  potentates  whom  he  hoped  to 
encounter,  carrying  interpreters  versed  in 
Arabic,  with  provisions  for  two  years,  and 
trinkets  and  other  goods  to  barter  with  the 
Indians  for  gold,  Columbus  sailed,  on  his 
fourth  and  last  voyage,  from  Cadiz  on 
May  II,  1502.  His  little  fleet  consisted 
of  four  ships,  ranging  from  70  to  50  tons. 
His  brother  Bartolome",  the  Adelantado, 
was  captain  of  one  of  them,  and  the  crews 
numbered,  all  told,  one  hundred  and  fifty. 
Among  them  was  Columbus's  second  son, 
Fernando,  then  not  quite  fourteen  years 
old,  who  in  later  years  wrote  a  life  of  his 
father,  in  which  he  gave  a  detailed  account 
of  this  fourth  voyage.  After  putting  in  at 
Arcila  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Morocco, 
at  the  Canaries,  at  Martinio  (which  is  per- 
haps Martinique),  at  Santo  Domingo  and 
other  ports  of  Hispaniola,  at  the  Morant 
Keys  off  Jamaica,  and  at  the  Queen's 
Gardens  off  the  southern  shore  of  Cuba, 
they  steered  south-south-west  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  supposed  strait,  which  Columbus 
felt  confident  was  about  Veragua  and 
Nombre  de  Dios,  as  those  places  came 
subsequently  to  be  known. 

Towards  the  end  of  July  they  arrived  at 
an  island  called  Guanaja  (the  modern 
Bonacao  or  Bonacca).  Near  this  island  they 
captured  two  large  canoes,  the  property  of 
a  cacique,  evidently  out  on  a  trading 
voyage,  for  they  contained  an  assortment 
of  articles  the  like  of  which  no  Spaniard 
had  previously  seen  in  those  parts.  There 
were  cups,  bells,  and  hatchets  made  of 


8 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


copper,  cloaks  and  tunics  of  dyed  cotton 
beautifully  worked,  knives  of  obsidian, 
wooden  swords  edged  with  flint,  bread  and 
beer,  and  cacao  or  chocolate  beans.  The 
men  and  women  wore  clothing,  and  were 
evidently  more  highly  civilized  than  any 
Indians  Columbus  had  previously  seen. 
He  began  to  think  that  at  last  he  was  about 
to  get  into  touch  with  the  strange  races 
of  the  East.  By  using  signs  and  the  native 
dialect  of  Hispaniola,  the  Spaniards  learned 
that  their  captives  had  come  from  a  west- 
erly land  distant  several  days'  journey, 
and  that  there  gold,  pearls,  and  spices  were 
to  be  found  in  plenty.  On  learning  this 
intelligence  Columbus  allowed  them  all  to 
go,  except  one  old  man  whom  he  kept  for 
a  guide. 

From  Guana j  a  the  admiral  continued 
his  southerly  course  and  found  a  cape, 
which  he  named  Caxinas,  and  which  is  now 
known  as  Cape  Honduras.  Here  the  land 
ran  east  and  west,  and  when  Guimba.as  the 
guide  was  called,  was  asked  from  which 
direction  the  gold  came,  he  lied  like  a 
gentleman  and  pointed  to  the  east.  That 
gesture  changed  the  history  of  the  western 
world.  Had  he  pointed  the  other  way, 
where  Yucatan,  his  own  country,  lay, 
Mexico  would  probably  have  had  a  more 
merciful  conqueror  than  Cortes,  and  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama  might  never  have 
become,  as  it  subsequently  did,  the  great 
entrepot  for  the  commerce  of  the  east  and 
the  west.  Guimba  was  dismissed  with 
presents,  and  the  fleet  proceeded,  in  the 
direction  he  had  indicated,  along  the  coast 
of  Honduras,  meeting  with  the  most  terri- 
ble storms,  until  they  reached  a  narrow 
point,  from  which  the  land  turned  south, 
and  the  weather  improved.  To  this  point 
they  gave  the  appropriate  name  of  Gracias 
a  Dios,  or  Thanks  to  God.  They  then 
sailed  along  the  coast  of  Nicaragua  and 
Costa  Rica,  stopping  at  various  points  to 
barter  with  the  natives,  and  on  October  6 
dropped  anchor  in  Almirante  Bay  within 
the  confines  of  the  modern  Panama.  Thus 
Bastidas,  sailing  from  South  America  to  the 
west,  and  Columbus,  sailing  from  Honduras 


to  the  east  and  south,  discovered  at  differ- 
ent times  different  parts  of  Panama. 

Columbus  continued  eastward  past  Chiri- 
qui  and  Veragua  until  he  reached  Puerto 
Bello,  to  which  he  gave  that  name,  as  his 
son  tells  us,  because  it  was  "large,  well 
peopled,  and  encompassed  by  a  well-culti- 
vated country."  On  November  24  he 
reached  his  farthest  easterly  harbor,  to 
which  he  gave  the  name  of  El  Retrete. 
Unable  to  contend  any  longer  against  the 
fierce  easterly  and  north-easterly  winds, 
he  decided  to  turn  back  to  Veragua  to  see 
for  himself  whether  its  mines  were  as  rich 
as  report  made  them.  It  was  on  December 
5  that  the  start  of  the  journey  back  to 
Veragua  was  made.  He  now  encountered 
fierce  westerly  winds,  and  it  was  not  until 
January  6,  1503,  the  feast  of  the  Epiphany, 
that  he  anchored  in  Veragua,  at  a  place  to 
which  he  gave  the  name  of  Nuestra  Senora 
de  Belen,  or  Our  Lady  of  Bethlehem,  be- 
cause that  was  the  anniversary  of  the  day 
on  which  the  Wise  Men  reached  Bethlehem 
of  Judaea.  In  this  vicinity  there  appeared 
so  many  evidences  of  mineral  wealth  that 
Columbus  decided  to  leave  a  garrison  to 
hold  the  country,  and  to  go  back  himself  to 
Spain  to  bring  out  reinforcements.  To 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella  he  wrote  in  the 
following  July  a  most  glowing  account  of  the 
gold  in  Veragua  and  of  the  fertility  of  its 
soil  and  the  timidity  of  its  inhabitants. 
The  little  garrison  or  colony  was  to  consist 
of  eighty  men  under  the  command  of  the 
Adelantado,  and  one  of  the  ships,  the  Gal- 
lego,  with  all  her  stores,  was  to  be  left  for 
their  use.  A  storehouse  was  erected  and 
huts  of  timber  roofed  with  palm  leaves  were 
built.  But  the  Quibian,  or  chief  man  of 
the  district,  not  liking  these  proceedings, 
began  to  show  signs  of  hostility.  He  and 
several  of  his  warriors  were  therefore 
seized,  the  intention  being  to  bring  them 
to  Spain  and  hold  them  as  hostages  for  the 
good  behavior  of  the  rest.  But  the 
Quibian  escaped,  and  at  a  time  when 
nearly  all  the  garrison  was  engaged  with 
the  getting  out  of  the  Admiral's  ships,  and 
only  about  twenty  men  were  at  Belen  with 


DEATH  OF  COLUMBUS 


the  Adelantado,  an  attack  was  made,  which 
it  took  all  the  undaunted  courage  of  Don 
Bartolome  to  repel.  Another  attack  forced 
the  handful  of  Spaniards  to  abandon  their 
settlement,  which  was  exposed  to  enemies 
concealed  in  the  jungle,  and  to  entrench 
themselves  on  a  piece  of  open  beach,  where 
they  were  out  of  reach  of  arrows  from  the 
woods.  Luckily  for  them  the  admiral  had 
not  yet  sailed,  and  after  considerable  diffi- 
culty all  the  men  and  stores  were  safely 
taken  aboard,  the  dismantled  and  worm- 
eaten  hulk  of  the  Gallego  being  the  only 
thing  left  behind.  Thus  ended  the  first 
attempt  to  colonize  or  garrison  Pan- 
ama. 

Columbus  now  beat  up  the  coast  east- 
ward, past  the  Chagres  River  and  Limon 
Bay,  until  he  again  reached  Puerto  Bello, 
where  one  of  his  three  remaining  ships,  the 
Biscaina,  had  to  be  abandoned  on  account 
of  her  extremely  leaky  condition.  He  still 
continued  eastward  for  about  ten  leagues, 
and  then,  on  May  I,  1503,  from  Marmora, 
as  his  son  Fernando  calls  it,  stood  out  to 
the  north  for  Hispaniola.  The  identifica- 
tion of  Marmora  is  difficult.  Some  are  of 
opinion  that  Columbus  went  as  far  as  Cape 
Tiburon  and  saw  the  Gulf  of  Uraba  or 
Darien;  a  more  probable  opinion  is  that 
the  most  easterly  point  he  reached  in 
Panama  was  Punta  Mosquito.  When  he 
headed  for  Hispaniola  his  ships  were  prac- 
tically unseaworthy,  and  only  the  most 
strenuous  bailing  with  pumps  and  kettles 
prevented  them  from  being  entirely 
swamped.  Contrary  winds  and  currents 
carried  him  far  out  of  his  course,  and  con- 
sidering that  he  could  never  make  His- 
paniola, he  steered  for  Jamaica,  where,  at 


Puerto  Bono,  he  arrived  on  June  24.  Next 
day  he  moved  into  another  more  easterly 
harbor,  into  which  he  had  once  before  put 
during  his  second  voyage  in  1494,  and  to 
which  he  had  then  given  the  name  of  Santa 
Gloria.  Here  he  ran  his  two  worn-out 
vessels  aground,  shored  them  up  so  that 
they  could  not  move,  and  built  sheds  on 
them  for  the  protection  of  himself  and  his 
men.  In  July  two  of  his  lieutenants  put 
off  for  Hispaniola  in  canoes,  and  after  a 
long  delay  returned  with  two  ships.  In  the 
meantime  there  had  been  a  mutiny  against 
Columbus  by  fifty  of  his  men,  which  was 
put  down  by  the  bravery  of  the  Adelantado 
and  fifty  of  his  staunch  supporters. 

On  the  two  ships  brought  from  Hispaniola 
Columbus  and  the  survivors  set  out,  on 
June  28,  1504,  for  Santo  Domingo,  but 
met  with  such  adverse  winds  that  they  did 
not  arrive  at  that  city  until  August  13. 
The  admiral  started  on  his  last  voyage 
from  the  West  Indies  for  Spain  on  Sep- 
tember 12,  and,  after  a  stormy  passage, 
dropped  anchor  in  the  harbor  of  San 
Liicar  on  November  7,  1504.  Here  ended 
the  active  life  of  the  high  admiral  of  the 
ocean  sea. 

Less  than  two  years  later,  on  Ascension 
Day,  May  20,  1506,  with  the  chains  in 
which  he  had  once  returned  to  Spain  hang- 
ing over  his  bed  in  an  inn  at  Valladolid, 
Christopher  Columbus,  worn  out  with 
disease  and  heart-broken  with  disappoint- 
ment and  ingratitude,  received  the  last 
sacraments  of  the  Church  of  which  he  was 
so  loyal  a  son,  and  with  the  pious  expression 
of  faith,  In  manus  tuas,  Domine,  commendo 
spiritum  meum,  on  his  lips,  brought  to  an 
end  his  wonderful  and  glorious  career. 


CHAPTER  II 


EARLY  SETTLEMENTS 

TIERRA  FIRME:  ITS  MEANING — TIERRA  FIRMS  DIVIDED  INTO  Two  PROVINCES— OJEDA 
APPOINTED  GOVERNOR  OF  NUEVA  ANDALUCIA — NICUESA  APPOINTED  GOVERNOR 
OP  CASTILLA  DEL  ORO — DEATH  OF  JUAN  DE  LA  COSA — OJEDA  AND  NICUESA 
JOIN  FORCES  TO  ATTACK  THE  INDIANS — FOUNDATION  OF  THE  COLONY  OF  SAN 
SEBASTIAN — SAD  PLIGHT  OF  THE  SETTLERS — ADVENTURES  OF  OJEDA — His 
DEATH — PIZARRO  IN  COMMAND  AT  SAN  SEBASTIAN — ARRIVAL  OF  ENCISO  — 
BALBOA  EMBARKS  AS  A  STOWAWAY — FOUNDATION  OF  THE  COLONY  OF  SANTA 
MARIA  DE  LA  ANTIGUA  DEL  DARIEN — DEPOSITION  OF  ENCISO — BALBOA  AND 
ZAMUDIO  APPOINTED  ALCALDES — ARRIVAL  OF  COLMENARES — WANDERINGS  AND 
SUFFERINGS  OF  NICUESA — HE  FOUNDS  THE  COLONY  OF  NOMBRE  DE  Dios — 
HE  GOES  TO  ANTIGUA  BY  INVITATION  AND  is  REFUSED  ADMISSION — His  SAD 
FATE. 


TIERRA  FIRME,  or  continent,  was 
at  first  a  general  term  applied  to 
the  whole  of  a  vaguely  known 
mainland  which  Columbus  had  discovered ; 
but  gradually  that  phrase  received  a  nar- 
rower and  more  definite  meaning  by  being 
applied  particularly  to  the  land  which  lay 
between  Cape  de  la  Vela  on  the  east  and 
Cape  Gracias  a  Dios  on  the  west.  The  re- 
port made  by  Columbus  of  the  fertility  and 
mineral  wealth  of  Veragua,  and  the  pearls 
and  gold  found  by  Bastidas  in  a  more 
easterly  direction,  as  well  as  the  fact  that 
no  one  had  yet  discovered  a  limit  to  the  con- 
tinent, helped  King  Ferdinand  to  realize 
more  clearly  the  riches  and  magnitude  of 
the  country  which  the  recent  explorations 
had  added  to  his  dominions.  He  resolved 
therefore  not  to  revive  the  office  of  Viceroy 
of  the  Indies  vacant  on  Columbus's  death, 
and  to  treat  all  his  western  dependencies 
as  an  appanage  of  the  crown  to  be  adminis- 
tered by  governors  or  other  officials  ap- 
pointed directly  by  himself.  In  1509,  in 
accordance  with  this  policy,  he  divided 
Tierra  Firme,  in  its  narrower  sense,  into 
two  provinces,  to  one  of  which  was  given 
the  name  of  Nueva  Andalucia,  or  New 
Andalusia,  and  to  the  other  that  of  Castilla 
del  Oro,  or  Golden  Castile.  Nueva  An- 
dalucia occupied  the  east,  and  Castilla  del 
Oro  the  west,  of  Tierra  Firme.  Alonso  de 


Ojeda,  who  had  sailed  with  Columbus  in 
1493  and  had  undertaken  two  other  western 
voyages  on  his  own  account  in  1499  and 
1502,  was  appointed  governor  of  Nueva 
Andalucia.  The  government  of  Castilla 
del  Oro  was  given  to  Diego  de  Nicuesa,  a 
favorite  at  court,  who  had  accompanied 
Nicolas  de  Ovando  when  the  latter  went 
out  to  supersede  Bobadilla  as  governor  and 
judge  of  Hispaniola  in  1502.  In  this  way 
Ferdinand  hoped  to  colonize  and  develop 
a  section  of  territory  that  promised  so  well. 

At  Santo  Domingo,  in  Hispaniola,  where 
the  two  governors  met  before  making  a 
final  start  for  their  respective  provinces,  it 
was  agreed,  mainly  on  the  arbitration  of 
the  pilot  and  cartographer  Juan  de  la 
Cosa,  but  not  without  much  antecedent 
friction,  that  the  dividing  line  between  the 
two  governments  should  be  the  middle  of 
the  Gulf  of  Darien  and  the  Atrato  River. 

Ojeda  sailed  from  Santo  Domingo  on 
November  10,  1509,  with  three  hundred 
men  and  twelve  brood  mares  on  two  ships 
and  two  brigantines.  Among  those  who 
accompanied  him  was  Francisco  Pizarro, 
destined  in  after  years  to  become  famous 
by  his  conquest  of  Peru.  An  associate  of 
Ojeda's,  Martin  Fernandez  de  Enciso, 
remained  behind  to  follow  after  the  interval 
necessary  to  secure  more  recruits  and  addi- 
tional supplies.  About  ten  days  later  than 


10 


I.  Pedrarias  Davila 
3.  Alonso  de  Ojeda 
6.  Hernando  de  Soto 


SPANISH    EXPLORERS 

4.  Vasco  Nunez  de  Balboa 
8.  Bartolome  Colon 


2.  Rodrigo  de  Bastidas 
5.  Christopher  Columbus 
7.  Francisco  Pizarro 


OJEDA'S  ADVENTURES 


ii 


Ojeda,  Nicuesa  sailed  with  seven  vessels, 
eight  hundred  men,  and  six  horses. 

Ojeda  was  unfortunate  from  the  first. 
Contrary  to  the  advice  of  the  sage  and 
experienced  Juan  de  la  Cosa,  who  sailed 
with  him  as  his  lieutenant  and  alguacil 
mayor,  he  went  ashore  from  what  is  now 
Cartagena  Bay  with  seventy  men,  all  of 
whom  save  himself  and  one  other  were 
killed  by  the  warlike  natives.  Among 
those  slain  was  the  veteran  Juan  de  la  Cosa. 
Ojeda  owed  his  safety  to  his  bulldog 
courage,  his  swiftness  of  foot,  and  his 
smallness  of  stature,  which  enabled  him 
to  keep  well  behind  his  shield.  The  shield 
bore  the  marks  of  three  hundred  arrows 
after  the  engagement.  The  two  survivors 
made  their  way  back  to  the  ships,  and 
there  they  were  found  by  Nicuesa,  who 
put  into  the  same  harbor,  and  gladly 
joined  his  forces  to  those  of  Ojeda  to  avenge 
the  fall  of  their  fellow-countrymen.  With 
about  four  hundred  men  they  attacked  the 
Indians  at  night  and  slew  great  numbers 
of  them.  They  also  secured  plenty  of 
booty,  of  which  Nicuesa  and  his  followers 
received  a  goodly  portion,  said  to  amount 
to  7,000  castellanos,  as  their  share.  Ni- 
cuesa then  took  his  departure  for  Castilla 
del  Oro. 

Moving  further  west,  Ojeda  set  up  a 
fortress  and  a  few  houses  surrounded  by  a 
stockade  to  be  the  nucleus  of  his  capital, 
to  which  he  gave  the  name  of  San  Sebastian. 
He  wished  thus  to  commemorate  his  own 
escape  from  death  by  arrows,  as  the  third 
century  martyr  of  that  name  survived  the 
shots  of  the  Emperor  Diocletian's  archers. 
San  Sebastian  was  the  second  attempt  at 
establishing  a  colony  on  Tierra  Firme,  or 
the  third,  if  we  count  a  former  somewhat 
doubtful  experiment  of  Ojeda 's  at  Santa 
Cruz,  in  the  vicinity  of  Cape  de  la  Vela 
and  Bahia  Honda,  in  1502.  The  other  was 
Columbus's  ill-starred  fortress  at  Belen. 
The  situation  of  the  colonists  at  San  Se- 
bastian was  far  from  being  an  enviable  one, 
for  they  were  surrounded  by  hostile  and 
very  warlike  natives,  who  used  poisoned 
arrows  and  lost  no  opportunity  of  attack- 


ing the  invaders.  In  addition,  their  stores 
quickly  ran  out,  and  there  was  no  means 
of  getting  more.  When  they  were  reduced 
to  great  extremities,  however,  a  ship,  stolen 
by  a  gang  of  pirates  headed  by  one  Ber- 
nardino de  Talavera,  came  opportunely 
into  port  with  a  supply  of  provisions,  and 
these  the  colonists  purchased  with  some  of 
the  gold  they  had  picked  up  during  their 
raid  on  the  Indians.  Enciso  was  still 
looked  for  in  vain,  and  at  length  Ojeda 
decided  to  go  back  on  the  pirates'  ship  to 
Santo  Domingo  and  thence  bring  out  relief. 
He  appointed  Pizarro  his  lieutenant  in  his 
absence.  Before  starting  he  made  an 
agreement  that,  if  he  did  not  return  in 
fifty  days,  or  if  Enciso  did  not  arrive 
within  the  same  period,  Pizarro  and  the 
other  colonists  were  to  be  free  to  take  the 
brigantines  and  go  to  Hispaniola  or  any- 
where else  they  chose. 

On  the  way  back  to  Santo  Domingo 
Ojeda  was  so  domineering  that  Talavera 
placed  him  in  chains;  but,  a  storm  coming 
up,  he  was  released  on  condition  that  he 
would  pilot  the  vessel.  In  spite,  however,  of 
his  undoubted  skill  as  a  navigator,  they 
were  shipwrecked  on  the  south  coast  of 
Cuba.  All  the  men  escaped,  and,  with 
Ojeda  in  command,  proceeded  to  march 
to  the  eastern  part  of  the  island,  in  the 
hope  that  thence  they  might  find  a  means 
of  crossing  to  Hispaniola.  They  were 
unfortunate  enough  to  wander  into  a  great 
morass  through  which,  if  we  are  to  believe 
what  has  come  down  to  us,  they  struggled 
for  thirty  days,  being  often  up  to  their 
armpits  in  mire.  The  only  place  where 
they  could  find  rest  was  on  the  roots  of  man- 
grove trees,  which  grew  here  and  there  in 
the  oozy  mud.  Out  of  seventy  men  who 
floundered  into  the  swamp  only  thirty-five 
lived  to  emerge.  These  survivors  at  length 
came  upon  a  village  of  friendly  Indians,  who 
treated  them  with  great  hospitality  and 
kindness,  and  helped  them  to  reach  Cape  de 
la  Cruz.  From  this  point  they  sent  a  canoe 
to  Jamaica  to  ask  Juan  de  Esquivel,  the  gov- 
ernor of  that  island,  for  assistance.  The 
position  was  sufficiently  awkward,  for  in 


12 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


his  heyday  Ojeda  had  once  threatened  to 
strike  off  that  official's  head.  Esquivel, 
however,  like  a  Christian  and  a  gentleman, 
responded  promptly  to  the  call  of  humanity, 
despatched  a  vessel  for  the  castaways, 
lavished  attentions  on  Ojeda,  and  sent  him 
and  his  attendants  faithfully  to  Santo 
Domingo.  The  pirates  were  in  another 
category,  and  with  them  it  went  harder. 
Columbus's  son,  Diego,  then  governor  of 
Hispaniola  with  jurisdiction  over  Jamaica, 
caused  them  to  be  sent  in  chains  to  Santo 
Domingo,  where  they  were  convicted  on  a 
charge  of  piracy,  and  in  1511  Talavera  and 
the  ringleaders  were  hanged. 

Enciso  having  already  left  for  Tierra 
Firme,  Ojeda  was  now  in  doleful  case. 
His  sun  had  set.  He  was  without  money, 
friends,  or  influence,  all  his  attempts  to 
raise  another  force  resulted  in  failure,  and 
the  first  governor  of  Nueva  Andalucia 
never  saw  his  province  again.  He  lingered 
on  in  Santo  Domingo  for  some  years,  and 
then  died.  It  is  believed  that,  very  shortly 
before  the  end,  he  became  a  Franciscan 
monk. 

In  the  meantime,  Pizarro  and  his  com- 
panions at  the  infant  city  of  San  Sebastian 
were  in  sorry  plight.  They  were  the  vic- 
tims alike  of  starvation,  disease,  and  the 
arrows  of  the  Indians.  When  the  fifty 
days  were  up,  and  neither  Ojeda  nor 
Enciso  appeared,  they  were  by  agreement 
free  to  leave.  Only  seventy  of  them  were 
still  alive,  and  the  two  remaining  brigan- 
tines  were  unable  to  carry  that  number. 
With  grim  stoicism  they  waited  until 
death  had  sufficiently  reduced  their  ranks, 
and  then  sailed  away  for  Hispaniola.  On 
the  way  one  of  the  brigantines  suddenly 
foundered  and  all  on  board  were  lost. 
Pizarro  was  on  the  other  vessel,  and  when 
he  reached  Cartagena  Bay,  he  fell  in  with 
Enciso,  who  was  engaged  in  a  vain  quest 
for  the  capital  of  the  new  province. 

In  accordance  with  the  stipulation, 
though  somewhat  tardily,  Enciso  had 
departed  from  Santo  Domingo.  He  had 
one  hundred  and  fifty  men,  provisions, 
arms,  gunpowder,  horses,  and  dogs.  With- 


out his  knowledge  he  had  also  with  him  as 
a  stowaway,  enclosed  in  a  barrel  or  rolled 
up  in  a  sail — it  is  not  certain  which — a 
remarkable  man,  to  wit,  Vasco  Nunez  de 
Balboa,  who,  as  we  have  already  seen, 
sailed  with  Bastidas  to  Darien  in  1500  and 
with  him  had  returned  to  Hispaniola,  and 
who  from  the  time  we  have  now  reached 
was  destined  to  play  for  a  few  years  an 
extremely  important  part  in  the  affairs  of 
Tierra  Firme.  When  Balboa  was  dis- 
covered on  board,  Enciso  threatened  to 
maroon  him,  but  thought  better  of  it  when 
he  found  that  his  strangely  recruited  fol- 
lower was  a  really  capable  and  useful  man. 
Arrived  at  Cartagena,  Enciso  got  on  better 
with  the  natives  than  Ojeda  had  done,  and 
when  the  remnant  of  the  San  Sebastian 
colonists  found  him,  the  Spaniards  and 
the  Indians  were  on  friendly  terms. 

Already  before  leaving  Santo  Domingo 
in  1509  Ojeda  had  appointed  Enciso  al- 
calde mayor,  or  chief  judge,  of  Nueva  An- 
dalucia, and  in  virtue  of  this  position  of 
authority  he  now  assumed  command  of  the 
united  party.  His  first  exercise  of  power 
was  to  insist,  despite  the  protest  of  the 
new  arrivals,  that  all  hands  should  ac- 
company him  to  San  Sebastian.  On  the 
way  thither,  as  they  were  about  to  enter 
the  Gulf  of  Darien,  their  ship  was  dashed 
to  pieces  on  the  rocks,  and  all  the  stores 
and  live  stock  it  contained  were  lost.  The 
men  escaped  and  succeeded  in  making 
their  way  to  San  Sebastian,  but  when  they 
arrived  there  they  found  that  the  whole  of 
the  little  settlement  had  been  burned  down 
by  the  natives.  Balboa's  experience  was 
now  of  value.  He  pointed  out  that  he  had 
formerly  coasted  this  country  with  Bas- 
tidas, that  on  the  western  shore  of  the  gulf 
the  land  was  fertile  and  rich  in  gold,  and 
that  the  natives  of  that  district  did  not 
use  poisoned  arrows:  therefore,  let  them 
cross  the  gulf.  The  advice  was  sound  and 
was  acted  on,  though  what  means  of 
transportation  they  had  is  not  apparent. 
It  is  likely,  however,  that  Pizarro's  brigan- 
tine  and  perhaps  the  boat  of  the  wrecked 
ship  were  available.  Things  turned  out 


SETTLEMENT  OF  ANTIGUA 


exactly  as  Balboa  had  said.  The  natives, 
under  their  chief  Cemaco,  were  hostile, 
but  for  lack  of  poisoned  arrows  were  easily 
defeated,  and  the  invaders  found  great 
store  of  gold  worked  into  handsome  orna- 
ments. On  the  site  of  the  captured  Indian 
village  Enciso  established  a  new  settle- 
ment, to  which,  in  fulfillment  of  a  vow,  he 
gave  the  name  of  Santa  Maria  de  la  Antigua 
del  Darien,  in  memory  of  the  great  shrine 
of  Santa  Maria  de  la  Antigua  in  Seville. 
This  settlement  is  generally  referred  to 
simply  as  Antigua. 

Enciso  now  proceeded  to  make  and  ad- 
minister laws  and  regulations,  but  being 
a  cast-iron  sort  of  lawyer  who  interpreted 
too  narrowly  the  royal  commands  from 
Spain,  and  wishing  to  assimilate  in  advance 
the  conduct  of  his  pioneer  colony  to  that 
which  prevailed  in  settled  communities,  he 
roused  an  ugly  temper  among  his  fellow 
citizens,  and  turned  them  entirely  against 
him.  His  life  even  was  in  great  danger;  but 
once  more  Balboa's  common  sense  and 
knowledge  of  geography  came  to  the 
rescue.  He  pointed  out  that,  being  on  the 
western  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Darien,  they 
were  in  Nicuesa's  territory,  and  that 
therefore  Enciso  had  really  no  authority 
over  them.  This  was  an  easy  solution  of 
the  difficulty.  Enciso  was  deposed,  and 
the  people  elected  from  their  own  body 
two  men,  Balboa  and  Martin  Zamudio,  to 
be  joint  alcaldes,  and  appointed  Valdivia  to 
be  one  of  the  regidores.  But  further  dis- 
putes soon  arose,  and  a  party  favorable  to 
Nicuesa  was  formed.  At  this  juncture  two 
ships  with  provisions  arrived  from  His- 
paniola  under  the  command  of  a  sub- 
ordinate of  Nicuesa's  named  Rodrigo  En- 
riquez  de  Colmenares,  who  was  in  quest  of 
the  governor  and  province  of  Castilla  del 
Oro.  To  the  citizens  of  Antigua  Colmenares 
distributed  supplies,  and  behaved  alto- 
gether so  tactfully  that,  when  he  took  his 
departure,  they  sent  with  him  a  deputation 
of  two  to  invite  Nicuesa  to  Antigua. 

When  Nicuesa  had  parted  from  Ojeda  in 
the  harbor  of  Cartagena,  all  went  well 
with  him  for  awhile,  but  he  subsequently 


met  with  great  disasters.  He  landed  in  his 
province  at  a  point  to  which  he  gave  the 
name  of  Puerto  de  Misas,  because  Mass  was 
there  and  then  celebrated.  Leaving  the 
bulk  of  his  ships  and  force  at  Misas  in 
charge  of  one  Cueto,  who  was  a  relative 
of  his,  Nicuesa  continued  his  western  route 
in  search  of  Veragua  and  its  reputed  golden 
store.  He  took  only  a  caravel  with  sixty 
men  and  a  brigantine  with  thirty.  During 
a  storm  which  sprang  up  while  they  were 
off  the  coast  of  Veragua,  the  brigantine, 
commanded  by  Lope  de  Olano,  disap- 
peared, and  Nicuesa,  believing  that  it 
had  perished,  still  followed  the  westward 
track.  When,  later,  he  tried  to  land,  his 
caravel  was  broken  to  pieces,  but  all  the 
crew  except  one  got  safely  ashore.  From 
the  wreck  they  managed  to  save  the  boat 
and  a  small  supply  of  provisions,  and  then 
set  out  to  march  along  the  shore,  the  boat 
in  charge  of  Diego  de  Ribero  and  three  men 
going  along  simultaneously  by  water,  and 
ferrying  the  land  party  at  need  across 
unfordable  streams  or  inlets  of  the  sea : 
Ribero  had  been  with  Columbus  in  1502 
when  the  admiral  discovered  this  territory, 
and  assured  Nicuesa  that  they  had  already 
passed  the  old  settlement  of  Belen  in 
Veragua.  Nicuesa,  relying  on  a  chart  in 
his  possession  made  by  the  Adelantado, 
Don  Bartolom6  Colon,  refused  to  believe 
this,  and  still  continued  westward.  The 
result  of  this  conflict  of  opinion  was  that 
Ribero,  having  brought  the  whole  party 
on  to  an  island  situated  probably  at  the 
entrance  to  Chiriqui  Bay,  left  them  there, 
and  then  turned  back  eastward  in  search 
of  Belen.  This  point  he  duly  made,  and 
there  found  Olano,  who  after  all  had  not 
been  lost  in  the  storm,  as  well  as  Cueto,  who 
had  come  up  from  Misas  with  the  other 
ships.  On  the  site  of  the  dismantled  Belen 
they  had  already  started  to  build  a  new 
settlement,  and  they  were  also  searching  for 
gold  in  the  surrounding  country;  but  the 
circumstances  were  unpropitious,  and  they 
had  begun  to  suffer  greatly  from  floods, 
disease,  and  lack  of  food. 

On  the  arrival  of  Ribero  with  intelli- 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


gence  of  the  whereabouts  of  Nicuesa,  a 
caravel  was  at  once  dispatched  to  bring 
him  and  his  companions  off.  They  were 
in  a  pitiable  condition  and  had  practically 
abandoned  hope,  when  the  welcome  sight 
of  the  caravel  greeted  their  gaze.  Arrived 
at  Belen,  Nicuesa  immediately  threw  Olano 
into  chains  as  a  deserter,  and  then,  with 
not  more  than  half  his  original  force,  set 
sail  in  an  easterly  direction  and  entered  the 
harbor  of  Puerto  Bello.  Here  several  of 
his  men  were  killed  by  Indians,  and,  fright- 
ened at  the  prospect,  the  harassed  mariners 
still  continued  eastward  in  a  search  of  a 
place  to  settle.  At  length  they  entered  a 
harbor,  from  which  the  country  seemed 
fertile  and  the  coast  suitable  for  a  fort, 
and  Nicuesa  exclaimed:  "Paremos  aqui, 
en  el  nombre  de  Dios"  ("Let  us  stay 
here,  in  the  name  of  God.")  The  words 
seemed  of  good  augury:  Nombre  de  Dios 
they  called  their  settlement,  and  Nombre 
de  Dios  it  is  to  this  day.  Huts  and  a 
blockhouse  were  quickly  run  up,  and  thus 
was  founded  the  first  permanent  Spanish 
settlement  in  Tierra  Firme.  But  disease 
lurked  there  too,  deaths  were  frequent, 
provisions  were  scarce,  and  the  remnant 
of  the  colony  vented  their  discontent  in 
murmurings  and  reproaches  directed  against 
Nicuesa. 


This  was  the  condition  of  affairs  when 
Colmenares  and  the  ambassadors  from  En- 
ciso's  colony  arrived  at  Nombre  de  Dios,  and 
invited  Nicuesa  to  go  to  Antigua  to  rule. 

Nicuesa  was  none  too  diplomatic,  or 
perhaps  his  sufferings  had  made  him  for- 
getful of  the  requirements  of  ordinary  pru- 
dence, and  thus,  instead  of  expressions  of 
gratitude  for  the  honor  done  him  and  the 
deference  and  attention  paid  him,  his  talk 
was  all  of  driving  the  Ojeda  colonists  out  of 
Antigua,  of  deposing  their  officers,  and  of 
forcing  them  to  disgorge  their  gold.  These 
sentiments,  reported  in  advance  at  Antigua 
by  the  self-same  ambassadors  who  had  gone 
forth  with  the  invitation,  caused  a  complete 
revulsion  of  feeling  there;  and  the  colonists 
decided  not  to  receive  the  governor.  Bal- 
boa, who  was  the  first  to  propose  this 
course,  appears  to  have  done  his  best  after- 
wards to  save  him;  but  the  obstinacy  and 
folly  of  Nicuesa  proved  his  own  undoing. 
With  seventeen  of  his  adherents,  the  gov- 
ernor of  Castilla  del  Oro  was  turned  adrift 
in  a  crazy  and  leaky  ship  on  March  I,  151 1, 
and  from  that  day  he  disappears  from  the 
page  of  history  forever.  What  was  his  ulti- 
mate fate,  whether  he  perished  by  land  or 
sea,  or,  as  was  once  reported,  was  eaten  by 
Indians,  no  one  has  yet  been  able  with  cer- 
tainty to  tell. 


CHAPTER  III 


DISCOVERY  OF  THE  SOUTH  SEA 

BALBOA  IN  COMMAND — ENCISO  AND  ZAMUDIO  Go  TO  SPAIN — BALBOA  SUBJUGATES  THE 
SURROUNDING  NATIVES — PANCIACO  TELLS  HIM  ABOUT  PERU  AND  THE  SOUTH 
SEA — BALBOA  APPOINTED  LIEUTENANT  IN  TIERRA  FIRME — DEATH  OP  VAL- 
DIVIA — BALBOA  SEEKS  THE  GOLDEN  TEMPLE  OP  DABAIBA — DEFEATS  A  CON- 
FEDERATION OP  NATIVE  CHIEFTAINS — SENDS  COLMENARES  AND  CAICEDO  TO 
SPAIN' — HEARS  DISQUIETING  RUMORS  FROM  SPAIN — SETS  OUT  ON  His  MARCH 
TO  THE  PACIFIC — OPPOSED  BY  NATIVE  CHIEFTAINS — DISCOVERS  THE  SOUTH  SEA 
— WADES  INTO  IT  TO  TAKE  POSSESSION — RETURNS  TO  ANTIGUA — REPORTS  His 
GREAT  DISCOVERY  TO  KING  FERDINAND — PROSPERITY  OF  ANTIGUA. 


THE  dominant  spirit  on  Tierra  Firme 
was  now  Vasco  Nunez  de  Balboa.  He 
made  his  position  more  secure,  or  at 
least  seemed  to  do  so,  by  allowing  Enciso 
to  depart  for  Spain  and  inducing  Zamudio, 
his  fellow  alcalde,  to  accompany  him  so  as 
to  be  on  the  spot  to  give  the  necessary  cor- 
rective to  whatever  stories  Enciso  should 
tell  regarding  affairs  in  the  western  world. 
At  the  same  time,  Valdivia,  the  regidor,  was 
sent  to  Hispaniola  to  procure  much  needed 
supplies  for  the  colony  at  Antigua,  and,  by 
the  judicious  use  of  large  quantities  of  gold 
entrusted  to  his  care,  to  curry  favor  for 
Balboa  with  Governor  Diego  Colon,  and 
with  Pasamonte,  treasurer  of  the  Spanish 
king  at  Santo  Domingo.  The  remnant  of 
Nicuesa's  garrison  at  Nombre  de  Dios  was 
also  invited  to  come  to  Antigua  and  settle 
there,  and  Colmenares  with  two  brigantines 
went  and  fetched  them. 

Having  thus,  at  the  age  of  about  thirty- 
five,  become  sole  commander  and  de  facto 
governor  of  Castilla  del  Oro,  Balboa  pro- 
ceeded to  reduce  the  surrounding  natives  to 
subjection,  and  at  the  same  time  to  collect 
from  them  all  the  gold  and  treasure  he 
could.  For  such  an  enterprise  he  was  well 
fitted,  and  he  certainly  did  wonders. 
Cemaco,  whose  village  the  Spaniards  were 
then  occupying,  was  first  attacked,  and  after 
he  and  his  four  hundred  men  had  sustained 
a  severe  defeat,  he  fled  from  the  onslaught 
of  the  dreaded  white  men.  The  next  impor- 
tant chieftain  the  Spaniards  went  against 


was  Careta,  cacique  of  Cueva,  or  Coiba,  adis- 
trict  about  twenty  leagues  to  the  westward 
of  Antigua.  Careta  received  his  visitors  in 
a  friendly  manner,  but  refused  to  supply 
them  with  a  large  quantity  of  maize,  on 
the  plea  that  he  had  not  been  able  to  sow 
any  because  of  a  war  in  which  he  had  been 
engaged  with  Ponca,  a  neighboring  chief- 
tain. They  pretended  to  accept  his  explana- 
tion and  apparently  took  their  departure. 
They  returned  that  night,  however,  at- 
tacked the  village,  slaughtered  many  of  the 
inhabitants,  took  Careta  and  his  family 
prisoners,  and  carried  them  back  to  Anti- 
gua. Balboa  knew  how  to  fascinate  as  well 
as  to  conquer.  He  soothed  the  ruffled  feel- 
ings of  the  captive  chieftain  so  effectually 
that  there  and  then  there  was  formed  be- 
tween them  an  offensive  and  defensive  al- 
liance, which  was  cemented  by  a  union 
made,  according  to  native  usage  but  not 
after  the  Spanish  fashion,  between  Balboa 
and  Careta's  beautiful  daughter.  In  ac- 
cordance with  the  terms  of  the  treaty, 
Balboa  went  with  eighty  or  ninety  men 
to  join  Careta  in  an  expedition  against 
Ponca,  who  fled  and  left  his  lands  to  be 
devastated.  On  his  side,  Careta  caused 
corn  to  be  planted,  in  order  to  supply  his 
new  allies  with  food. 

Comagre,  cacique  of  a  district  about  forty 
leagues  still  further  west  from  Antigua,  who 
was  reputed  to  be  very  wealthy  and  who 
ruled  over  about  10,000  persons  and  could 
put  3,000  warriors  in  the  field,  was  the  next 


16 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA   CANAL 


to  whom  attention  was  devoted.  A  friendly 
meeting  was  arranged,  and  Balboa  visited 
the  princeling  in  his  palace,  which  was  so 
large  and  so  well  built  and  had  ceilings  of 
wood  so  beautifully  carved  as  to  astonish 
the  white  men,  who  had  never  before  seen 
anything  like  it  in  the  Indies.  Comagre 
presented  his  visitors  with  4,000  ounces  of 
gold,  and  as  they  were  weighing  it  out, 
with  much  wrangling,  for  distribution  be- 
tween the  king  of  Spain  and  themselves, 
Panciaco,  the  chieftain's  eldest  son,  scorn- 
fully dashed  down  the  scales  and  told  them 
of  a  country  of  unbounded  wealth,  with 
large  cities,  in  which  the  people  ate  and 
drank  out  of  vessels  of  gold.  This  country, 
he  said,  was  in  the  south,  and  was  to  be 
reached  by  sailing  over  an  ocean  sea,  not 
more  than  six  days'  march  distant,  on 
which  floated  large  ships  with  sails  and 
oars  like  unto  the  Spaniards'  own.  This 
speech,  containing  so  plain  a  reference  to 
Peru  and  the  South  Sea,  of  both  of  which 
the  Spaniards  now  heard  for  the  first  time, 
was  destined  to  have  important  results. 
Comagre  and  many  of  his  people  were  bap- 
tized as  Christians,  the  chieftain  receiving 
the  name  of  Don  Fernando,  and  the  white 
men  returned  to  Antigua  well  satisfied  with 
the  results  of  their  mission  and  supplied 
with  something  new  to  ponder. 

At  Antigua  they  found  that  Valdivia, 
true  to  his  trust,  had  returned  from  His- 
paniola  with  a  cargo  of  provisions  and  a 
commission  to  Balboa  from  Governor 
Diego  Colon  appointing  him  his  lieutenant 
in  Tierra  Firme  and  governor  of  Antigua. 
•  Towards  the  close  of  the  year  (1511)  Val- 
divia was  sent  back  to  Hispaniola  for  more 
provisions,  and  with  him  also  went  the 
king's  proportion  of  the  gold  so  far  collected, 
amounting  to  15,000  pesos,  but  the  ship, 
carried  out  of  her  course,  was  wrecked  near 
Yucatan,  the  gold  was  lost,  and  Valdivia 
and  nineteen  men  barely  managed  to 
escape  in  the  boat  without  sails,  oars,  or 
food.  In  this  helpless  condition  they  were 
tossed  about  for  thirteen  days,  during 
which  seven  of  them  died  in  agony  from 
thirst,  and  the  remaining  thirteen  were 


cast  ashore  in  Yucatan,  where  Valdivia 
and  four  others  were  fattened,  roasted,  and 
either  sacrificed  to  idols  or  eaten.  The 
others  escaped  to  Jamancana,  but  only 
two  of  them  survived  until  1519,  when 
Cortes,  on  his  way  to  the  conquest  of 
Mexico,  took  one  of  them,  named  Geronimo 
de  Aguilar,  with  him  to  act  as  interpreter. 
The  other,  Gonzalo  Guerrero,  had  in  the 
meantime  become  a  leader  among  the 
natives,  had  conformed  to  their  usages 
and  customs  even  to  the  extent  of  having 
his  nose  and  ears  bored  for  the  reception  of 
rings,  had  married  an  Indian  princess,  and 
therefore  politely  declined  the  invitation 
of  Cortes  to  accompany  him. 

Ignorant  of  the  fate  of  Valdivia  and  of 
the  loss  of  the  king's  gold,  Balboa  was 
meditating  much  on  the  information  given 
him  by  Panciaco  regarding  the  rich  land  to 
the  south,  and  the  sea  by  which  it  was  to 
be  reached.  His  attention  was  diverted 
from  this  subject  for  awhile,  however,  by 
reports  which  reached  him  of  the  great 
gold-lined  temple  of  Dabaiba,  supposed  to 
be  distant  thirty  leagues  to  the  south  of 
Antigua  and  to  be  located  on  the  bank  of 
the  Atrato  River.  To  sack  a  building 
which  promised  such  valuable  loot,  he  led 
out,  early  in  1512,  a  force  of  one  hundred 
and  fifty  men.  He  discovered  no  temple, 
however;  but  on  the  way  he  devas- 
tated the  territories  of  two  chieftains, 
Albenameche  and  Abraiba,  and  of  a  third, 
Abibeiba,  whose  people  dwelt  in  the  tops 
of  trees  of  immense  girth,  and  returned 
to  Antigua.  The  three  aggrieved  chieftains 
and  the  lord  of  the  land  where  the  golden 
temple  was  supposed  to  be,  goaded  on  by 
insult  and  wrong  and  actual  or  threatened 
invasion,  and  instigated  by  the  restless 
Cemaco,  cacique  of  Darien,  who  had  old 
scores  of  his  own  to  pay  off,  formed  a  great 
confederation,  and  placed  five  thousand  men 
in  the  field  to  wipe  out  once  and  for  all  the 
hated  strangers.  Their  plan,  which  was  to 
attack  Antigua  secretly  and  at  night,  was 
well  laid,  but  it  was  foiled  because  a  brave 
warned  his  sister,  who  was  a  mistress  of 
Balboa,  to  be  out  of  the  town  by  a  certain 


BALBOA  DISCOVERS  THE  PACIFIC 


J 


night.  The  infatuated  girl,  who  had  the 
classic  name  of  Fulvia,  told  her  lover,  and 
Balboa,  having  received  details  of  the  pro- 
jected assault  and  of  the  rendezvous  of  the 
hostile  forces,  became  the  attacker  instead 
of  the  attacked,  and  wrought  fell  destruc- 
tion among  his  foes.  Many  were  killed, 
many  made  prisoners,  and  of  the  latter, 
several  caciques  were  hanged.  The  Darien 
Indians  were  thus  subjugated. 

Uneasy  at  not  having  heard  from  or  of 
Valdivia,  Balboa  thought  of  going  to  Spain 
to  put  his  case  before  the  king  in  his  own 
way,  but  the  outcry  against  the  project  was 
so  great  that  he  abandoned  it.  Instead  he 
sent  Colmenares  and  Caicedo,  two  men  in 
whom  he  had  confidence,  and,  to  aid  their 
eloquence  on  his  behalf,  he  gave  into  their 
charge  the  king's  share  of  the  gold  taken 
since  the  departure  of  Valdivia,  and  com- 
missioned them  to  be  careful  to  report  all 
that  they  had  heard  about  the  South  Sea 
and  the  rich  country  to  which  it  gave  access. 
As  it  was  arranged  that  the  two  deputies 
should  call  at  Santo  Domingo  on  the  way  to 
Spain,  a  handsome  present  of  gold  was  sent 
to  Pasamonte  and  a  diplomatic  letter  beg- 
ging his  favor  and  patronage.  It  was  in 
October,  1512,  that  this  important  em- 
bassy started  from  Antigua. 

A  feud  among  his  own  people,  which  at 
first  threatened  serious  consequences,  hav- 
ing been  put  down,  Balboa  at  length  felt 
free  to  take  up  in  earnest  the  project  of  the 
discovery  of  the  South  Sea.  He  had  just 
now  a  strong  motive  to  do  something  ex- 
tremely notable,  for  by  two  vessels  which, 
early  in  1513,  arrived  from  Hispaniola 
bearing  provisions,  a  reinforcement  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty  men,  and  a  commission 
to  Balboa  as  Captain-General  of  the  colony 
from  Pasamonte,  there  also  came  letters 
from  Zamudio  from  Spain  conveying  dis- 
quieting intelligence  as  to  the  results  of 
Enciso's  reports  to  the  Spanish  sovereign. 
The  letters  told  of  the  rumored  recall  of 
Balboa  and  the  appointment  of  a  new  gov- 
ernor of  Darien.  Some  splendid  exploit, 
some  signal  service,  some  wonderful  discov- 
ery, Balboa  felt,  was  now  the  only  thing  that 


could  confound  his  enemies  and  save  him 
with  King  Ferdinand.  Above  all,  he  must 
not  allow  himself  to  be  forestalled  by  any  one 
else  in  his  enterprise.  Whatever  he  was  to 
do  must  be  done  before  he  was  superseded. 

Accordingly,  on  September  I,  1513,  he 
started  from  Antigua  with  one  hundred  and 
ninety  picked  men,  about  1,000  natives,  and 
a  pack  of  dogs.  Going  by  sea,  he  landed  in 
Careta's  country,  and  leaving  his  brigan- 
tines  and  canoes  there,  he  set  out  on  the 
6th  from  the  north  coast  on  his  march  to 
the  Pacific.  He  made  friends  with  Ponca, 
and  in  return  received  plenty  of  gold  and 
much  valuable  information  as  to  easy  passes 
and  quickest  routes.  He  was  also  given  a 
number  of  reliable  guides.  Porque,  the 
next  chieftain  encountered,  who  was  an 
enemy  of  Ponca's,  ruled  in  Quarequa,  and 
offered  resistance,  but  the  muskets  of  the 
Spaniards,  their nativeallies,  and,  though  last 
not  least,  the  dogs,  made  short  work  of  the 
i  ,000  warriors  of  Quarequa.  The  chieftain 
and  six  hundred  of  his  men  were  killed,  many 
were  taken  prisoners,  and  gold  in  abundance 
was  found  alike  on  the  living  and  on  the 
dead.  Ponca's  guides  were  here  sent  home, 
and  the  Quarequa  prisoners  were  pressed 
into  the  service.  That  was  on  the  24th. 

On  September  25,  Balboa  resumed  his 
march,  and  came  to  the  base  of  a  moun- 
tain, from  the  summit  of  which  the  guides 
assured  him  a  view  of  the  sought-for  sea 
could  be  obtained.  At  ten  o'clock  in  the 
morning  he  ascended,  alone;  and  when  he 
reached  the  top,  there,  before  him,  lay  the 
South  Sea,  which  he  was  the  first  European 
to  behold.  His  first  act  was  to  fall  on  his 
knees  and  thank  God  for  the  favor  thus 
vouchsafed  him.  He  then  made  a  signal  to 
his  companions,  who  rushed  up  the  moun- 
tain, and  saw  for  themselves  the  wondrous 
sight.  Then  they  all  joined  in  singing  the 
Te  Deum,  and  Balboa,  in  the  prescribed 
form,  took  possession  of  the  sea  itself,  and 
all  the  lands  that  lay  in  it,  or  whose  shores 
it  washed,  for  the  crown  of  Castile.  A 
notary  made  a  written  record  of  the  pro- 
ceedings, and  appended  to  it  the  names  of 
all  the  Spaniards  present. 


18 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


Coming  down  from  the  mountain  and 
proceeding  seaward,  Balboa  found  his  pas- 
sage barred  by  a  cacique  named  Chiapes; 
but  the  muskets,  the  allies,  and  the  dogs 
again  proved  victorious.  Chiapes  himself 
escaped,  and  Balboa,  sending  after  him  and 
using  all  the  charm  of  manner  for  which  he 
was  noted,  made  him  a  firm  friend,  and  re- 
ceived from  him  a  large  amount  of  gold. 

On  September  29,  Balboa,  with  Chiapes 
and  twenty-six  of  his  own  men  and  a  num- 
ber of  Indians,  reached  the  shore.  When 
the  incoming  tide  had  covered  the  sand, 
Balboa,  bearing  a  banner  with  a  represen- 
tation of  the  Virgin  and  Child  on  one  side 
and  of  the  arms  of  Leon  and  Castile  on  the 
other,  waded  into  the  sea  until  it  covered  his 
thighs,  and  in  the  name  of  Don  Ferdinand 
and  Dona  Juana,  sovereigns  of  Castile,  of 
Leon,  and  of  Aragon,  took  everlasting  pos- 
session— "until  the  universal  judgment  of 
all  mankind  " — of  those  waters  and  of  every 
shore  they  touched.  It  being  the  feast  of 
St.  Michael,  he  called  the  nearest  water  the 
Gulf  of  San  Miguel,  a  name  it  has  ever  since 
borne. 

From  Cocura  and  Tumaco,  local  chief- 
tains, Balboa  took  a  heavy  toll  of  gold  and 
pearls.  Tumaco  and  others  told  him  that 
the  land  extended  indefinitely  southward 
and  northward,  and  that  in  the  south  there 
was  a  great  wealthy  nation — the  second  in- 
timation he  received  of  the  existence  and 
riches  of  Peru.  On  October  29  he  had  him- 
self rowed  far  out  into  the  Gulf  of  Panama, 
of  which  he  once  more  took  formal  posses- 
sion in  set  phrase.  To  a  group  of  islands 
where  fine  pearls  were  found  he  gave  the 
name  of  Islas  de  las  Perlas. 

He  then  decided  to  return  by  another 


route,  and  after  subduing  various  chieftains 
on  the  way  and  taking  heavy  booty  from 
them,  he  arrived  in  triumph,  without  the 
loss  of  a  single  man,  at  Antigua,  on  January 
19,  1514.  The  feat  which  he  had  accom- 
plished, from  whatever  point  of  view  it  is 
regarded — 'whether  from  the  smallness  of 
the  force,  the  difficulties  surmounted,  the 
shortness  of  the  time,  or  the  results  achieved 
— must  be  classed  as  one  of  the  greatest 
performances  of  man. 

The  gold  accumulated  on  this  expedition 
amounted  to  40,000  pesos  and,  after  the 
legal  twenty  per  cent,  had  been  deducted 
for  the  king,  the  rest  was  fairly  divided 
not  only  among  all  the  Spanish  partici- 
pants in  the  march  but  also  those  who 
had  remained  at  Antigua.  There  were, 
besides,  pearls  and  cotton  cloth.  Two 
hundred  and  fifty  of  the  purest  pearls, 
in  addition  to  the  number  required  by 
law,  were  set  aside  as  a  special  present 
to  King  Ferdinand.  In  a  letter  to  the  mon- 
arch written  on  March  4,  1514,  Balboa  told 
of  his  great  exploit.  He  asked,  as  was 
natural  enough,  that  he  should  be  appointed 
governor  of  the  territory  he  had  discovered, 
and  suggested  that  ample  means  should  be 
supplied  to  him  to  continue  his  exploration 
of  the  South  Sea.  The  gold,  the  pearls,  the 
cloth,  and  the  letter  were  dispatched  to 
Spain  about  a  week  after  in  charge  of  Pedro 
de  Arbolancha,  who  arrived  at  his  destina- 
tion in  the  following  April. 

Affairs  were  now  in  a  fairly  settled  and 
peaceful  condition  in  Darien;  the  natives 
were  either  friendly  or  utterly  subdued; 
and  Antigua  grew  into  a  prosperous  and 
thriving  town.  The  prospect  seemed  fair, 
but  it  was  soon  to  be  disastrously  clouded. 


CHAPTER  IV 


BALBOA'S   FALL 

ENCISO  DENOUNCES  BALBOA  TO  THE  COUNCIL  OF  THE  INDIES — PEDRO  ARIAS  DE  AVILA 
APPOINTED  GOVERNOR  OP  CASTILLA  DEL  ORO — HE  EASILY  FINDS  RECRUITS — 
HE  SAILS  FOR  TIERRA  FIRME,  1514 — ARRIVAL  OF  ARBOLANCHA  IN  SPAIN — 
CHANGE  OF  KING  FERDINAND'S  OPINION  OF  BALBOA — BALBOA  REGARDED  IN 
SPAIN  AS  A  HERO — INSTRUCTIONS  GIVEN  TO  THE  NEW  GOVERNOR — 'RECEPTION 
OF  THE  NEW  GOVERNOR  AT  ANTIGUA — LEGAL  PROCEEDINGS  AGAINST  BALBOA — • 
HE  is  FINED  AND  IMPRISONED — SUFFERINGS  OF  THE  NEWCOMERS — BALBOA 
RELEASED — AYORA'S  CAMPAIGN — ESTABLISHES  SANTA  CRUZ — HURTADO  SENT 
IN  QUEST  OF  AYORA — BECERRA'S  RAIDS — His  DEATH — DESTRUCTION  OF 
SANTA  CRUZ — ATTEMPTS  TO  REACH  DABAIBA — THEIR  FAILURE — GUZMAN 
FINDS  PANAMA — EXPEDITION  OF  MORALES  AND  PIZARRO — UNSUCCESSFUL 
GOLD-HUNT  OF  BADAJOZ — PEDRARIAS  TAKES  THE  FIELD — FOUNDS  THE  FORT 

OF  ACLA ESPINOSA  CROSSES  THE  ISTHMUS DEFEATS  PARIS,  BUT  FAILS  TO 

CAPTURE  THE  TREASURE — ESTABLISHES  A  STATION  AT  PANAMA — BALBOA 
APPOINTED  ADELANTADO  OF  THE  SOUTH  SEA — His  DESIGNS  THWARTED  BY 
PEDRARIAS — RECONCILIATION — BALBOA  SETS  OUT  TO  FIND  THE  SOUTHERN 
LAND  OF  GOLD — CROSSES  THE  ISTHMUS — SAILS  SOUTHWARD  TWENTY  LEAGUES 
— Is  BETRAYED  BY  GERABITO — BALBOA'S  ARREST — TRIAL — EXECUTION — 
CHARACTER. 


IT  was  most  unfortunate  for  Balboa  that 
Valdivia's  ship,  which  sailed  from  An- 
tigua late  in  1511  with  the  gold  for  the 
king  on  board,  was  wrecked  and  all  the  cargo 
lost.  Had  the  gold  reached  its  destination, 
and  the  reports  of  the  existence  of  a  great 
sea  and  a  wealthy  nation  to  the  south 
been  received  in  time,  King  Ferdinand 
might  have  been  less  willing  to  listen  favor- 
ably to  the  stories  detrimental  to  Balboa 
which  he  had  already  heard  and  was  sub- 
sequently to  hear  from  Enciso.  Worse  still 
for  Balboa  was  his  delay  in  sending  to 
Spain  the  news  of  his  actual  discovery 
of  the  South  Sea,  and  of  the  confirmation 
of  the  rumors  as  to  the  rich  country  to 
which  it  gave  access.  It  will  be  remem- 
bered that  he  arrived  back  at  Antigua 
from  his  trans-isthmian  march  on  January 
19,  1514,  and  that  it  was  not  until  some 
days  after  March  4  that  Pedro  de  Arbo- 
lancha  was  dispatched  to  Spain  with 
the  letter  containing  Balboa's  report 
and  the  gold,  pearls,  and  cloth  for  King 
Ferdinand.  Balboa  had  such  strong  mo- 


tives for  haste  that  this  delay  seems  inex- 
plicable. The  most  plausible  theory  that 
can  be  advanced  to  account  for  it  is  that 
Balboa,  who,  during  his  return  from  his 
great  discovery,  had  contracted  a  fever 
from  hardships  and  exposure  and  was 
actually  borne  on  a  litter  to  the  territory  of 
the  friendly  chief,  Comagre,  had,  after 
reaching  Antigua,  a  prolonged  illness, 
which  prevented  him  from  acting  with  his 
usual  promptitude.  Whatever  the  expla- 
nation, the  truth  of  the  adage  that  delays 
are  dangerous  scarcely  ever  received  a  more 
striking  illustration.  To  the  dilatoriness  in 
this  case  may  be  probably  attributed  not 
only  Balboa's  untimely  death  but  also 
many  of  the  woes  of  which  Tierra  Firme 
and  Peru  were  subsequently  the  victims. 
Enciso,  who,  with  Zamudio,  had  gone  to 
Spain  in  1511,  was  violent  in  his  denuncia- 
tions both  of  Balboa  and  of  Zamudio  to  the 
Council  of  the  Indies,  and  either  Zamudio 
was  lukewarm  in  the  defense  of  his  fellow 
alcalde,  or  else,  which  is  probable  enough, 
he  had  not  the  ability  to  make  head  for  an 


20 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


absent  man  against  the  lawyer-like  elo- 
quence and  powers  of  presentation  of  the 
Bachiller.  At  all  events,  the  complaints 
had  their  effect,  for  proceedings  in  the 
courts  were  instituted  against  Balboa,  and 
he  was  ordered  to  pay  damages  to  Enciso ; 
and  King  Ferdinand  was  so  greatly  incensed 
against  him  that  he  determined  to  super- 
sede him  by  appointing  another  governor. 
The  arrival  of  Colmenares  and  Caicedo  in 
Spain  in  May,  1513,  might  be  expected  to 
put  a  different  complexion  on  affairs;  but 
it  must  be  remembered  that,  while  they 
brought  with  them  gold  for  the  king,  they 
brought  only  unconfirmed  rumors  regarding 
a  strange  sea,  to  reach  which,  through 
hostile  territofy,  would  require  a  force  of  a 
thousand  men.  This  was  very  different 
from  conveying  the  news  of  its  actual  dis- 
covery; and  the  king's  decision  remained 
therefore  unaltered.  Accordingly  on  July 
27,  1513,  he  commissioned  Pedro  Arias  de 
Avila  as  the  new  governor.  The  territory 
assigned  to  him  embraced  all  Ojeda's 
province  of  Nueva  Andaluda  and  that 
portion  of  Nicuesa's  Castilla  del  Oro 
which  extended  westward  as  far  as  Veragua. 
To  the  united  province  thus  formed  was 
given  the  name  of  Castilla  Aurifica,  a 
designation,  however,  which  never  came 
into  popular  use. 

Pedro  Arias  de  Avila,  who  is  sometimes 
spoken  of  as  Davila  but  more  generally  as 
Pedrarias,  was  a  soldier  with  the  rank  of 
colonel.  He  had  served  with  distinction  in 
the  African  war  in  1509,  when  Spain  made 
her  short-lived  conquests  in  Oran.  He  had 
led  a  gay  life  as  a  young  man  and  had  been 
a  noted  tilter  in  the  ring,  whence  he  derived 
the  titles  of  El  Galan,  or  The  Gallant,  and 
El  Justador,  or  The  Jouster.  He  was  now 
some  seventy  years  of  age,  but  set  about 
his  new  undertaking  with  all  the  ardor  of  a 
man  in  the  prime  of  life. 

The  persistent  attachment  of  mankind 
to  a  numerical  figure,  once  it  has  been 
quoted,  is  very  remarkable.  We  now  know 
of  course  that  Balboa  had  had  only  190 
Spaniards  with  him  on  his  expedition,  but 
the  size  of  the  force  reported  by  Colmenares 


and  Caicedo,  on  the  mere  estimate  of  Pan- 
ciaco,  as  being  necessary  to  fight  its  way  to 
the  South  Sea  was  accepted  as  a  kind  of 
minimum  standard,  and  caused  the  num- 
ber for  Pedrarias's  undertaking  to  be  fixed 
at  1,200.  On  the  principle  of  throwing  a 
sprat  to  catch  a  salmon,  Ferdinand,  despite, 
or  in  one  sense  because  of,  his  love  of  money, 
spent  50,000  ducats  on  the  equipment  and 
outfitting  of  the  expedition. 

There  was  no  difficulty  in  finding  re- 
cruits. The  promises  of  free  grants  of 
lands,  of  distribution  of  Indian  slaves  to 
work  them,  of  ten  years'  mining  privileges 
subject  to  a,  twenty  per  cent,  royalty  to  the 
crown,  and  of  free  trade  in  other  products, 
were  of  themselves  sufficiently  enticing. 
To  those  solid  inducements  were  added  the 
tales  told  by  Balboa's  envoys,  especially 
one  about  a  river  wherein  the  natives  were 
wont  to  fish  for  gold  with  nets.  No  wonder 
that  men  saw  vistas  of  conquest  and  sudden 
wealth  opening  out  before  them.  About 
this  time,  too,  the  abandonment  by  Ferdi- 
nand of  an  expedition  to  Naples  threw 
thousands  of  adventurers  out  of  employ- 
ment, and  most  of  those  would  have  gladly 
gone  with  Pedrarias  to  seek  their  fortune  in 
the  new  countries  of  the  west.  The  result 
of  this  combination  of  circumstances  was  a 
rush  of  volunteers.  Pedrarias  enrolled 
three  hundred  men  more  than  his  commis- 
sion authorized,  and  still  left  thousands  be- 
hind him  in  sorrowful  mood  because  they 
were  not  lucky  enough  to  be  selected.  After 
a  grand  review  held  on  the  plaza  of  Seville, 
the  fleet  of  eighteen  vessels  conveying  the 
governor  and  his  men  sailed  from  San 
Lucar  on  April  n,  1514.  With  him  went 
the  licenciado,  Caspar  de  Espinosa,  as  al- 
calde mayor;  Juan  de  Quevedo,  as  the  first 
bishop  of  Antigua  and  Castilla  del  Oro, 
accompanied  by  a  band  of  Franciscan 
friars;  Gonzalo  Fernandez  de  Oviedo  y 
Valde"s,  as  veedor  and  escribano  general; 
Alonso  de  la  Puente,  as  treasurer;  Diego 
Marquez,  as  contador;  Juan  de  Tabira, 
as  factor;  the  Bachiller  Enciso,  as  alguacil 
mayor;  Juan  de  Ayora  as  governor's  lieu- 
tenant; several  captains;  and  a  number  of 


.«£.    •:. 


1.  Panciaco  tells  Balboa  of  the  South  Sea — From  De  Bry,  "India  Occidentalis,"  1594. 

2.  Balboa  takes  possession  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 


1.  Pizarro,  Almagro,  and  Luques  at  Panama,  planning  for  the  Conquest  of  Peru. 

2.  Nicuesa  rebuilding  his  Caravel  at  Veragua — from  De  Bry,  1594- 


ARRIVAL  OF  PEDRARIAS 


21 


others  destined  to  varying  degrees  of  fame, 
like  Hernando  de  Soto;  Pascual  de  Anda- 
goya;  Bernal  Diaz  del  Castillo;  and, 
though  last  not  least,  Diego  de  Almagro, 
one  of  the  future  conquerors  of  Peru.  In 
the  words  of  one  of  its  members,  Pascual 
de  Andagoya,  it  was  the  best  equipped 
company  that  had  ever  left  Spain. 

Not  many  days  afterwards  Arbolancha's 
ship  came  in — but  it  was  too  late.  When 
the  king  saw  the  rich  cotton  stuffs,  the 
gold,  and  the  large  and  lustrous  pearls 
which  Balboa  had  sent  him,  and  when  he 
heard  that  the  western  ocean  had  been 
already  discovered,  that  it  gave  access  to 
new  territory  for  profitable  exploitation  in 
the  south,  and  that  through  it  the  way  was 
now  open  to  the  markets  of  the  east,  from 
which  by  Pope  Alexander's  line  and  the 
treaty  of  Tordesillas  he  had  been  hitherto 
barred,  his  feelings  towards  Balboa  natu- 
rally underwent  a  change,  and  he  deeply  re- 
gretted the  large  sum  he  had  unnecessarily 
expended  on  the  equipment  of  the  expedi- 
tion of  Pedrarias.  All  such  regrets  were 
then,  however,  vain,  for  Pedrarias  was  be- 
yond immediate  recall,  and  was  well  on  his 
way  to  his  distant  province.  As  for  Bal- 
boa, he  became  a  hero  in  Spain,  where  his 
discoveries  were  ranked  as  being  almost 
equal  in  importance  to  those  of  Columbus 
himself. 

The  Council  of  the  Indies,  guided  by  the 
experience  it  had  had  of  the  dealings  of 
earlier  conquistadores,  had  laid  down  cer- 
tain very  precise  and  laudable  regulations 
for  the  guidance  of  Pedrarias.  He  was  to 
have  always  in  view  the  salvation  of  the 
Indians  and  the  spread  of  the  Christian 
religion;  to  look  well  after  the  conduct  of 
his  own  people,  so  that  they  might  be  to  the 
natives  a  fruitful  example  of  the  good  works 
inspired  by  faith;  to  forbid  gambling;  to 
visit  with  condign  punishment  blasphemy, 
theft,  and  murder;  and  to  be  himself  gen- 
tle, honest,  and  truthful  in  all  his  relations 
with  the  aborigines.  The  precept  was  splen- 
did :  the  practice,  as  we  shall  see,  was  some- 
thing very  different. 

At  Antigua,  on  the  rumors  of  a  change  of 


government,  men's  minds  were  stirred  and 
rendered  extremely  uneasy.  There  were 
some  four  hundred  and  fifty  Spaniards  in 
residence  there,  and  it  was  not  beyond  the 
bounds  of  feasibility  for  them  to  resist  and 
prevent  the  landing  of  the  newcomers ;  and 
such  a  policy  found  many  earnest  advo- 
cates. But  Balboa,  who  was  always  loyal 
to  properly  constituted  authority,  lent  his 
voice  and  powerful  influence  to  councils  of 
peace;  and  the  outcome  was  that  it  was 
decided  to  extend  a  hearty  .welcome  to 
Pedrarias  and  his  fifteen  hundred.  A  gor- 
geously apparelled  advance  envoy  from  the 
fleet  found  Balboa  in  neglig£  attire,  super- 
intending the  thatching  of  a  house  by  na- 
tives. Through  this  envoy  a  pleasant  mes- 
sage was  conveyed  to  those  who  sent  him, 
and  on  June  30,  1514,  Pedrarias,  disem- 
barking at  some  distance  from  Antigua, 
headed  a  procession  to  the  town.  He  had 
on  one  side  his  wife,  Dona  Isabel,  and  on 
the  other  Juan  de  Quevedo,  the  bishop,  and 
he  was  followed  by  his  alcalde  mayor,  his 
veedor  and  escribano  general,  his  treasurer, 
and  other  functionaries  in  order  of  prece- 
dence and  rank.  The  friars  chanted  the  Te 
Deum.  The  gay  garb  and  fresh  complexions 
of  the  visitors  formed  a  strong  contrast  to 
the  well-worn  clothes  and  sun-tanned  faces 
of  the  older  colonists.  The  meeting  of  Bal- 
boa and  Pedrarias  left  nothing  to  be  de- 
sired in  point  of  cordiality.  Balboa's  man- 
ner was,  as  usual,  perfect,  and  the  new 
governor,  dissembling  his  real  feelings,  com- 
plimented the  discoverer  of  the  South  Sea 
on  his  successes;  and  all  seemed  well. 

The  formal  preliminaries  of  installation 
over,  Pedrarias  asked  Balboa  for  a  written 
report  of  his  experiences  and  performances 
and  of  the  possibilities  of  the  country.  With 
this  request  Balboa  gladly  complied.  He 
devoted  two  whole  days  to  the  drawing  up 
of  the  document,  and  with  rare  single- 
mindedness  omitted  nothing  that  could 
serve  for  the  future  guidance  of  his  chief. 

Then,  with  the  needed  information  in  his 
possession,  Pedrarias  made  a  sudden  change 
of  front.  Suit  was  entered  against  Balboa 
for  damages  done  to  Enciso,  Nicuesa,  and 


22 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


others,  and  he  was  condemned  both  to  fine 
and  imprisonment.  More  drastic  punish- 
ment still  might  have  been  inflicted  but  for 
two  reasons:  first,  both  the  alcalde  mayor 
and  the  bishop  were  friendly  to  Balboa  and 
used  their  influence,  which  was  powerful, 
to  save  him  from  the  effects  of  the  jealousy 
of  Pedrarias;  and,  secondly,  it  seemed  prob- 
able that  the  time  was  not  far  distant  when 
Balboa's  experience  and  personality  would 
once  more  prove  useful  to  his  compatriots, 
for  the  newcomers  soon  found  themselves 
in  a  miserable  plight.  The  climate  played 
havoc  with  their  health,  a  great  portion  of 
the  provisions  they  had  brought  was  spoiled 
and  rendered  unfit  for  use,  and  the  influx  of 
so  large  a  body  of  colonists  to  a  settlement 
where  food  was  already  scanty  enough 
caused  a  dearth,  from  which  resulted  the 
loss  of  many  lives.  Disease  and  famine 
combined  produced,  it  is  said,  the  almost 
incredible  number  of  seven  hundred  deaths 
inside  of  the  first  three  or  four  months. 
About  a  hundred  of  the  colonists,  taking 
alarm,  left  for  Cuba  under  Bernal  Diaz  del 
Castillo  and  afterwards  had  a  share  in  the 
conquest  of  Mexico.  Pedrarias  himself 
sickened  and  had  to  retire  for  a  period 
from  Antigua  to  a  more  salubrious  locality. 
Things  were  thus  in  a  very  unsatisfactory 
condition,  when  a  command  came  from 
King  Ferdinand  that  posts  were  to  be 
established  across  the  isthmus  from  ocean 
to  ocean,  that  a  new  settlement  was  to  be 
established  on  the  Gulf  of  San  Miguel, 
and  that  a  small  fleet  was  to  be  equipped 
and  to  proceed  immediately  to  explore  the 
South  Sea.  It  was  obviously  no  time  to 
keep  a  practical  man  of  affairs  in  captivity, 
and  Balboa  was  accordingly  released  in 
consideration  of  past  and  future  services. 
To  Juan  de  Ayora>  the  governor's  lieu- 
tenant, with  four  hundred  men,  was  en- 
trusted at  the  outset  the  duty  of  setting  up 
the  line  of  posts.  The  first  one  was  duly 
erected  in  the  territory  of  the  chief  Poco- 
rosa,  and  was  called  Santa  Cruz.  There- 
after, however,  Ayora  thought  more  of  en- 
riching himself  at  the  expense  of  the  natives 
than  of  going  on  with  the  business  on  which 


he  had  been  sent.  Terrible  tales  were  told 
of  his  treatment  of  the  Indians.  He  tortured 
the  caciques  in  order  to  extract  information 
regarding  their  treasures ;  he  hanged  them, 
roasted  them  alive,  threw  them  living  to  his 
dogs,  and  devised  all  sorts  of  torments  for 
them.  He  did  not  spare  even  the  chiefs  of 
whom  Balboa  had  previously  made  friends. 
Having  devastated  the  country  in  all  direc- 
tions for  several  months,  he  left  a  garrison 
of  eighty  men  in  Santa  Cruz,  and  proceeded 
to  establish  a  second  post  in  the  territory 
of  Tubanama.  Leaving  a  garrison  there 
also,  he  abandoned  his  task,  and  hastened 
back  to  Antigua  with  the  gold  and  slaves 
he  had  accumulated.  To  prevent  too  nice 
an  inquiry  into  his  proceedings,  he  pre- 
sented the  slaves  to  those  in  authority,  and 
then  he  and  his  intimates  seized  a  ship, 
made  off  with  their  ill-gotten  gold,  and 
Ayora  never  set  foot  in  Darien  again. 

Sometime  before  Ayora's  reappearance 
at  Antigua,  the  governor,  alarmed  at  his 
protracted  absence,  sent  out.  Bartolome 
Hurtado  to  find  him.  Hurtado  did  discover 
the  missing  lieutenant,  and  then  proceeded 
to  organize  a  campaign  of  plunder  on  his 
own  account.  He  used  such  effective  and 
prompt  measures  that  he  acquired  a  quan- 
tity of  gold,  brought  in  a  hundred  Indians 
as  slaves,  and  was  back  in  Antigua  before 
the  man  he  went  out  to  seek.  He,  too, 
made  presents  of  some  of  his  slaves  in  the 
right  quarter,  and,  after  the  king's  propor- 
tion of  the  spoil  was  taken  out,  Hurtado  and 
his  associates  were  allowed  to  keep  the  re- 
mainder. 

Another  raider  of  renown  was  Francisco 
Becerra.  He  brought  in  so  much  gold  and 
so  many  captives,  and  distributed  his  spoils 
so  lavishly  and  with  such  sound  judgment, 
that  he  was  placed  in  command  of  a  troop 
of  1 80  men  and  sent  to  Cenii,  to  avenge  the 
deaths  of  forty-eight  Spaniards  who  had 
been  cut  off  there  some  short  time  previ- 
ously. It  was  a  fatal  honor.  The  Indians 
attacked  his  party  with  poisoned  arrows,  and 
killed  them  to  a  man  as  they  were  fording 
a  stream,  a  native  servant  of  Becerra's  be- 
ing the  only  one  to  escape  to  tell  the  tale. 


THE  GOLDEN  TEMPLE  OF  DABAIBA 


The  Indians  throughout  Darien,  goaded 
to  madness  by  the  cruelties  to  which  they 
were  subjected  and  encouraged  by  their 
scattered  successes,  were  now  very  aggres- 
sive against  the  white  men.  The  garrison 
at  Santa  Cruz  had  great  difficulty  in  main- 
taining its  supply  of  provisions,  for  every 
time  foraging  parties  ventured  forth  they 
were  waylaid  and  had  to  fight  their  way 
back.  When  a  Spaniard  was  unfortunate 
enough  to  be  taken  prisoner,  the  Indians, 
acting  as  the  Parthian  general  Surena  had 
done  with  Marcus  Licinius  Crassus,  put 
him  to  death  by  pouring  melted  gold  down 
his  throat,  at  the  same  time  shouting,  "  Eat 
the  gold ,  Christian !  Take  your  fill  of  gold ! ' ' 
At  length,  about  six  months  after  its  estab- 
lishment, Pocorosa,  aided,  if  we  are  to  be- 
lieve Oviedo,  by  the  hitherto  friendly  Pan- 
ciaco,  attacked  and  captured  Santa  Cruz, 
and  put  its  defenders  to  death.  Not  more 
than  five,  if  so  many,  escaped. 

But  despite  the  dangers  by  which  they 
were  surrounded,  the  Spaniards  did  not 
think  of  desisting  from  their  quest  for  gold. 
In  particular,  they  found  the  tales  of  the 
Golden  Temple  of  Dabaiba  an  irresistible 
lure.  An  expedition  of  two  hundred  men 
under  the  joint  command  of  Luis  Carrillo 
and  Vasco  Nunez  de  Balboa  was  sent  in 
canoes  up  the  river  Atrato,  in  June,  1515, 
to  locate  this  wondrous  gold-hoard.  The 
natives  bided  their  time,  and  at  a  strategic 
point  rowed  out  in  their  own  canoes  from 
the  screen  of  foliage  on  the  river  bank,  and, 
diving  under  the  Spaniards'  boats,  over- 
turned them.  The  attack  was  so  sudden 
and  so  fierce  that  half  of  the  invaders,  in- 
cluding Carrillo  himself,  were  drowned  or 
otherwise  killed.  Balboa  then  abandoned 
the  enterprise,  and  brought  the  survivors 
back  to  Antigua. 

Another  attempt  was  made  on  Dabaiba 
by  Juan  de  Tabira,  the  factor,  and  Juan  de 
Birues,  the  inspector,  who  took  with  them 
one  hundred  and  sixty  men  in  three  brigan- 
tines  and  several  canoes.  Almost  as  a 
matter  of  course,  they,  too,  were  attacked 
by  the  natives,  who  used  their  former  tac- 
tics; but  the  brigantines  were  too  heavy 


to  be  overturned,  and  the  attack  was 
repulsed.  This  did  not  mean  ultimate  suc- 
cess, however,  for  a  great  flood,  suddenly 
rising,  swamped  some  of  the  vessels,  and 
the  two  leaders  and  many  of  their  men 
were  drowned.  We  now  once  more  meet 
Francisco  Pizarro.  He  was  on  this  river 
expedition,  and,  on  the  death  of  the  two 
commanders,  was  offered  the  leadership, 
if  he  would  continue  on  to  Dabaiba;  but, 
thinking  discretion  the  better  part  of  valor, 
he  prudently  declined  the  dangerous  honor, 
and  the  decimated  and  disappointed  gold- 
seekers  made  their  way  back  to  Antigua  as 
best  they  could.  Other  attempts  were 
subsequently  made  to  reach  Dabaiba,  but 
they  all  resulted  in  failure,  and  the  Golden 
Temple,  if  it  ever  existed,  was  never  found. 
Notwithstanding  all  manifestations  of 
hostility,  however,  or  other  preoccupa- 
tions, it  was  the  obvious  duty  of  Pedrarias 
to  take  steps  to  complete  the  line  of  forts 
across  the  isthmus,  and  it  was  a  duty  that 
could  not  with  impunity  be  shirked.  Ac- 
cordingly, for  that  purpose,  Captain  An- 
tonio Tello  de  Guzman,  at  the  head  of  a 
hundred  men,  was  sent  out  from  Antigua 
in  November,  1515.  He  arrived  at  Ayora's 
second  fort  just  in  time  to  save  it  from  the 
fate  of  Santa  Cruz,  for  Meneses,  the  com- 
mander, and  his  little  garrison  were  closely 
beleaguered  by  the  enraged  natives.  Aban- 
doning the  fort  and  taking  with  him  the 
men  he  had  so  opportunely  rescued,  Guz- 
man continued  his  route  towards  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  During  his  progress  he  appears  to 
have  given  more  attention  to  collecting 
gold  than  to  erecting  forts.  As  he  ad- 
vanced, he  kept  hearing  of  a  place  called 
Panama,  and  concluded  that  it  must  be  a 
town  of  some  size  and  importance,  where 
loot  in  plenty  could  be  obtained.  He  was 
the  first  white  man  to  visit  the  future  site 
of  Old  Panama;  but  great  was  his  disap- 
pointment when  he  found  that  it  was  only 
a  small  fishing  village.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
Panama  is  an  Indian  word  signifying  "the 
place  of  fish"  or  "the  place  abounding  in 
fish."  This  was  the  terminus  of  his  jour- 
ney; and  after  resting  here,  and  sending 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


Diego  de  Albites  and  eighty  men  to  exact 
tribute  from  the  neighboring  province  of 
Chagre,  he  turned  his  steps  back  to  head- 
quarters at  Antigua.  He  had  great  diffi- 
culty in  getting  there,  for  Pocorosa,  fresh 
from  his  sack  of  Santa  Cruz,  hung  on  his 
flanks  and  rear,  his  braves  waving  in  the 
faces  of  their  foes  the  blood-stained  shirts  of 
the  Spaniards  they  had  so  recently  slain. 

Another  expedition  of  eighty  men,  under 
Caspar  de  Morales  and  Francisco  Pizarro, 
was  dispatched  to  the  Pacific  Coast  in  this 
same  year,  but  its  object  was  political  and 
predatory  rather  than  administrative.  In 
recognition  of  Balboa's  services,  King  Fer- 
dinand had  appointed  him  Adelantado  of 
the  South  Sea  and  captain-general  of  the 
provinces  of  Coiba  and  Panama,  but 
Pedrarias,  to  whom  the  formal  document 
in  the  first  instance  came,  being  filled  with 
envy  of  his  subordinate  and  not  wishing  to 
see  him  raised  to  a  rank  nearly  equal  to 
his  own,  so  arranged  matters  that  the  com- 
mission did  not  go  into  effect  for  a  time. 
In  sending  out  Morales  he  had  in  view  the 
twofold  object  of  belittling  as  far  as  he 
could  Balboa's  past  performances,  and  of 
forestalling  him  in  the  matter  of  collecting 
pearls  from  the  islands  of  the  Pacific,  and 
securing  power  on  the  shores  of  the  South 
Sea.  When  Morales  reached  the  Pacific 
Coast,  he  made  war  on  Dites,  who  ruled 
over  the  Pearl  Islands,  and  the  fight 
would  probably  have  been  a  prolonged  one 
but  for  the  intervention  of  two  chieftains, 
who  were  friendly  to  the  Spaniards,  and 
who  told  Dites  that  it  was  impossible  to 
resist  the  white  men,  and  that  it  would  be 
better  policy  for  him  to  submit.  Submit  he 
accordingly  did,  and,  in  exchange  for  a  few 
trinkets,  he  handed  over  a  number  of  very 
large  and  beautiful  pearls.  He  also  became 
a  Christian,  and  agreed  to  pay  an  annual 
tribute  of  one  hundred  marks  of  pearls. 
Morales  performed  the  other  part  of  his 
mission  by  once  more  taking  possession  of 
the  South  Sea  for  the  King  of  Spain,  and 
by  changing  the  name  given  by  Balboa  to 
the  principal  island  of  the  Pearl  Island 
group  fron  Isla  Rica  to  Isla  de  Flores.  He 


succeeded  in  getting  his  men  and  treasure 
safely  back  to  Antigua,  but  he  had  to  fight 
hard  all  the  way,  and  he  left  a  trail  of 
slaughter  behind  him.  If  records  are  to  be 
credited,  he  on  one  occasion  killed  seven 
hundred  Indians  in  one  hour,  and  on 
another  he  caused  eighteen  chieftains, 
called  to  a  friendly  council,  to  be  torn  to 
pieces  by  his  dogs. 

Another  expedition  to  the  South  Sea, 
consisting  of  one  hundred  and  thirty  men 
under  Gonzalo  de  Badajoz,  had  at  first 
great  success  in  collecting  gold  and  treasure. 
Among  the  chiefs  who  voluntarily  or  invol- 
untarily contributed  to  his  takings  were 
Totonagua,  Tataracherubi,  Nata,  Escoria, 
Biruquete,  Taracuri,  Panamome,  Tabor, 
Chiru,  and  Parizao  Pariba,  usually  called 
Paris.  Paris  was  wily  as  well  as  power- 
ful, and,  having  by  a  ruse  separated  the 
Spaniards  into  two  parties,  he  fell  upon  one 
of  them  with  four  thousand  warriors  and 
had  almost  cut  it  to  pieces  before  the  arrival 
of  the  other.  The  fight  then  waxed  fiercer, 
but  eventually  the  Spaniards,  having  lost 
more  than  half  their  number,  were  forced 
to  abandon  all  their  treasure  and  take  to 
flight.  The  remnant  reached  the  South 
Sea,  rested  for  a  month  on  one  of  the  islands, 
and  then  returned  by  another  route,  empty- 
handed,  to  Antigua. 

Pedrarias  at  length  took  the  field  him- 
self. With  three  hundred  men  he  sailed 
first  to  the  territory  of  Cenu,  and  directed 
Hurtado  with  a  force  of  two  hundred  to 
effect  a  landing  and  burn  the  village. 
These  orders  were  duly  carried  out,  many 
natives  were  killed,  and  some  taken  pris- 
oners. Sail  was  then  set  for  the  territory 
of  Careta.  Here  was  a  port  named  Acla, 
or  "Bones  of  Men,"  from  which  there 
started  a  rough  trail  across  the  country, 
and  here  Pedrarias,  intending  to  erect  a 
new  line  of  posts  to  the  Pacific,  began  the 
building  of  a  fort  to  take  the  place  of  de- 
stroyed Santa  Cruz.  While  the  work  was 
in  progress  Pedrarias  was  taken  ill  with  a 
fever,  and  he  had  to  be  borne  back  in  haste 
to  Antigua. 

The  command  then  devolved  on  Caspar 


BALBOA  PREPARES  HIS  SHIPS 


de  Espinosa,  the  alcalde  mayor,  who,  leav- 
ing Gabriel  de  Rojas  with  a  small  force  to 
complete  and  garrison  the  fort,  proceeded 
to  cross  the  isthmus  on  his  own  account. 
He  began  his  march  by  meting  out  severe 
punishment  to  those  subjects  of  Pocorosa 
who  were  thought  to  have  had  a  hand  in 
the  destruction  of  Santa  Cruz.  Hanging 
them,  burning  them,  and  blowing  them 
from  the  mouth  of  a  cannon  were  the  meth- 
ods he  adopted.  He  then  crossed  to  Pan- 
ama, collecting  treasure  as  he  went.  Meet- 
ing the  unfortunate  Badajoz  returning  as  a 
despoiled  spoiler,  he  learned  from  him  of 
all  the  treasure  which  had  been  abandoned 
to  Paris,  and  thinking  both  that  this  was 
a  matter  worth  seeing  to  and  that  Paris 
was  likely  to  prove  a  formidable  opponent, 
he  wrote  to  Pedrarias  urging  him  to  send 
reinforcements  without  delay.  In  the 
meantime  he  raided  the  territories  of 
Chini  and  Natd,  and  secured  much  gold 
from  both.  From  Natd  he  learned  that 
Paris  had  kept  for  himself  all  the  treasure 
which  Badajoz  had  left  behind  in  his  head- 
long flight,  and  in  July,  1516,  Espinosa 
started  to  attack  Paris.  His  coming  was 
not  unexpected,  and  the  alcalde  mayor 
found  himself  opposed  by  a  powerful  com- 
bination of  native  chieftains.  A  great 
battle  was  fought,  in  which,  thanks  mainly 
to  their  horses  and  dogs,  the  Spaniards 
were  victorious.  A  number  of  caciques  and 
hundreds  of  men  were  slain,  but  Paris 
escaped.  The  next  day  reinforcements 
numbering  one  hundred  arrived  from  An- 
tigua, and  a  chase  after  the  missing  chief- 
tain was  begun;  but  when  they  came  to 
his  village,  the  bird  had  flown.  The  village 
was  in  ashes,  and  Paris  and  his  people,  with 
the  much-coveted  treasure,  had  taken 
refuge  in  the  hill  country,  where  all  efforts 
to  locate  him  resulted  in  failure.  Baffled 
in  their  quest,  the  Spaniards  then  gave 
their  attention  to  extensive  exploration  by 
land  and  sea,  accompanied  of  course  by  the 
collection  of  gold.  Finally,  in  1517,  Espi- 
nosa having  established  at  Panama  the 
southern  station  of  the  line  of  posts  that 
was  to  cross  the  isthmus,  and  having  left 


Hernando  Ponce  de  Leon  with  a  small  garri- 
son to  defend  it,  returned  to  Antigua  with 
8,000  pesos  of  gold  and  2,000  slaves. 

While  all  these  things  were  going  on,  Bal- 
boa, who  had  been  made  aware  of  his  ap- 
pointment as  Adelantado  of  the  South  Sea, 
and  who  was  anxious  to  be  up  and  doing  in 
that  capacity,  sent  secretly  to  Cuba  to 
secure  men,  arms,  and  provisions  for  an 
expedition.  His  messenger  brought  back 
seventy  men  and  ample  stores,  and  put 
into  a  small  bay  a  few  miles  from  Antigua. 
Pedrarias,  hearing  of  the  project,  had  Bal- 
boa arrested  and  confined  in  a  large  iron 
cage.  Then  Bishop  Quevedo  intervened 
and  patched  up  a  truce  between  the  two. 
Balboa  agreed  to  abate  some  of  his  preten- 
sions as  Adelantado,  to  put  away  his  Indian 
wife,  and  to  marry  the  eldest  daughter  of 
Pedrarias.  This  young  lady  was  then  in  a 
convent  in  Spain,  but  the  affair  was  ar- 
ranged for  her  by  her  parents.  Balboa  was 
now  free  to  set  about  the  execution  of  his 
cherished  design  of  the  thorough  explora- 
tion of  the  South  Sea.  He  first  (1516)  went 
to  Acla,  where  he  found  that  the  fort  erected 
by  Pedrarias  had  been  destroyed  by  the 
Indians,  and  its  commander  and  some  of 
his  men  killed.  Balboa  immediately  laid 
out  a  new  settlement,  and  had  already  es- 
tablished there  some  form  of  civic  govern- 
ment when  Espinosa  arrived  on  his  return 
from  his  conquering  raids.  Balboa  accom- 
panied him  to  Antigua,  and  induced  two 
hundred  of  the  alcalde  mayor's  tried  men  to 
attach  themselves  to  the  force  that  he  was 
raising.  At  Acla,  in  1517,  he  collected  ma- 
terials for  four  brigantines  to  be  used  on  the 
South  Sea,  and  these  materials  he  caused  to 
be  carried  by  an  immense  number  of  natives 
for  twenty-two  leagues  to  the  headwaters 
of  the  Rio  de  las  Balsas.  It  was  a  tremen- 
dous undertaking;  every  one  was  hard 
driven;  provisions  were  scarce;  and  from 
500  to  2,000  Indians  are  said  to  have  per- 
ished in  the  unaccustomed  work  of  trans- 
portation. When  the  parts  came  to  be  put 
together,  it  was  found  that  much  of  the 
timber  was  worm-eaten  and  could  not  be 
used;  a  flood,  which  was  so  great  that  the 


26 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


men  had  to  climb  trees  to  escape  it,  carried 
away  more ;  and  altogether  it  was  possible 
to  construct  only  two  brigantines.  In 
these,  however,  Balboa  and  his  party  sailed 
down  the  river  into  the  Gulf  of  San  Miguel 
and  out  into  the  Pacific. 

It  was  a  great  feat,  which  one  of  the  old 
chroniclers  says  no  one  but  Balboa  could 
have  accomplished.  For  all  that,  we  are 
inclined  to  wonder  why  at  least  the  timber 
for  the  brigantines  could  not  have  been  pro- 
cured as  easily  on  the  shores  of  the  Pacific 
as  on  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic,  especially 
as  we  are  told  that,  while  the  explorers 
were  resting  among  the  Pearl  Islands, 
they  constructed  two  more  brigantines. 

At  all  events,  Balboa  had  now  four  ves- 
sels in  the  South  Sea,  and  in  them  he  set 
out  with  a  hundred  picked  men  to  look  for 
the  country  where  the  people  ate  and  drank 
from  vessels  of  gold.  They  had  sailed 
about  twenty  leagues  when  they  ran  into  a 
school  of  whales — an  untoward  incident 
that  so  frightened  everybody  that  they  in- 
continently put  into  a  convenient  harbor  on 
the  mainland.  The  cacique  here,  who  was 
named  Chuchauma,  was  hostile,  and  made 
an  attack  on  the  Spaniards,  but  he  and  his 
men  were  beaten  off  with  great  loss.  Bal- 
boa wished  to  continue  his  southward  jour- 
ney, but  encountered  winds  so  adverse  that 
he  was  perforce  obliged  to  return  to  the 
Pearl  Islands. 

Here  he  received  disquieting  intelligence. 
A  rumor  was  afloat  that  in  consequence  of 
complaints  made  by  Oviedo,  the  veedor  and 
escribano  general,  who  had  gone  to  Spain 
in  1515,  Pedrarias  was  to  be  superseded  by 
a  new  governor.  Such  a  change  would  fit 
in  badly  with  Balboa's  plans,  as  he  was 
afraid  that,  under  a  new  regime,  he  would 
not  be  allowed  to  continue  his  quest,  and 
that  thus  the  fruit  of  all  his  precedent  labors 
would  be  lost.  He  said  as  much  to  his 
friends,  Valderrabano,  the  notary,  and  Rod- 
rigo  Perez,  a  priest;  and,  unluckily,  the 
conversation  was  partly  overheard  by  a 
sentinel,  who  construed  what  reached  him 
to  mean  that  Balboa  proposed  to  fight  for 
his  own  hand,  and  to  throw  off  allegiance  to 


Pedrarias  or  any  other  governor  who  might 
stand  in  the  way  of  his  great  ambition. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  Balboa  acted  im- 
prudently in  talking  as  he  did.    Worse  still 
was  a  stupid  little  plot  which  he  concocted, 
and  which  eventually  proved  his  undoing. 
As  he  needed  some  pitch  and  iron  for  his 
brigantines,   he   dispatched    four   men   to 
Acla  to  fetch  them,  charging  them  at  the 
same  time  to  learn  how  the  matter  stood 
regarding  the  change  of  governors.    If  the 
new  one  had  arrived,  they  were  to  return 
at  once  and  hand  him  a  forged  commission, 
which  he  could  use  to  induce  his  command 
to  accompany  him  without  fear  or  misgiv- 
ing on  the  southward  journey  he  had  in 
contemplation.     If  Pedrarias  were  still  in 
office,  they  were  simply  to  secure  the  iron 
and   pitch,   and   no  document  would   be 
necessary.    Now,  one  of  those  messengers, 
named  Andres  Garabito,  was  jealous  of  the 
favors  Balboa  had  received  from  Careta's 
beautiful  daughter,  and  had  already  sent 
word  to  Pedrarias  from  the  Rio  de  las  Bal- 
sas that  it  was  Balboa's  intention,  once  he 
reached  the  South  Sea,  to  act  independently 
of  the  governor.    To  make  the  old  man's 
resentment  all  the  deeper,   Garabito  had 
added  that  the  Adelantado  was  so  smitten 
with  the  charms  of  his  dusky  mistress  that  he 
would  never  wed  the  governor's  daughter. 
At  Acla  it  was  soon  learned  that,  even  if  a 
new  governor  had  been  appointed,  he  had 
not  yet  arrived.     Then  Garabito  saw  his 
way  plain  to  ruin  the  man  who  was  his  suc- 
cessful rival  in  love.    In  public  he  talked  in 
a  mysterious  way  and  threw  out  sundry 
hints  as  to  what  Balboa  and  his  friends, 
himself  included,   intended   to  do.     This 
action  led  to  his  arrest,  as  he  had  planned, 
and  he  then  told  the  whole  story  of  the 
plot.     Confirmation  of  a  portion  of  it  was 
soon  obtained  from  the  eavesdropping  sen- 
tinel;  and  Pedrarias,  with  fate  thus  play- 
ing into  his  hands,  determined  that  Balboa 
should  die. 

At  this  juncture  he  received  a  letter  from 
Balboa  asking  for  an  extension  of  time,  as 
the  eighteen  months  allowed  him  had  now 
elapsed.  At  the  same  time  Balboa  wrote 


EXECUTION  OF  BALBOA 


27 


to  one  Fernando  de  Arguello,  a  notary,  who 
had  embarked  some  capital  in  his  expedi- 
tion, urging  him  to  use  his  influence  to 
secure  the  time  extension  asked  for.  To 
Arguello  Pedrarias  would  make  no  promise, 
and  the  notary  thereupon  wrote  to  that 
effect  to  Balboa  and  simultaneously  coun- 
selled him  to  sail  at  once  for  the  rich  south- 
land. This  letter  never  reached  its  desti- 
nation, for  Pedrarias  took  care  to  intercept 
it  and  master  its  contents.  Pedrarias  then 
acted  with  great  astuteness  and  delibera- 
tion. He  first  arrested  Arguello  and  others 
of  Balboa's  friends.  Then,  to  get  the  Ade- 
lantado  away  from  his  little  army  of  three 
hundred,  who  might  have  made  trouble,  he 
wrote  in  a  very  friendly  spirit  a  reply  to 
his  letter,  and  asked  him  to  come  to  Acla 
for  a  conference.  The  unsuspecting  Balboa 
at  once  complied  with  the  request.  Leaving 
Francisco  Companon  in  command  at  the 
Pearl  Islands,  he  set  out  for  Acla.  On  the 
way  he  was  warned  by  the  messengers  who 
accompanied  him  of  the  danger  that 
threatened  him,  but,  with  characteristic 
trust  and,  let  it  be  added,  obstinacy,  he 
refused  to  credit  their  statements,  and  so 
went  forward  to  his  doom.  When  he  had 
compassed  more  than  half  the  journey,  he 
was  met  by  a  force  sent  out  to  arrest  him 
under  the  command  of  Francisco  Pizarro. 
It  was  the  irony  of  fate  that  this  base-born 
and  unlettered  man  should  have  been 
chosen  to  make  prisoner  of  a  hidalgo  and 
conquistador  of  the  standing  of  Balboa. 
"What  is  this,  Francisco  Pizarro?"  said 
Balboa;  "you  were  not  wont  to  come  out 
in  this  fashion  to  receive  me."  It  was  stern 
fact,  however,  and  the  discoverer  and  Ade- 
lantado  of  the  South  Sea  was  taken  to 
Acla  in  irons  by  the  subordinate  who  was 
destined  to  supplant  his  former  commander 
in  the  glory  of  the  discovery  and  conquest 
of  Peru. 

Balboa  was  speedily  brought   to   trial. 
He  was  accused  of  being  a  traitor  and  of 
making  usurpation  on   the  rights  of   the 
crown,  and  the  former  accusations  regard-, 
ing  Enciso  and  Nicuesa  were  also  brought 


up  against  him.  His  pleas  of  innocence 
were  of  no  avail,  and  Espinosa,  as  alcalde 
mayor,  found  him  guilty  and  liable  to  the 
penalty  of  death;  but  recommended  him 
to  mercy  on  account  of  his  great  public 
services.  The  recommendation,  however, 
fell  on  deaf  ears:  Pedrarias  was  not  to  be 
balked  of  his  prey.  It  was  unfortunate  for 
Balboa  that  at  this  time  both  Oviedo  and 
Bishop  Quevedo  were  in  Spain,  for  the 
claim  made  by  the  condemned  man  to  the 
right  of  appeal  to  the  Council  of  the  Indies 
and,  failing  that,  to  the  Jeronimite  Fathers 
at  Santo  Domingo,  although  strongly  urged 
by  Espinosa,  was  rejected  by  Pedrarias,  who 
ordered  an  immediate  execution.  "Since 
he  has  sinned,"  said  the  hoary  old  repro- 
bate, "let  him  die  for  it."  Accordingly,  on 
the  plaza  of  Acla,  Balboa  and  his  four 
friends,  Andres  de  Valderrabano,  Hernan 
Munoz,  Fernando  de  Arguello,  and  Luis 
Botello,  after  receiving  the  last  rites  of  their 
church,  were  straightway  beheaded  on 
April  16,  1517.  Pedrarias  viewed  the 
bloody  spectacle  from  behind  a  screen  of 
reeds.  Balboa's  head  was  stuck  on  a  pole  in 
the  plaza  and  there  allowed  to  wither  away. 
So  perished,  in  his  forty-second  year,  the 
noblest  and  perhaps  the  ablest  of  the  Span- 
ish conquistadores.  He  had  proved  his 
bravery  on  many  a  hard-fought  field  and 
his  judgment  in  many  a  soul-trying  crisis. 
His  relations  with  the  Indians  of  Tierra 
Firme,  although  sometimes  harsh,  yet 
showed  that  tact  in  dealing  with  men,  and 
especially  with  conquered  foes,  which  is  one 
of  the  genuine  marks  of  a  great  statesman. 
He  had  made  mistakes,  it  is  true;  but  they 
were  mainly  the  mistakes  to  which  a  gen- 
erous nature  is  liable.  Whatever  his  mis- 
takes, and  whatever  his  vices — and  they 
appear  to  have  been  few — they  are  forgot- 
ten in  the  glory  of  his  positive  achievements 
and  in  the  tragic  ending  to  a  life  apparently 
so  full  of  the  promise  of  greater  things  to 
come.  On  the  page  of  history  a  bright  halo 
must  forever  encircle  the  name  of  the  fa- 
mous but  unfortunate  Vasco  Nunez  de 
Balboa. 


CHAPTER  V 


SPANISH  RULE  ON  THE  ISTHMUS 

PEDRARIAS  SUPERSEDED — LOPE  DE  SOSA  APPOINTED  GOVERNOR  OF  CASTILLA  DEL  ORO — 
PEDRARIAS  LEAVES  ANTIGUA — FOUNDS  PANAMA — ESPINOSA  SECURES  PARIS'S 
GOLD — DIEGO  DE  ALBITES — His  CAREER — HE  RE-FOUNDS  NOMBRE  DE  Dios 
— DEATH  OF  LOPE  DE  SOSA — PEDRARIAS  STILL  GOVERNOR — OVIEDO'S  RULE 
IN  ANTIGUA — ITS  FAILURE — ANTIGUA  ABANDONED  AND  BURNED — UPRISE 
OF  PANAMA — EXPLORATION  BY  PASCUAL  DE  ANDAGOYA — URRACA  DEFEATS 
ESPINOSA  AND  PIZARRO — ESPINOSA  FOUNDS  NATA — ESTABLISHMENT  OFALANJE 
— GIL  GONZALEZ  DAVILA — His  SEARCH  FOR  THE  MOLUCCAS — HE  DISCOVERS 
LAKE  NICARAGUA — HE  NAMES  THE  GULF  OF  FONSECA — His  GREAT  SUCCESS 
— His  NORTHERN  EXPLORATIONS — HE  GOES  TO  MEXICO — His  RETURN  TO 
SPAIN — His  DEATH — ACTIVITY  OF  OVIEDO — PEDRARIAS  AGAIN  SUPERSEDED — 
PEDRO  DE  Los  Rios  APPOINTED  GOVERNOR  OF  CASTILLA  DEL  ORO — PEDRARIAS 
SEIZES  NICARAGUA — FOUNDATION  OF  GRANADA  AND  LEON — C6RDOBA's  RE- 
BELLION— His  NEGOTIATIONS  WITH  CORTES — PEDRARIAS  LEAVES  PANAMA 
FOR  NICARAGUA — EXECUTION  OF  CORDOBA — PEDRARIAS'S  CONFLICT  WITH 
SAAVEDRA — ARRIVAL  OF  PEDRO  DE  LOS  Rios — PEDRARIAS  TRIED  AND  AC- 
QUITTED— PEDRARIAS  APPOINTED  GOVERNOR  OF  NICARAGUA — RIVALRY  OF 
SALCEDO — DEPOSITION  OF  SALCEDO — EXPLORATION  OF  THE  SAN  JUAN  RIVER — 
PEDRARIAS  DEALS  IN  SLAVES — HOLDS  GLADIATORIAL  CONTESTS — DEPLETION 
OF  THE  NATIVE  POPULATION — PEDRARIAS  SECURES  TERRITORY  IN  HONDURAS 
— FAILS  IN  SAN  SALVADOR — SELLS  His  INTEREST  IN  PERU — His  DEATH — 
His  CHARACTER. 


THE  reports  made  both  by  Oviedo, 
the  veedor,  who  had  gone  back  to 
Spain  in  October,  1515,  and  by 
Bishop  Quevedo,  who  had  also  returned, 
were  extremely  adverse  to  Pedrarias,  and 
it  was  determined  by  the  Council  of  the 
Indies  to  supersede  him.  King  Ferdinand 
died  on  January  23,  1516,  and  to  his  suc- 
cessor, his  young  grandson,  Carlos  I,  after- 
wards destined  to  achieve  great  fame  as 
the  Emperor  Charles  V,  fell  the  duty  of 
appointing  the  new  governor.  He  selected 
for  the  onerous  post  Lope  de  Sosa,  who  was 
then  acting  governor  of  the  Canary  Is- 
lands; but  apparently  de  Sosa  was  in  no 
hurry  to  take  over  his  new  command,  for 
he  did  not  arrive  at  Antigua  until  May, 
1520. 

In  the  meantime,  Pedrarias,  uneasy  in 
mind  as  to  what  the  rumored  change  might 
portend  for  himself,  conceived  the  idea  of 
becoming  ruler  on  the  shore  of  the  South 


Sea,  where  he  hoped  to  be  independent  of 
the  new  governor  of  Castilla  del  Oro.  ..With 
this  object  in  view  he  proposed  to  his  ca- 
bildo  or  council  that  the  capital  should  be 
transferred  from  its  then  site  to  a  new  one 
on  the  other  side  of  the  isthmus.  There 
were  many  reasons  why  this  proposal  was 
unlikely  to  find  favor,  not  the  least  among 
them  being  the  fact  that  in  1515  metropoli- 
tan privileges  had  been  granted  to  Antigua, 
thus  making  it  the  first  European  city  on 
the  American  continent,  as  well  as  the  seat 
of  the  first  bishopric.  To  abandon  such  a 
settlement  and  transfer  its  privileges  else- 
where seemed  little  short  of  desecration, 
as  well  as  being  wholly  impracticable ;  and 
the  proposal  was  accordingly  rejected. 

Thereupon  Pedrarias  decided  to  go  to 
Panama  on  his  own  account.  With  all  the 
valuables  that  could  be  amassed  and  as 
many  troops  as  could  be  induced  to  accom- 
pany them,  the  governor  and  his  alcalde 


28 


C  H  A  v:i§.l£apfiftd$lreigntsto  tbeSomb  Sea.Ebbing  and  flowing 

Forchis  caufe  they  haue  called  all  thar  Ocean  che  South  Sea  ,  which  lyethon  the  other Hde  of 
the  Ea!i  India,  although  a  great  parr  of  it  be  leated  to  the  North,  as  all  the  coaft  of  new  Spaiae, 
Wn<traiirt<t,Gu4ttmtil4in&ePAnAma.  They  fay,  that  he  that  firft  dil'couered  this  Sea,  was  called 
Bla/cowuxfs  or  Bt/fa ,  the  which  hedia  by  that  part  which  we  now  call  Maine  Land,  where  it 
growes  narrow,  and  the  two  Seas  approach  fo  neere  the  one  to  the  other,  that  there  isbutfe- 
uen  leagues  of  diftance :  for  although  they  make  the  way  eighteene  from  Nambre  de  Dios  to  Pa- 
ixwtA,  yet  is  it  with  turning  to  feeke  the  comrhoditieof  the  way,  but  drawing  a  diredline,  the 
one  Sea  mill  not  be  founJ  more  dillant  from  the  other.  Some  haue  dillourfed  and  propounded 
to  cut  through  this  paffage  of  feuen  leagues,  and  to  ioync  one  Sea  to  the  other,  to  make  the'tbfi 
(from  Peru  more  commodious  and  eafie,  for  that  thefe  eighteene  leagues  of  Land  bet  wixc 
mbre  de  Dios  an  J  Panama,  is  more  painefuH  and  chargeable  then  2  500.  by  Sea ,  whcreup&i 
ie  would  (ay,  it  were  a  meanes  to  Jrowne  the  Land,  one  Sea  being  lower  then  another.  As 
in  time*  patt  we  finde  it  written,  that  for  the  fame  confederation,  they  gaue  ouer  the  enterprizc 
to  winnc  the  red  Sea  into^/r,  in  the  time  or'King  Sefoftri4,ztid  fince,  in  the  Empire  of  the  O- 
tbemi»s.  But  for  my  p.irt,  I  liold  iuch  difcourfes  and  proportions  for  vaine,  alchough  this  mcon- 
uenience  mould  not  happen,  the  which  I  will  not  hold  for  aflured.  I  belceue  there  is  no  humaine 
p'owcrableto  beate  and  breakc  downe  thofe  ftrong  and  impenetrable  Mounraines,  which 
God  hath  placed  betwixt  the  two  Seas,  and  hath  nude  them  mod  hard  Rockes,  to  withftand 
the  furie  of  two  Seas.  AnJ  although  it  were  polible  to  men,  yet  in  my  opinion  th-ey  (hould  fcare 
2opu«i(hmentfiom  heauen,  iafeeking  to  correct  the  workes,  which  the  Creator  by 'his  great  pro- 
uideuce  hath  ordained  and  difpofcd  in  the  framing  of  this  vnmerfall  world. 
3  Leauing  this  diicourfe  of  opening  the  Land,  and  ioyning  both  Seas  together,  there  is  yec 

1.  Emperor  Charles  V,  by  Titian  (Pinacothek,  Munich). 

2.  Philip  II,  by  Titian  (Prado,  Madrid). 

3.  Extract  from  Acosta's  History,  in  Purchas'  Pilgrimes,  1625. 


Terra  ft  mt. 

Straightofland 
buc  eight  leag» 
betwixt  North 
&  South  Scase 


FOUNDING  OF  PANAMA 


29 


mayor,  Espinosa,  set  out,  and  having 
reached  the  south  coast  in  safety  in  Jan- 
uary, 1519,  once  more  took  formal  posses- 
sion of  mainland,  islands,  and  ocean. 
They  found  that  Hernando  Ponce  de  Leon, 
whom,  as  will  be  remembered,  Espinosa  had 
left  in  command  at  Panama  in  1517,  had 
abandoned  the  post,  and  that  Francisco 
de  Companon  was  still  at  the  Pearl  Islands, 
where  Balboa  had  placed  him;  but  this 
proved  no  bar  to  the  designs  the  governor 
had  formed,  and  accordingly,  on  August 
I5>  I5I9>  Pedrarias  officially  founded  the 
town  of  Panama,  in  the  name  and  on  behalf 
of  Dona  Juana  the  queen  and  Don  Carlos 
her  son.  The  surrounding  lands  he  divided 
among  his  400  followers,  with  permission 
to  till  them  by  means  of  any  Indian  slaves 
they  might  succeed  in  capturing. 

Espinosa  had  by  no  means  forgotten  the 
great  quantity  of  gold  which  the  cacique 
Paris  had  retaken  from  Badajoz  and  had 
managed  to  retain,  and,  as  soon  as  arrange- 
ments could  be  effected  for  that  purpose, 
he  set  out  in  quest  of  it.  Taking  with  him 
150  men,  he  sailed  to  the  west  as  far  as 
that  chieftain's  territory,  ascended  the 
river  in  canoes,  and  found  that  Paris  had 
recently  died  and  that  his  son  Cutara  had 
succeeded  to  his  position.  The  village 
was  attacked  and  plundered,  but  no  gold 
was  discovered  until  a  search  was  made 
around  the  body  of  the  dead  chief,  then 
lying  in  state,  and  there  gold  to  the  value 
of  40,000  castellanos  was  obtained.  Es- 
pinosa had  further  luck,  for  he  succeeded 
in  securing  from  a  chieftain  named  Bir- 
uquete  a  large  quantity  of  maize.  With 
these  two  valuable  commodities  in  his 
possession  he  went  back  to  Panama,  where 
half  the  treasure  was  buried,  and  Pedra- 
rias and  Espinosa  returned  to  Antigua  with 
the  other  half. 

By  one  of  those  lucky  chances  which 
appear  so  remarkable  to  the  student  of 
history,  the  new  town  founded  by  Pedra- 
rias obtained  an  importance  which  at  its 
beginning  no  one  could  have  foreseen. 
Among  the  Spaniards  who  had  accompanied 
Pedrarias  from  Spain  to  Tierra  Firme  there 


was  a  captain  named  Diego  de  Albites,  who 
at  one  time  seemed  destined  to  achieve 
great  reputation  as  a  conquistador.  He 
had  been  with  Captain  Guzman  in  1515- 
1516,  when  that  commander  had  discov- 
ered the  original  fishing  village  of  Panama ; 
he  had  been  prominent  in  the  ravages  and 
lootings  committed  on  that  celebrated 
march;  he  had  been  one  of  those  who 
helped  to  conduct  Guzman's  disastrous  re- 
treat, through  the  disturbed  Indian  coun- 
try, back  to  Antigua;  he  had  been  in  the 
thick  of  the  fighting  in  1516,  when  Espinosa 
worsted  Paris;  he  had  helped  to  establish 
at  Panama  in  1517  the  southern  station  of 
the  line  of  posts  which  was  to  cross  the 
isthmus;  and  in  the  same  year  he  had 
accompanied  Espinosa  when  he  returned, 
laden  with  booty  but  half  famished,  to 
Antigua.  Albites  had  thus  become  a  sea- 
soned fighter.  A  little  later  he  went  on 
a  raiding  expedition  along  the  north 
coast  from  Chagre  to  Veragua,  and  dis- 
played so  much  ability  in  collecting  gold 
and  captives  that  the  cabildo  gave  him  a 
license  to  effect  settlements  in  Veragua. 
Accordingly,  in  1519,  he  sailed  from  An- 
tigua to  carry  out  his  grand  scheme  of 
colonization,  but  when  he  had  reached 
Punta  Manzanillo,  his  vessel  sprang  a  leak, 
and  he  put  back  to  the  island  of  Bastimen- 
tos,  on  which  he  and  his  men  had  just  time 
to  land  before  the  ship  went  down.  This 
disaster  put  an  end  to  the  Veragua  scheme, 
but  amends  were  made  in  another  direc- 
tion. Ferried  across  to  the  mainland  in 
canoes  by  the  natives,  Albites  and  his 
party,  very  much  against  the  wish  of  Pedra- 
rias, who  was  just  then  at  loggerheads  with 
the  Cabildo  at  Antigua  and  who  looked 
with  anything  but  favor  on  a  possible  rival 
to  Panama,  refounded  Nombre  de  Dios, 
which  had  lain  derelict  since  its  abandon- 
ment by  the  remnant  of  Nicuesa's  force. 
This  foundation  proved  lasting,  and  for  a 
long  period  Nombre  de  Dios  remained  the 
northern  terminus  of  the  trans-isthmian 
trade.  Nombre  de  Dios  and  Panama  are 
exactly  opposite  each  other,  and  gradually 
there  was  built  between  them  a  paved 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


roadway,  known  as  the  Camino  Real,  over 
which,  after  the  discovery  of  Peru,  passed 
the  plate-trains  northward,  and  in  both 
directions  all  other  articles  of  merchandise. 
Panama  thus  became  an  important  entre- 
p6t  on  the  Pacific  side.  In  fact,  around 
the  towns  of  Panama  and  Nombre  de  Dios 
centers,  to  a  large  extent,  the  history  of 
Tierra  Firme  for  nearly  sixty  years. 

Fortune  thus  played  into  the  hands  of 
Pedrarias.  It  befriended  him  very  ma- 
terially in  another  way.  It  appears  that 
he  made  many  journeys  between  Panama 
and  Antigua.  On  one  occasion,  in  May, 
1520,  when  he  happened  to  be  at  Antigua, 
Lope  de  Sosa,  the  new  governor,  arrived 
with  300  men  to  assume  his  office.  Pedra- 
rias was  preparing  to  receive  his  successor 
with  due  pomp  and  formality,  when  word 
reached  him  that  de  Sosa,  who  had  gone 
to  his  cabin  on  board  ship  to  dress  before 
disembarking,  had  suddenly  died.  This 
unexpected  event  gave  Pedrarias  a  fresh 
lease  of  power.  He  once  more  proposed 
the  removal  of  the  capital  to  Panama,  but, 
principally  owing  to  the  opposition  of 
Oviedo,  who  had  returned  as  regidor  per- 
petuo,  the  proposal  was  once  more  rejected, 
and  Pedrarias  betook  himself  to  his  South 
Sea  settlement,  leaving  to  Oviedo  the 
increasingly  difficult  task  of  ruling  in 
Antigua. 

Oviedo  had  magnificent  ideas  and  high 
ideals,  and  he  started  in  on  his  new  and 
arduous  duties  with  a  will.  He  opened 
mines,  built  ships,  traded  with  the  natives, 
established  peaceful  relations  with  them, 
and,  when  they  were  not  amenable  to  that 
kind  of  treatment,  he  knew  how  to  use 
punitive  measures  effectually.  His  prin- 
cipal difficulty  at  first  was  with  his  fellow- 
countrymen.  He  was  a  reformer,  and  the 
colony  was  not  ripe  for  reforms.  Hence 
his  attempts  at  putting  down  gambling, 
blasphemy,  the  keeping  of  mistresses,  and 
the  trading  in  Indian  children,  resulted  in 
dissatisfaction  and  disaffection.  Under  so 
stern  a  regime  the  colony  weakened,  and, 
as  it  weakened,  its  native  foes  grew  stronger 
and  bolder.  Finally  Pedrarias  took  a 


hand,  deposed  Oviedo,  and  appointed  the 
Bachiller  Corral  to  succeed  him  as  head  of 
the  Cabildo.  Oviedo,  in  virtue  of  his  com- 
mission of  regidor  perpetuo,  then  took  his 
seat  as  an  ordinary  member  of  the  Council. 
In  such  a  state  of  affairs  there  could  not 
be  much  unity  of  purpose  in  municipal 
government.  Things  were  assuming  an 
ugly  look,  and  the  people  of  Antigua, 
alarmed  at  the  prospect,  decided  to  send 
Oviedo  to  present  their  grievances  at  the 
court  of  Spain.  Before  sailing  he  brought 
charges  against  Pedrarias,  and  had  a  nar- 
row escape  from  being  assassinated.  A 
second  unsuccessful  attempt  to  kill  him 
brought  home  the  realization  that  the 
sooner  he  left  the  better  it  would  be  for  his 
safety,  and  he  sailed  away  on  July  3,  1523. 
With  his  departure  the  life  went  out  of 
Antigua.  The  people  gradually  abandoned 
it  for  Panama  and  Nombre  de  Dios.  Fi- 
nally, only  one  colonist,  Diego  Ribero,  was 
left,  and  in  September,  1524,  he  and  all 
his  family  were  slain  by  the  Indians.  At 
the  same  time  the  town  was  burned,  and 
so  effectually  did  it  disappear,  and  so 
thoroughly  did  nature  assert  its  sway,  that 
at  present  no  one  can  with  certainty  say 
what  was  the  exact  site  of  Antigua.  The 
natives  reassumed  control  of  the  district, 
and  from  that  day  to  this  the  white  man 
has  been  jealously  excluded  from  the  east- 
ern part  of  Darien. 

The  downfall  of  Antigua  was  the  uprise 
of  Panama.  Founded  officially  on  August 
J5>  I5I9>  Panama  was  created  a  city,  and 
given  a  coat  of  arms,  and  had  many  privi- 
leges conferred  on  it,  by  royal  decree  of 
September  15,  1521.  The  Episcopal  See 
was  transferred  from  Antigua  to  Panama 
in  1524.  In  every  official  as  well  as  prac- 
tical way  Panama  became  the  capital  of 
Tierra  Firme.  In  particular,  it  became  the 
basis  for  exploration.  It  was  in  Panama 
that  the  expeditions  for  the  conquest  of 
Peru  were  equipped,  and  it  was  from  Pan- 
ama that  much  of  the  remaining  territory 
of  Central  America  was  discovered  and 
settled. 

Pascual  de  Andagoya,  who  was  one  of 


VOYAGE  OF  GIL  GONZALEZ 


the  first  regidores,  or  aldermen,  of  Panama, 
was  appointed,  in  1522,  Inspector  General 
of  the  Indies.  In  that  capacity  he  at  first 
turned  his  attention  to  the  exploration  of 
the  country  that  lay  eastward  of  the  Gulf 
of  San  Miguel.  He  had  some  initial  suc- 
cess; but  eventually,  owing  to  an  illness 
brought  on  by  the  overturning  of  his  canoe 
and  a  consequent  wetting,  he  gave  up  and 
returned  to  Panama.  He  brought  back 
confirmation  of  the  reports  that  placed  a 
rich  nation  to  the  south,  and  Juan  Basuto 
was  empowered  to  follow  up  Andagoya's 
lead;  but  Basuto  died  suddenly,  and  the 
enterprise  was  abandoned  until  Pizarro 
took  it  up. 

Pedrarias  himself  gave  his  attention  more 
to  the  exploration  of  the  country  to  the 
west  and  north  of  his  capital  than  to  that 
which  lay  to  the  south  and  east.  He  sent 
out  an  expedition  under  Espinosa  and 
Pizarro  against  a  chieftain  of  Veragua, 
named  Urraca,  but  the  powerful  cacique 
and  his  fierce  warriors  beat  off  the  invaders, 
who  had  to  fight  hard  to  make  good  their 
retreat.  Despite  this  reverse,  however, 
Espinosa  succeeded  in  founding  on  the  site 
of  an  Indian  village,  which  Alonzo  Perez 
de  la  Rua  and  Gonzalo  de  Badajoz  had 
taken  and  looted  in  1515  and  which  he  had 
himself  treated  similarly  in  1516,  the  colony 
of  Nata  which,  though  threatened  fre- 
quently at  first  by  Urraca,  managed  ulti- 
mately to  hold  its  own.  Destroyed  by 
the  natives  in  1529,  it  was  reestablished  by 
Pedrarias  under  a  new  name,  that  of  Santi- 
ago de  los  Caballeros,  but,  as  has  happened 
in  other  cases,  it  is  under  the  old  title  that 
it  survived  and  survives  to  the  present  day. 
Urraca  continued  to  give  trouble,  but, 
being  decoyed  into  Natd  under  promise 
of  safety,  he  was  there  seized  and  sent  in 
irons  to  Nombre  de  Dios  to  be  shipped  to 
Spain,  but  he  contrived  to  escape,  and 
made  his  way  back  to  his  own  people, 
among  whom,  to  his  dying  day,  he  remained 
the  uncompromising  foe  of  the  hated  white 
men. 

Another  settlement  made  in  1521,  and 
still  existing,  is  Alanje,  a  contraction  or 


corruption  of  Santiago  al  Angel.  Known 
at  one  time  as  Chiriqui,  this  town  was  the 
original  capital  of  the  province  of  that 
name,  a  distinction  now  enjoyed  by  the 
city  of  David.  The  farthest  settlement 
made  in  Veragua,  in  the  direction  of 
Nicaragua,  Alanje  was  founded  by  Benito 
Hurtado  and  was  unmolested  for  about 
two  years,  when  the  natives,  smarting 
under  many  wrongs,  were  goaded  into 
a  revolt,  which  was  not  put  down  with- 
out much  trouble.  Alanje  appears  to  have 
been  refounded  in  1591  by  the  maestre 
de  campo,  Captain  Pedro  de  Montilla 
Anasco.  Hurtado  also  founded  in  Chiriqui 
the  little  town  of  Fonseca.  *»* 

Acting  under  royal  order  issued  at  Bar- 
celona on  June  18,  1519,  Gil  Gonzalez 
Davila,  contador  of  Hispaniola,  who,  de- 
spite the  similarity  of  surname,  was  no 
relative  of  Pedrarias,  undertook,  in  co- 
operation with  Andre's  Nino,  a  pilot,  an 
expedition,  the  object  of  which  was  to  dis- 
cover the  Moluccas  or  Spice  Islands  by 
way  of  the  South  Sea.  Many  obstacles 
were  placed  in  his  way  by  Pedrarias,  and 
it  was  not  until  January  21,  1522,  that  Gil 
Gonzalez  made  a  start  from  Panama.  He 
did  not  reach  the  Moluccas,  but  his  sea- 
forces  explored  the  southern  and  western 
shores  of  the  countries  now  known  as  Costa 
Rica,  Nicaragua,  Honduras,  Salvador,  and 
perhaps  Guatemala.  He  himself  discov- 
ered and  took  possession  of  Lake  Nicaragua, 
which  he  called  Mar  Dulce;  he  gave  its 
name  to  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca ;  he  converted 
32,000  Indians;  he  returned  to  Panama  on 
June  25,  1523,  with  112,000  pesos  of  gold; 
and  he  did  all  this  without  any  fighting 
and  without  losing  a  man.  What  was 
equally  difficult,  perhaps,  he  got  his  gold 
safely  away  from  Pedrarias,  made  for 
Nombre  de  Dios,  and  thence  set  sail  for 
Hispaniola.  From  Hispaniola  he  dis- 
patched his  treasurer,  Antonio  de  Cereceda, 
to  Spain  with  a  report  to  the  King  and  a 
map  delineating  the  west  coast  of  Tierra 
Firme  from  Panama  to  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca. 
He  next  proceeded  to  investigate  from  the 
northern  side  the  lands  he  had  discovered, 


and  while  thus  engaged  he  fell  in  first,  at 
Toreba,  with  one  section  of  a  party  of  in- 
truders sent  out  by  Pedrarias,  and  defeated 
and  despoiled  them,  and  then  with  the 
second  force  of  troops  that  Cortes  had  sent 
down  from  Mexico.  With  these  latter  he 
went  to  Mexico,  where  he  had  a  narrow 
escape  from  execution  at  the  hands  of 
Cortes's  enemies,  who  were  then  in  power. 
Gil  Gonzalez  was  finally  sent  to  Spain  for 
trial,  and,  surviving  a  shipwreck,  he  reached 
Seville,  and,  released  on  parole,  he  retired 
to  his  home  at  Avila,  where  he  died  on 
April  26,  1526. 

In  the  meantime  Oviedo  was  not  un- 
mindful of  the  many  grudges  he  had  against 
Pedrarias.  When  he  left  Antigua,  he 
sailed  to  Cuba  and  afterwards  to  Hispani- 
ola,  whence  he  accompanied  the  governor, 
Diego  Colon,  to  Seville,  arriving  there  in 
November,  1523.  He  then  entered  his 
complaints  on  behalf  of  Antigua  against 
Pedrarias,  whose  recall  he  insistently  de- 
manded. It  was  not  by  any  means  all 
plain  sailing,  for  Pedrarias 's  wife  and  the 
Bachiller  Corral  were  on  the  spot,  and, 
using  every  artifice  to  thwart  and  baffle 
the  veedor,  they  involved  him  in  lengthy 
litigation.  He  finally  gained  his  ends, 
however,  and  Pedro  de  los  Rios  was  ap- 
pointed governor  of  Castilla  del  Oro  in 
room  of  Pedrarias. 

Pedrarias,  aware  of  what  was  going  on, 
set  about  to  prepare,  for  a  second  time,  a 
safe  place  of  retreat.  For  this  purpose  the 
recent  discoveries  of  Gil  Gonzalez  seemed 
to  offer  exactly  what  was  desired.  Accord- 
ingly, in  1524,  Pedrarias  dispatched  a 
force  under  Hernandez  de  Cordoba,  whom 
he  appointed  his  lieutenant  in  Nicaragua. 
With  Cordoba  went  the  captains  Gabriel 
de  Rojas,  Francisco  Compafion,  and  Her- 
nando  de  Soto.  It  was  de  Soto  whom  Gil 
Gonzalez  defeated  at  Toreba,  taking  from 
him  1 30,000  castellanos.  Cordoba  founded 
the  cities  of  Granada  and  Leon  and  ex- 
plored the  Mar  Dulce,  and  then  conceived 
the  idea  of  shaking  off  his  allegiance  to 
Pedrarias  and  becoming  independent  gov- 
ernor of  Nicaragua.  To  this  proceeding 


Compafion  and  de  Soto  objected,  and  there 
ensued  between  the  rival  commanders  a 
battle  of  which  Cordoba  had  the  better, 
and  de  Soto  with  only  ten  followers  re- 
treated to  Nata,  whence  he  sent  in  haste  to 
his  chief  a  report  of  the  happenings  in 
Nicaragua.  By  this  time  Cortes,  having 
finished  his  celebrated  southward  march, 
was  at  Trujillo  in  Honduras,  and  to  him 
Cordoba  offered  Nicaragua  on  condition 
that  he  himself  should  continue  to  hold  the 
command  as  Cortes's  lieutenant.  The  nego- 
tiations were  not  completed  when  Cortes 
was  suddenly  recalled  to  Mexico  by  the 
posture  of  affairs  there,  and  he  took  his 
departure  from  Trujillo  on  April  25,  1526, 
leaving  Saavedra  as  his  deputy  in  Hondu- 
ras. 

De  Soto's  report  decided  Pedrarias  as  to 
the  action  he  should  take.  He  knew  that 
he  would  soon  be  relieved  as  governor  of 
Castilla  del  Oro  by  Pedro  de  los  Rios,  and 
the  time  seemed  opportune  to  make  sure 
of  his  hold  on  the  territory  which  his  re- 
bellious subordinate  was  trying  to  wrest 
from  him.  Panama  and  Natd  were  prac- 
tically stripped  of  men,  because  nearly  all 
had  accompanied  Pizarro  and  Almagro  on 
their  first  voyage  to  Peru,  but  Pedrarias 
levied  what  forces  he  could  on  Acla  and 
Nombre  de  Dios,  and  also  impressed  a 
number  of  Indians  into  his  service.  With 
the  troops  thus  secured  Pedrarias  sailed 
from  Panama  in  January,  1526.  To  in- 
sure undivided  possession  of  Nicaragua  to 
himself,  his  first  act  was  to  cause  Cordoba 
to  be  decapitated.  Eager  for  even  more 
territory,  he  then  proceeded  to  lay  hands 
on  Honduras.  Here  he  encountered  Cor- 
teVs  lieutenant,  Saavedra,  and  there  took 
place  an  indecisive  contest ;  but  the  natives, 
rising  to  the  occasion  and  taking  advan- 
tage of  the  feuds  among  the  white  men, 
revolted  en  masse  and  drove  back  both 
bands  of  invaders. 

In  August  of  that  year,  1526,  Pedro 
de  los  Rios  arrived  as  governor,  and  se- 
questered Pedrarias's  property,  on  hearing 
which  the  latter  returned  to  Panama,  where 
he  arrived  on  February  3,  1527,  to  meet 


LAST  DAYS  OF  PEDRARIAS 


33 


whatever  charges  might  be  preferred 
against  him.  Charges  and  claims  were 
made,  but  the  wily  old  official  had  left  many 
of  his  enemies  behind  in  Nicaragua,  and 
besides  was  an  adept  in  manipulating  evi- 
dence, and  he  came  off  with  flying  colors, 
and  his  property  was  given  back  to  him. 
Not  only  that,  but,  Gil  Gonzalez  being 
now  dead,  Pedrarias  was  officially  ap- 
pointed de  jure,  as  he  was  already  de 
facto,  governor  of  Nicaragua.  A  rival  can- 
didate for  that  office  appeared  in  the  per- 
son of  Diego  Lopez  de  Salcedo,  who  in  1525 
had  been  appointed  governor  of  Honduras 
by  Charles  V.  Salcedo  drove  Saavedra 
from  Trujillo,  and  then  proceeded  to  an- 
nex Nicaragua.  He  was  received  by  the 
settlers  at  Leon,  and  took  the  oath  of  office 
as  governor  on  May  7,  1527.  His  position 
was  challenged  by  Pedro  de  los  Rios,  who 
claimed  Nicaragua  as  portion  of  his  own 
province  of  Castilla  del  Oro,  but  he  was 
unable  to  make  headway  against  Salcedo, 
who,  backed  by  the  colonists  of  Leon,  gave 
him  three  days  to  quit  that  portion  of  the 
country.  Salcedo,  however,  soon  became 
unpopular,  and  there  was  in  Leon  a  faction 
which  favored  Pedrarias,  so  that  when  the 
latter  appeared  at  the  settlement  in  March, 
1528,  Salcedo  was  deposed  and  imprisoned, 
and  Pedrarias  ruled  in  his  stead. 

One  of  the  great  characteristics  of  Pedra- 
rias was  his  indomitable  energy,  which  ad- 
vancing years  seemed  in  no  way  to  abate. 
In  his  new  bailiwick  he  at  once  entered 
upon  a  most  active  career  of  colonization, 
trading  in  native  slaves,  and  extension  of 
his  territory.  Two  of  his  officers,  Martin 
Estete  and  Gabriel  de  Rojas,  with  150 
men,  he  dispatched  to  explore  the  San  Juan 
River,  and  they  marched  down  its  left 
bank  to  the  shores  of  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
and  then  started  to  explore  the  coast  north- 
ward. In  the  course  of  their  investigations 
they  discovered  mines  near  Cape  Gracias 
a  Dios  and  founded  a  colony  in  the  vicinity 
to  work  them.  They  also  sent  the  natives 
they  captured  to  Pedrarias  at  Leon,  and 
he  in  turn  sent  them  by  the  shipload  to  be 
sold  in  the  slave-mart  which  he  had 


previously  set  going  in  Panama.  Some 
few  of  the  strongest  ones  he  kept  for 
the  cruel  sport  of  making  them  fight 
with  the  dreaded  dogs.  The  issue  of 
such  contests  was  never  in  doubt,  for 
when  a  native  had  repulsed  the  young  dogs 
with  his  stick  and  begun  to  think  he  might 
save  his  life,  old  and  fierce  animals  were 
set  upon  him  and  pulled  him  down  and  ate 
him.  The  result  of  this  slave-making  and 
slave-baiting  policy  was  to  deplete  the 
population — a  depletion  which  was  still 
further  hastened  by  a  self-denying  ordi- 
nance among  the  native  women,  who  de- 
cided not  to  bring  into  the  world  children 
destined  for  treatment  so  barbarous  and 
uses  so  vile. 

With  his  schemes  of  territorial  aggran- 
dizement Pedrarias  was  not  quite  so  suc- 
cessful. He  did  indeed  manage  to  take 
some  territory  in  Honduras  from  Salcedo, 
but  when  he  sent  Estete  and  Rojas  to  make 
a  settlement  in  the  country  now  known  as 
Salvador,  they  fell  foul  of  Pedro  de  Alva- 
rado,  who  was  holding  that  region  for 
Cortes,  and  who  quickly  drove  the  new- 
comers out. 

One  great  sorrow  Pedrarias  was  spared. 
In  consideration  of  his  favor  while  ruling 
in  Panama,  he  had,  in  1524,  been  assigned 
a  fourth  interest  in  the  expedition  to  Peru, 
but  this  he  sold,  in  1527,  to  Diego  de  Alma- 
gro  and  his  associates  for  1,000  pesos  de 
oro,  and  so  cut  himself  and  his  heirs  out 
of  the  enormous  profits  which  would  have 
accrued  from  the  third  and  successful  voy- 
age which  Pizarro  made  from  Panama  in 
January,  1531.  He  did  not  live  long 
enough  to  see  or  hear  of  the  shiploads  of 
silver  and  gold  that  came  up  to  Panama 
from  the  mines  of  Peru  to  be  carried  thence 
by  pack  trains  over  the  Camino  Real  to  Nom- 
bre  de  Dios  for  conveyance  to  Spain.  Had 
this  occurred  during  his  lifetime,  it  would 
surely  have  broken  his  avaricious  heart. 

He  had,  however,  troubles  enough  to 
contend  with.  He  held  sway,  indeed,  in 
Nicaragua  until  his  death,  but  his  closing 
years  were  vexed  with  charges  of  peculation 
and  abuse  of  authority,  in  the  midst  of 


34                                 HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 

which  the  end  came.    When  he  was  at  least  during    his   eighteen    years'    residence    in 

eighty-eight  years  old,  Pedrarias  died  on  Central  America,  was  responsible  for  the 

March  6,  1531,  and  was  buried  with  con-  death  of  2,000,000  Indians,  and  thus  fully 

siderable  pomp  in  the  church  at  Leon.     He  deserved  the   title  of    Furor  Domini,   or 

left  behind  him  a  terrible  reputation.     If  wrath  of  the  Lord,  which  was  given  him  by 

Oviedo's  statement  is  correct,  Pedrarias,  one  of  the  old  Spanish  monks. 


CHAPTER  VI 


TURMOIL  IN  THE  COLONIES 

GROWTH  OF  PANAMA — FOUNDATION  OF  CARTAGENA — REESTABLISHMENT  OF  SAN 
SEBASTIAN — EASTERN  BOUNDARY  OF  CASTILLA  DEL  ORO  FIXED — ATTEMPTS 
TO  COLONIZE  VERAGUA — CONCEPCION  FOUNDED  BY  FELIPE  GUTIERREZ — SAD 
PLIGHT  OF  THE  COLONISTS — ABANDONMENT  OF  CONCEPCION — VERAGUA  BE- 
COMES CROWN  LAND — ITS  RAPID  SETTLEMENT — CONFLICT  BETWEEN  NICA- 
RAGUA AND  CASTILLA  DEL  ORO  FOR  TERRITORY — ATTEMPT  TO  COLONIZE  NUEVA 
CARTAGO  OR  COSTA  RICA — ITS  FAILURE — DEATH  OF  DIEGO  GUTIERREZ — BARTO- 
LOME  DE  LAS  CASAS — HlS  CAREER — HlS  WRITINGS  CAUSE  CHARLES  V  TO  PRO- 
MULGATE THE  NEW  LAWS — CONSEQUENT  DISSATISFACTION  IN  AMERICA — HIGH- 
HANDED PROCEEDINGS  OF  VELA — GONZALO  PIZARRO  REVOLTS — DEFEAT  AND 
DEATH  OF  VELA — GONZALO  PIZARRO  SEIZES  TIERRA  FIRME — BACHICAO 
SACKS  PANAMA — HINOJOSA  TAKES  PANAMA  AND  NOMBRE  DE  Dios — VERDUGO 
RETAKES  NOMBRE  DE  Dios — HE  is  DRIVEN  OUT — ARRIVAL  OF  GASCA — HE 
GAINS  OVER  MEJIA  AND  HINOJOSA — GOES  TO  PERU — DEFEATS  AND  KILLS 
GONZALO  PIZARRO — REVOLT  IN  NICARAGUA — ASSASSINATION  OF  BISHOP 
VALDIVIESO — HERNANDO  CONTRERAS  PROCLAIMED  "CAPTAIN-GENERAL  OF 
LIBERTY" — GASCA  RETURNS  TO  PANAMA — CONVOYS  His  TREASURE  TO  NOMBRE 
DE  Dios — THE  REVOLUTIONISTS  TAKE  PANAMA — COUNTER-REVOLUTION — 
DEFEAT  OF  BERMEJO  AND  SALGUERO — DEATH  OF  HERNANDO  CONTRERAS — 
END  OF  THE  REBELLION. 


PEDRO  DE  LOS  RIOS  held  the  gov- 
ernorship of  Castilla  del  Oro  until 
1529,  when  he  was  compulsorily 
retired,  fined,  and  forbidden  to  return  to 
the  Indies.  His  successor  was  Antonio  de 
la  Gama,  who  held  office  until  1534,  when 
his  place  was  taken  by  Captain  Francisco 
de  Barrionuevo.  To  Barrionuevo  suc- 
ceeded Pedro  Vazquez,  and  to  Vazquez, 
Doctor  Robles.  During  all  these  changes 
Panama  continued  to  grow  as  a  place  of 
importance.  Until  1533  the  law-courts 
of  Castilla  del  Oro  were  subsidiary  to  the 
Royal  Audience  of  Hispaniola,  but  in  that 
year  an  Audiencia  Real,  or  Royal  Audience, 
was  established  at  Panama,  with  jurisdic- 
tion not  only  locally  but  over  the  whole 
province  and  even  for  a  time  over  Peru. 
Ecclesiastically  Panama  also  flourished. 
Tomas  de  Berlanga,  who  was  bishop  from 
1530  to  nearly  1540,  laid  out  the  site  for  a 
cathedral,  the  convent  of  La  Merced,  and 
other  religious  houses.  The  church  of 
Panama  held  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  over 


the  province  of  Nicaragua  until  1531,  in 
which  year  Diego  Alvarez  Osorio,  pre- 
centor of  Panama  Cathedral,  was  conse- 
crated first  bishop  of  Nicaragua.  Soon, 
too,  the  isthmus  acquired  a  new  importance 
as  the  highway  for  the  treasure  from  Peru 
on  its  way  to  Spain. 

Hitherto  Castilla  del  Oro  was  brought 
into  relations  of  a  more  or  less  hostile  char- 
acter with  the  countries  to  the  north  and 
west.  It  was  now  to  come  into  conflict 
with  the  territory  to  the  south  and  east. 
In  1532  Pedro  de  Heredia,  having  obtained 
a  grant  of  the  land  lying  between  the  Atrato 
and  the  Magdalena  rivers,  established  the 
city  of  Cartagena,  which  in  time  became  the 
capital  of  the  Spanish  Main  and  was  des- 
tined to  play  an  important  part  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Spanish  occupation  of  America. 
A  successful  attempt  on  the  part  of  Here- 
dia's  brother,  Alonso,  to  rebuild  on  a  some- 
what different  site  the  abandoned  colony 
of  San  Sebastian  led  to  a  conflict  between 
the  two  governments,  and  ultimately  to  the 


35 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


delimitation  of  the  eastern  boundary  of 
Castilla  del  Oro.  By  agreement  made  at 
Cartagena  between  Barrionuevo  and  Her- 
edia,  the  Atrato  River  was  fixed  as  the 
line  of  demarcation  between  the  two  prov- 
inces. 

The  northern  portion  of  Veragua  was 
still  uncolonized.  As  early  as  1514  King 
Ferdinand  had  offered  Veragua  to  Bar- 
tolome'  Colon  for  settlement,  but,  on  ac- 
count of  the  poor  state  of  his  health,  the 
Adelantado  declined  the  offer.  On  the 
death  of  Christopher  Columbus's  son  and 
heir,  Diego  Colon,  in  1526,  Diego's  son 
Luis,  then  six  years  of  age,  succeeded,  as 
was  thought,  to  the  grants,  titles,  and  dig- 
nities of  his  father  and  grandfather;  but 
these  being  denied  him,  he  went  to  law,  in 
1538,  with  the  crown  for  the  restoration  of 
his  prerogatives  and  privileges.  The  law- 
suit was  protracted,  and  finally,  in  1540, 
a  compromise  was  effected,  by  which  Luis 
Colon  surrendered  his  claim  to  the  vice- 
royalty,  and  received  in  lieu  thereof  the 
titles  of  Duke  of  Veragua,  Marquis  of 
Jamaica,  and  Perpetual  Admiral  of  the 
Indies. 

Somewhat  earlier  and  during  Luis's  mi- 
nority, Diego  Colon's  widow,  Dona  Maria 
de  Toledo,  who  is  often  spoken  of  as  vi- 
reina  or  vice-queen  of  the  Indies,  having 
asked  from,  and  been  refused  by,  the  Royal 
Audiencia  of  Hispaniola  permission  to 
colonize  Veragua,  determined  to  carry  out 
her  project  without  license  from  the  king's 
representatives,  trusting  to  the  event  to 
justify  her  action.  Aided  by  an  ecclesiastic 
named  Juan  de  Sosa,  she  fitted  out  a  force 
of  400  men,  which  she  placed  under  the 
command  of  Felipe  Gutierrez,  with  Pedro 
de  Encinasola  as  his  chief  captain.  Sailing 
from  Santo  Domingo  in  September,  1535, 
they  landed  in  Veragua,  and  founded  the 
town  of  Concepcion.  But  the  constant 
rains,  the  debilitating  climate,  and  the 
scarcity  of  provisions  made  awful  havoc 
among  the  colonists,  and  two  hundred  of 
them  soon  died.  Conditions  were  appalling. 
The  corpses  lay  around  unburied  tainting 
the  air.  The  survivors  with  great  dif- 


ficulty dug  their  own  graves,  in  which  they 
lay  down  when  they  found  their  end 
approaching.  Forty  men,  reduced  to 
desperation,  set  out  for  Nombre  de  Dios, 
but  many  of  them  died  on  the  way. 
A  small  force  of  fourteen,  sent  out  by 
Gutierrez  to  bring  in  recruits  and  sup- 
plies, fell  in  with  the  remnant  of  the  forty, 
and,  finding  that  they  could  not  continue 
their  route  on  account  of  the  hostile  atti- 
tude of  the  natives,  the  combined  party 
fortified  themselves  in  a  camp  with  scarcely 
a  hope  that  they  would  ever  be  relieved. 
Gutierrez  at  length  abandoned  Concepcion, 
and,  with  the  few  colonists  that  still  re- 
mained, sailed  for  Nombre  de  Dios. 
Arrived  there,  he  got  some  inkling  of  the 
plight  of  the  two  parties  that  had  left  Con- 
cepcion before  he  did,  and  a  vessel  well 
supplied  with  food  and  arms  was  sent  in 
quest  of  them.  They  were  at  last  found, 
and  the  survivors,  to  the  number  of  twenty- 
seven,  were  brought  back  to  Nombre  de 
Dios.  That  was  the  end  of  Gutierrez's 
attempt  to  colonize  Veragua.  Seeking 
wealth  and  fame  elsewhere,  he  went  to 
Panama  and  from  Panama  to  Peru,  where 
he  rose  to  be  a  governor,  but  was  ultimately 
executed  by  Gonzalo  Pizarro. 

In  January,  1537,  Veragua  was  officially 
declared  to  be  a  dukedom  of  preeminent 
domain,  and  its  dimensions  were  settled 
at  625  square  leagues  of  land,  extending 
25  leagues  westwardly  to  Bahia  Corabora 
and  25  leagues  in  the  direction  of  the  South 
Sea.  This  was  the  duchy  given  to  Luis 
Colon  in  1540.  In  December,  1556,  Luis, 
in  consideration  of  a  yearly  grant  of  7,000 
ducats,  gave  up  his  claim  to  Veragua,  which 
then  became  crown  land.  Thenceforward 
its  settlement  advanced  with  fair  rapidity, 
until,  by  1575,  there  were  several  town- 
ships dotted  here  and  there  over  its  sur- 
face, the  gold  mines  being  the  general  cen- 
ter of  attraction. 

Pedrarias  was  succeeded  in  the  governor- 
ship of  Nicaragua  by  Francisco  de  Cas- 
tafieda,  and  he  by  Pedrarias's  son-in-law, 
Rodrigo  de  Contreras,  who  had  married 
Dona  Maria,  the  lady  who  was  at  one  time 


LAS  CASAS  PROTECTS  THE  INDIANS 


37 


betrothed  to  Balboa.  Contreras  was  anxious 
to  open  up  communication  with  the  Carib- 
bean coast  by  way  of  the  San  Juan  River, 
but  Bartolome"  de  las  Casas,  the  Protector 
of  the  Indies,  who  was  at  that  time  in  Leon, 
opposed  and  prevented  the  scheme,  on  the 
ground  that  its  execution  would  lead  to  the 
enslavement  and  ultimate  extermination 
of  the  natives.  When  Las  Casas  left  Leon, 
however,  the  governor  proceeded  to  carry 
out  his  original  plan,  and  for  that  purpose, 
in  1539,  sent  forth  Captains  Diego  Machuca 
and  Alonso  Calero  with  two  vessels  on  the 
river  and  two  hundred  men  who  marched 
along  the  bank.  They  reached  the  Carib- 
bean in  safety  and  then  sailed  for  Nombre 
de  Dios.  There  Doctor  Robles,  the  then 
governor  of  Castilla  del  Oro,  arrested  them, 
and  sent  out  an  expedition  of  his  own  under 
Francisco  Gonzalez  de  Badajoz  to  take 
possession  of  the  lower  portion  of  the  San 
Juan  and  the  territory  adjoining.  For  a 
time  these  invaders  were  successful,  espe- 
cially in  the  matter  of  collecting  gold,  but 
in  about  six  months  Contreras  drove  them 
out,  and  a  like  fate  befell  a  second  party 
sent  by  Robles  under  Andres  Garavito, 
so  that  the  attempted  encroachments  on 
Nicaraguan  territory  by  the  governors  of 
Castilla  del  Oro  were  unsuccessful. 

Lying  between  the  two  provinces  there 
was  still,  however,  some  unexplored  and 
debatable  land,  corresponding  in  great  part 
to  the  modern  Costa  Rica.  To  this  sec- 
tion the  name  Nueva  Cartago  was  given, 
and  of  Nueva  Cartago  Diego  Gutierrez,  a 
brother  of  Felipe's,  was  appointed  governor 
in  1540.  When  Diego  went  to  take  pos- 
session of  his  province,  he  experienced  par- 
ticularly bad  luck  in  the  way  of  illness  and 
desertions,  but  nevertheless  he  managed 
to  sail  in  a  small  barque  with  a  few  follow- 
ers from  Nombre  de  Dios  to  the  mouth  of 
the  San  Juan  River,  whence  he  made  his 
way  to  Granada  in  Nicaragua.  There 
Contreras  told  him  that  Nicaragua  ex- 
tended to  the  confines  of  Veragua,  and  that 
there  was  no  territory  in  between  for  fur- 
ther occupation.  Gutierrez  was,  however, 
insistent  on  his  rights,  and  after  protracted 


negotiations  he  was  allowed  to  sail  with 
sixty  men  and  two  vessels  for  the  mouth  of 
the  River  Surre.  Here  he  was  deserted  by 
all  his  men  except  six,  but  relief  was  ob- 
tained on  the  arrival  of  Captain  Bariento, 
who  brought,  in  a  brigantine,  a  few  men 
and  some  very  much  needed  provisions. 
Gutierrez  thereupon  sent  his  nephew, 
Alonso  de  Pisa,  to  Nombre  de  Dios  for  more 
recruits  and  more  provisions,  giving  him  all 
the  gold  he  had  collected  to  enable  him  to 
procure  them.  De  Pisa  arrived  at  Nombre 
de  Dios  early  in  1545  and  having  secured 
twenty-seven  men  and  some  supplies,  he 
returned  to  Costa  Rica,  but  met  with 
such  terrible  weather  that  he  was  actually 
seventy-two  days  overdue.  He  at  length 
reached  his  uncle's  camp,  and  the  latter 
sent  the  ship  back  for  still  more  colonists, 
and,  when  they  had  arrived,  set  out  with  a 
force  of  about  eighty  men  to  explore  his 
province.  When  he  had  reached  the  western 
section,  he  was  set  upon  by  the  Indians, 
and  he  and  all  his  party  save  six  were 
killed.  The  six  survivors  were  rescued  by 
Alonso  de  Pisa,  who  appeared  on  the  scene 
with  a  small  force,  and  all  made  their  way 
to  the  San  Juan  River  and  thence  to  Nom- 
bre de  Dios.  Thus  ended  the  first  attempt 
to  colonize  Costa  Rica. 

For  some  years  a  remarkable  man,  in 
the  person  of  Bartolome  de  las  Casas,  had 
been  taking  an  active  interest  in  the 
troubled  affairs  of  the  Spanish  dominions 
of  the  west.  Born  at  Seville  in  1474,  he, 
with  his  father,  had  accompanied  Colum- 
bus on  his  third  voyage  in  1498,  returning 
to  Spain  in  1500.  In  1502  he  went  with 
Governor  Ovando  to  Hispaniola,  and  there, 
in  1510,  he  was  admitted  to  the  priest- 
hood, being  the  first  man  so  ordained  in 
the  colonies.  From  Hispaniola  he  went, 
in  1511,  to  Cuba,  where  he  in  vain  en- 
deavored to  prevent  the  massacre  of  In- 
dians at  Caonas  in  1513  or  1514.  A  large 
village  near  Xagua  being  assigned  to  him 
and  a  friend  named  Renteria,  with  a  "rep- 
artimiento,"  or  allotment  of  Indians,  he 
at  first  made  the  most  of  his  opportunity 
to  grow  rich,  but,  convinced,  after  some 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


time,  of  the  injustice  and  other  evils  of 
the  repartimiento  system,  he  began  to 
preach  against  it,  gave  up  his  own  slaves, 
and  went  to  Spain  to  plead  the  cause  of 
the  oppressed  natives.  He  succeeded  so 
well  that  in  1516  Cardinal  Ximenez  sent 
out  a  commission  of  three  Hieronymites  to 
reform  abuses,  Las  Casas  himself  being 
assigned  to  them  as  adviser,  with  the  title 
of  "Protector  of  the  Indies."  Not  much 
progress,  however,  was  made,  and  in  the 
following  year  he  returned  to  Spain,  where, 
in  order  to  liberate  the  Indians,  he  advo- 
cated an  emigration  scheme  which  would 
give  every  colonist  the  right  to  hold  twelve 
negro  slaves.  This  scheme  proved  a  fail- 
ure, and  Las  Casas,  thoroughly  disap- 
pointed and  disgusted,  returned  to  His- 
paniola,  where  he  joined  the  Dominican 
Order  in  1522,  devoting  the  next  eight  years 
of  his  life  to  extreme  seclusion  and  to  classi- 
cal and  scholastic  studies.  He  then  visited 
Mexico,  Nicaragua,  and  Guatemala,  and 
in  1537  was  instrumental  in  peaceably  con- 
verting to  Christianity  the  inhabitants  of 
Tuzulutan  or  Tierra  de  Guerra.  In  1539 
he  was  again  in  Europe,  where  he  stayed 
for  over  four  years.  He  paid  several  visits 
to  Charles  V  in  Germany,  and,  in  1542, 
handed  to  the  emperor  the  manuscript 
of  his  famous  disquisition  on  The  Destruc- 
tion of  the  Indies  (Breuissima  Relation 
de  la  Destruction  de  las  Indias}.  Stimu- 
lated by  this  frank  and  convincing  docu- 
ment, Charles  appointed  a  royal  commis- 
sion of  theologians  and  jurists  to  devise  a 
better  system  for  the  government  of  his 
western  possessions.  This  body  drew  up  a 
code  of  regulations,  which  was  promul- 
gated at  Madrid  in  1543  and  became  known 
as  the  New  Laws.  Under  this  regime  no 
more  Indians  could  be  enslaved,  good  title 
should  be  shown  to  slaves  already  held, 
and  even  of  those  the  number  that  could 
be  kept  in  captivity  was  strictly  limited. 
The  new  code  also  abolished  the  audiencia 
of  Panama,  and  established  two  new  tri- 
bunals, one  at  Lima,  for  South  America, 
and  the  other — the  audiencia  de  los  Con- 
fines— at  Comayagua,  with  jurisdiction 


over  Chiapas,  Yucatan,  Guatemala,  Hon- 
duras, Nicaragua,  and  Tierra  Firme  or 
Castilla  del  Oro. 

As  might  be  expected,  the  new  laws  caused 
a  furore  all  the  way  from  Peru  to  Mexico. 
Men  had  grown  so  much  into  the  habit 
of  enslaving  Indians  and  making  a  profit 
out  of  them  that  they  deemed  the  recent 
legislation  an  unjust  invasion  of  their  rights 
and  privileges,  and  they  were  prepared  to 
go  to  extreme  lengths  in  resistance.  At 
this  juncture,  and  when,  after  the  series 
of  struggles  and  executions  which  had 
steeped  the  soil  of  Peru  in  Spanish  as  well 
as  in  native  blood,  Vaca  de  Castro,  the 
governor,  was  in  command  and  on  the 
verge  of  establishing  stable  government, 
Charles  V  sent  out  Vasco  Nunez  Vela  as 
viceroy,  with  instructions  to  carry  out  all 
needful  reforms.  When  Vela,  attended 
by  the  judges  of  a  new  Audiencia  and 
an  imposing  retinue,  arrived  at  Nombre 
de  Dios  in  January,  1544,  he  at  once  pro- 
ceeded to  put  his  powers  into  force  by 
seizing  as  a  product  of  slave  labor  a 
quantity  of  gold  and  other  goods,  which 
the  owners  had  acquired  in  Peru  and  which 
they  were  then  about  to  ship  for  Spain. 
At  Panama  he  acted  similarly  by  ordering 
the  release  and  return  of  several  hundred 
slaves  captured  in  Peru.  He  thus  made 
it  plain  that  he  had  come  to  administer 
the  laws  and  not  to  compromise  on  them. 
When  he  reached  Lima  he  imprisoned  Vaca 
de  Castro,  and  acted  generally  in  a  high- 
handed manner,  which  roused  the  gorge 
of  everybody.  When  his  proceedings  be- 
came so  impolitic  as  to  be  intolerable,  Vela 
was  actually  deposed  by  the  Audiencia 
he  had  brought  out.  He  was  ultimately 
defeated  and  slain  by  Gonzalo  Pizarro 
at  the  battle  of  Anaquito,  January  18, 
1546. 

In  1544,  Gonzalo  Pizarro,  who  was  in 
revolt  against  the  viceroy,  was  the  domi- 
nant spirit  in  Peru,  and,  thinking  to 
strengthen  his  position  there,  he  evolved 
a  scheme  for  becoming  master  of  Tierra 
Firme  by  seizing  Panama  and  Nombre  de 
Dios,  and  thus  controlling  the  direct  line 


PIZARRO  ATTEMPTS  TO  SEIZE  PANAMA 


39 


of  travel  to  Peru.  To  accomplish  this 
purpose,  he  dispatched  a  considerable  fleet 
and  force  under  Hernando  Bachicao  to 
seize  Panama.  The  people  of  Panama, 
however,  being  forewarned  by  Vaca  de 
Castro,  who  had  contrived  to  escape  from 
Peru,  determined  to  resist,  and  raised  a 
force  of  700  men  to  repel  the  invaders.  A 
message  reached  Bachicao  at  the  Pearl 
Islands  that  he  was  not  to  land  his  troops 
in  Tierra  Firme,  to  which  the  captain  gave 
the  evasive  reply  that  his  sole  intention 
was  to  put  passengers  ashore  and  revictual 
his  fleet.  On  this  pretext  he  was  allowed 
to  enter  the  city,  and  immediately,  and 
with  scarcely  any  resistance,  he  seized  all 
the  arms  and  ammunition  that  were  stored 
in  the  arsenal.  The  city  itself  he  gave  over 
to  loot,  and  those  of  its  citizens  who  were 
in  any  way  obnoxious  he  put  to  death. 
Thus  was  inaugurated  that  series  of  pil- 
lagings  and  proscriptions  of  which  Panama 
was  destined  to  be  so  often  the  victim. 
But  Bachicao  had  overshot  the  mark,  and 
his  violence  led  to  his  recall  as  soon  as 
Pizarro  learned  of  his  performances. 

Pizarro  was,  however,  not  a  whit  the 
less  determined  on  securing  possession  of 
the  two  towns  and  the  territory  they 
commanded.  A  second  expedition  was 
equipped  and  sent  out  under  the  command 
of  Pedro  de  Hinojosa.  In  October,  1545, 
Hinojosa  dropped  anchor  in  front  of  Pan- 
ama with  eleven  ships.  Once  more  the 
citizens  determined  on  resistance;  but  just 
as  a  battle  was  imminent,  the  priests,  clad 
in  garments  of  mourning,  came  between 
the  two  little  armies  and  implored  of  them 
not  to  shed  each  other's  blood.  An  armis- 
tice of  a  day  was  thereupon  arranged. 
Hinojosa  took  advantage  of  this  breathing 
space  to  make  representations  that  he  had 
come  not  to  wage  war  but  to  make  restitu- 
tion; that  Pizarro  was  master  in  Peru, 
and  meant  to  command  the  gateway  to 
it;  and  that  only  in  the  event  of  the 
people  of  Panama  not  submitting  would 
there  be  war.  This  announcement  gave 
the  Panamans  food  for  thought,  and  an 
agreement  was  ultimately  drawn  up  by 


which  Hinojosa  with  thirty  men  was  to  be 
free  to  enter  Panama  and  to  stay  for  forty- 
five  days,  on  condition  that  he  send  away 
the  remainder  of  his  forces  and  his  ships 
to  Taboga,  or  the  Pearl  Islands.  Hinojosa 
was  well  versed  in  the  arts  of  gaining  over 
men's  minds,  and  he  made  such  good  use 
of  his  time  that,  before  the  forty-five  days 
had  passed,  he  had  got  nearly  everybody  on 
his  side,  including  even  two  agents  of 
Vela,  and  amid  all  sorts  of  demonstrations 
of  enthusiasm  he  was  allowed  to  enter 
Panama  formally  at  the  head  of  his  forces. 
He  acted  with  great  discretion,  kept  his 
troops  in  strict  control,  and  still  further 
enhanced  his  high  reputation  among  the 
citizens  by  throwing  the  aegis  of  his  pro- 
tection over  the  peaceable  conduct  of  their 
commercial  pursuits.  From  Panama  Hin- 
ojosa sent  his  son-in-law,  Hernando  Mejia 
de  Guzman,  and  Pedro  de  Cabrera  to  take 
Nombre  de  Dios,  and,  this  being  done 
without  trouble,  Pizarro  was  in  control  of 
the  highway  to  Peru. 

But  this  state  of  affairs  was  not  destined 
to  continue  long.  One  Melchior  Verdugo, 
who  was  on  the  side  of  Vela,  seized  one  of 
Bachicao's  ships,  and,  sailing  to  Nicaragua, 
went  down  the  San  Juan  River  to  the  Carib- 
bean Sea,  and,  thence  proceeding  to  Nom- 
bre de  Dios,  landed  in  the  night,  entered 
the  town,  and  surrounded  with  his  follow- 
ers the  house  in  which  Mejia  and  Cabrera 
lay.  The  two  leaders,  thus  entrapped, 
made  a  gallant  fight,  succeeded  in  cutting 
their  way  through  the  hostile  forces,  and 
hastened  to  Panama,  leaving  Verdugo  in 
possession  of  the  northern  settlement. 
Verdugo  by  a  series  of  oppressive  acts 
made  himself  very  unpopular,  and  Hino- 
josa, on  the  invitation  of  the  mayor  of 
Nombre  de  Dios,  appeared  on  the  scene, 
and  after  a  short  skirmish  drove  the  in- 
truders to  their  ships. 

In  the  meantime,  the  report  of  the  re- 
bellious proceedings  in  Peru  was  causing 
considerable  annoyance  and  even  grave 
anxiety  at  the  court  of  Spain.  A  revolt 
was  too  serious  a  matter  to  be  neglected, 
and  it  must  be  promptly  put  down.  To 


HISTORY   OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


bring  about  a  satisfactory  settlement,  it 
was  decided  to  send  out  a  new  president 
of  the  Royal  Audience,  with  extraordinary 
powers.  The  man  selected  for  this  delicate 
and  difficult  mission  was  Pedro  de  la  Gasca, 
a  clergyman  and  a  counsellor  of  the  In- 
quisition. With  a  small  following,  which 
included  the  Mariscal  Alonso  de  Aivarado 
and  the  Adelantado  Pascual  de  Andagoya, 
Gasca  started  from  San  Lucar  on  May  26, 
1546.  At  Santa  Marta,  where  he  put  in, 
he  was  dumfounded  by  the  news  of 
Pizarro's  victory  at  Anaquito  and  of  the 
death  of  the  viceroy  Vela  on  that  fatal 
field.  When  he  reached  Nombre  de  Dios 
he  found  Mejia  in  possession  and  holding 
the  town  for  Pizarro.  Gasca  thus  found 
himself  in  an  extremely  awkward  predica- 
ment; but,  being  an  able  man,  he  rose  to 
the  occasion.  He  announced  that  his 
purposes  were  peaceful  and  that  he  had 
royal  authority  not  only  to  condone  offences 
but  also  to  revoke  the  more  objectionable 
features  of  the  New  Laws.  This  was  to  do 
away  at  one  stroke  with  all  reasons  for  a 
continuation  of  the  rebellion;  and  accord- 
ingly Mejia  went  over  to  the  side  of  the 
new  president.  Hinojosa,  in  Panama,  was 
more  difficult  to  handle;  but  eventually 
he,  too,  succumbed  to  the  address  of 
Gasca,  to  whom  he  handed  over  his  fleet. 
Strengthened  here  and  in  other  quarters, 
Gasca  with  more  than  1,000  men  arrived 
at  Tumbez  on  June  13,  1547,  defeated  and 
killed  Pizarro  at  the  battle  of  Xaquixa- 
guana,  April  8,  1548,  and  thus  put  an  end 
to  what  at  one  time  threatened  to  be  a 
formidable  revolt. 

Another  rebellion  was  engineered  a  few 
years  later  in  Nicaragua.  Rodrigo  de 
Contreras  had  been  deprived  not  only  of 
his  governorship  but  also  of  his  property 
in  Nicaragua,  mainly  on  the  representa- 
tions of  Bishop  Valdivieso  of  Leon,  and  when 
he  went  to  Spain  (1548)  to  seek  justice,  his 
appeal  was  rejected,  and  he  was  forbidden 
to  return  to  the  province  over  which  he 
had  once  ruled.  A  scheme  formed  by  his 
two  sons,  Hernando  and  Pedro,  for  the  re- 
covery of  their  father's  property  by  force, 


was  given  a  more  ambitious  turn  by  some 
malcontents  who  had  been  banished  from 
Peru  by  Gasca  for  attempting  an  insur- 
rection there  after  the  defeat  and  death 
of  Gonzalo  Pizarro.  The  principal  ad- 
visers of  the  two  young  men  were  Juan 
Bermejo  and  Rodrigo  Salguero.  The  plan, 
simple  in  conception  and  bold  in  spirit, 
though  likely  to  prove  difficult  in  execu- 
tion, was  to  seize  first  Castilla  del  Oro  and 
then  Peru,  and,  this  accomplished,  to  pro- 
claim Hernando  king  of  the  subjected  ter- 
ritory. 

To  carry  out  a  scheme  so  magnificent  a 
beginning  was  made  in  Granada,  where 
the  popularity  of  the  brothers  Contreras 
speedily  secured  them  a  number  of  fol- 
lowers. The  scene  of  operations  was  then 
shifted  to  Leon,  where,  at  an  entertainment 
given  by  Hernando,  the  decisions  of  the 
Audiencia  depriving  the  colonists  of  lands 
and  encomiendas  were  denounced,  and  a 
claim  on  Peru  was  put  forward  by  Her- 
nando based  on  some  imaginary  rights  de- 
scended to  him  from  his  grandfather  Pe- 
drarias.  It  was  not  difficult  to  persuade 
men  suffering  from  a  sense  of  wrong  to 
undertake  a  course  of  action  which,  if  suc- 
cessful, would  give  them  both  revenge  and 
wealth. 

The  first  act  of  the  conspirators  in  this 
weird  but  sternly  tragic  drama  was  to 
poniard  Bishop  Valdivieso  to  death  in  his 
own  house  and  in  the  presence  of  his 
mother;  the  next  to  rush  to  the  public 
square  and  proclaim  Hernando  captain- 
general  of  liberty;  and  the  third  to  sack 
the  treasury  building  and  divide  its  con- 
tents among  themselves.  They  then  dis- 
persed to  various  points  to  seek  new  re- 
cruits and  take  steps  to  prevent  any  pre- 
mature announcement  of  their  proceed- 
ings or  plans.  To  Bermejo  was  assigned 
the  task  of  returning  to  Granada  in  order 
to  destroy  the  ships  on  Lake  Nicaragua,  so 
that  no  word  of  the  outbreak  could  be  con- 
veyed to  Nombre  de  Dios.  He  had  only 
about  thirty  men,  and  when  he  came  near 
Granada  he  was  met  by  an  opposing  force 
of  superior  numbers  under  Captain  Luis 


SPANISH  REBELS  DEFEATED 


Carrillo.  An  engagement  took  place,  the 
result  of  which  was  decided  by  the  deser- 
tion of  several  of  the  loyalists  to  the  revo- 
lutionary standard.  Carrillo  himself  was 
killed,  as  well  as  many  of  his  troops,  and 
Bermejo  then  entered  the  city,  destroyed 
the  ships,  and  took  young  Pedro  de  Con- 
treras  with  him  to  join  the  other  insurgents 
on  the  west  coast. 

Here  they  learned  that  Gasca  was  about 
to  return  to  Spain  with  a  large  quantity  of 
silver  and  gold.  Their  plans  were  straight- 
way formed  to  get  possession  of  this  treas- 
ure, to  kill  Gasca  and  the  governor  of  Cas- 
tilla  del  Oro,  to  burn  Nombre  de  Dios, 
Panama,  and  Nata,  to  lay  waste  Tierra 
Firme  so  that  any  army  sent  against  them 
from  Spain  should  find  no  means  of  sub- 
sistence, and  then  with  a  force  of  about 
600  men  levied  on  the  Isthmus  to  sail  for 
Peru  and  there  set  up  Hernando  as  king. 

It  was  a  magnificent  conception;  but  it 
required  a  master  genius  to  carry  it  out, 
and  there  was  none  such  among  the  rebels, 
while  opposed  to  them  was  a  man  of  real 
ability.  Gasca  had  arrived  at  Panama 
on  March  12,  1550,  with  silver  and  gold 
to  the  value  of  11,000,000  castellanos. 
The  responsibility  for  so  much  treasure 
made  him  anxious  and  suspicious,  and,  al- 
though the  fleet  had  not  yet  arrived  at 
Nombre  de  Dios,  he  thought  it  part  of 
prudence  to  get  his  bullion  away  from 
Panama  as  quickly  as  possible.  Accord- 
ingly, he  sent  1,200  mule  loads  of  gold  and 
silver  to  Cruces  on  the  Chagre  to  be  shipped 
thence  to  the  North  Sea,  where  it  could, 
he  thought,  more  securely  await  the  com- 
ing of  the  fleet.  He  and  the  governor  went 
along  to  see  that  the  trans-Isthmian  trans- 
portation was  safely  effected.  Two  of  the 
intended  victims  were  thus  out  of  the  way 
when  on  April  20,  1550,  Hernando  and 
Bermejo  and  their  followers  appeared  at 
Panama.  They  entered  the  city  without 
opposition,  shouting  "Death  to  the  Trai- 
tor!" and  "Long  live  Prince  Contreras, 
captain  general  of  liberty!"  seized  the 
royal  treasury,  and  secured  all  available 
arms  and  ammunition.  The  bishop  and 


the  officials  had  their  lives  spared  on  tak- 
ing an  oath  to  join  the  cause  of  the  revolu- 
tion. In  the  meantime,  Pedro  secured  the 
ships  lying  at  anchor  in  the  harbor,  and 
Salguero  hurried  off  with  a  small  detach- 
ment of  mounted  gunmen  to  overtake  Gasca 
and  capture  the  treasure.  Hernando,  leav- 
ing Bermejo  to  hold  Panama,  also  went 
after  Gasca  in  more  leisurely  fashion. 

Then  Bermejo  did  an  extremely  foolish 
thing.  Believing  that  Hernando's  force  was 
notstrong  enough  to  cope  with  Gasca,  he  left 
Panama  to  the  care  of  Pedro  and  the  ships, 
and  set  out  to  join  his  leader.  No  sooner 
had  he  gone  than  a  counter  revolution  was 
started,  and  excited  crowds  gathered,  shout- 
ing, "Long  live  the  King!"  and  "Death  to 
Tyrants!"  Pedro  and  his  ships  were  at- 
tacked, and  he  had  much  ado  to  keep  the 
enraged  populace  at  bay.  Arrived  at 
Chagre,  Bermejo  heard  of  the  altered  situa- 
tion at  Panama,  and,  dispatching  couriers 
in  hot  haste  to  Salguero  and  Hernando,  he 
turned  on  his  tracks  and  made  a  forced 
march  back  to  Panama,  covering  the  four- 
teen leagues  in  one  day.  He  had  been  pre- 
viously insistent  on  putting  the  bishop  and 
officials  to  death,  instead  of  sparing  their 
lives  and  binding  them  by  oath  to  the  revo- 
lution, and  he  was  now  inflamed  with  a 
double  thirst  for  their  blood.  Although  his 
men  were  quite  used  up  from  their  long  and 
toilsome  march,  he  insisted  on  attacking  the 
city  on  the  very  night  of  his  arrival.  But, 
to  his  cost,  he  found  that  conditions  had 
indeed  changed.  The  streets  were  barri- 
caded, and  from  the  house-tops  the  citizens 
poured  so  well  directed  a  series  of  volleys 
that  the  invading  army  was  beaten  off. 
Vowing  vengeance  and  promising  to  set  the 
town  on  fire  the  next  night  and  to  slaughter 
everyone  over  twelve  years  of  age,  he  re- 
tired for  the  time  being.  His  threats,  re- 
ported in  Panama,  nerved  the  inhabitants  to 
a  supreme  effort  in  self-defense.  Instead  of 
waiting  to  be  attacked,  they  next  day  placed 
the  women  and  children  in  the  cathedral, 
and,  sallying  forth  carried  the  fight  to  the 
enemy.  Astounded  at  this  move,  Bermejo 
fell  back  to  a  hill  in  the  vicinity,  where  he 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


was  joined  by  Salguero,  who  had  found 
some  treasure  at  Cruces  and  then  hastened 
back  to  the  support  of  his  fellow-conspira- 
tor. In  front  of  Panama  there  took  place 
a  desperate  encounter,  the  result  of  which 
was  the  complete  defeat  of  the  rebels. 
More  than  ninety  fell  dead  on  the  field, 
including  Bermejo  and  Salguero.  The  rest 
were  taken  prisoners,  and,  without  benefit 
of  clergy,  were  stabbed  to  death  in  the  jail 
to  a  man.  Pedro  de  Contreras  then  made 
off  with  two  ships,  abandoning  his  other 
vessels.  Pursuit  was  given,  and  Pedro  and 
his  men  were  driven  to  land  at  Punta  de 
Higuera,  where  those  who  were  not  cap- 
tured died  of  starvation  or  were  killed  by 
the  natives.  Another  party  of  rebels  under 
Landa,  a  lieutenant  of  Contreras,  was  also 
taken.  The  prisoners  were  all  put  to  death, 
except  twelve,  and  these  met  with  a  still 
worse  fate  in  being  sent  to  work  in  the  gal- 
leys in  Spain. 

Hernando  himself,  who  was  waiting  at 
Capira  for  Gasca  to  arrive  with  the  bulk  of 
the  treasure  at  Nombre  de  Dios  by  the  sea 


route  from  the  Chagres  River,  had  has- 
tened to  the  assistance  of  Bermejo  and 
Salguero;  but  having  learned  at  Chagre 
the  result  of  the  battle  of  Panama,  he  dis- 
banded his  force,  and  bade  every  man  make 
his  way  as  best  he  could  to  the  coast  of  the 
South  Sea  in  the  hope  of  being  picked  up  by 
Pedro.  The  leader  and  a  few  of  his  friends 
did  reach  the  Pacific,  and  put  out  to  sea  in 
a  canoe,  but  a  violent  storm  forced  them 
back  to  the  shore,  where  they  were  dis- 
persed. In  fording  a  river  Hernando,  weak- 
ened by  hunger  and  fatigue,  was  drowned. 
His  body,  when  found,  was  identified  by  an 
ornament  which  he  wore  around  his  neck, 
and  the  head  which  it  was  intended  should 
wear  a  crown  was  cut  off  and  exposed  to  the 
public  gaze  in  an  iron  cage  on  the  Plaza  at 
Panama.  His  attempt  was  probably  a  mad 
one;  it  certainly  was  not  based  on  justice 
or  right;  but  the  exercise  of  a  little  more 
judgment  might  have  made  it,  if  not  a 
success,  at  least  a  formidable  menace  to 
the  power  of  the  Spanish  monarchy  in 
America. 


CHAPTER  VII 


RAIDS  BY  THE   ENGLISH 

DISCOVERY  OF  BRAZIL — BRAZIL  FALLS  TO  PORTUGAL — SEBASTIAN  CABOT  AND  His 
FATHER  DISCOVER  NORTH  AMERICA — JACQUES  CARTIER  DISCOVERS  CANADA 
— HUGUENOT  COLONIES  IN  NORTH  AMERICA — ENGLISH  MERCHANTS  TRADE 
SURREPTITIOUSLY  WITH  THE  WEST  INDIES — SIR  JOHN  HAWKINS  DEFEATED  AT 
SAN  JUAN  DE  ULLOA — SIR  FRANCIS  DRAKE — EARLY  VOYAGES — TAKES  NOM- 

BRE  DE  DlOS,  BUT  FAILS  TO  SECURE  TREASURE CAPTURES  SPANISH  VESSELS — 

SIGHTS  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN — SEES  OLD  PANAMA — FAILS  TO  CAPTURE  THE 
TREASURE  TRAIN — FAILS  TO  TAKE  THE  PLATE-SHIP  AT  VERAGUA — CAPTURES 
THE  TREASURE  TRAIN  ON  THE  CAMINO  REAL — RETURNS  TO  ENGLAND — JOHN 

OXENHAM  CROSSES  THE  ISTHMUS SAILS  INTO  THE  PACIFIC  OCEAN TAKES 

Two  PLATE-SHIPS — Is  PURSUED,  DEFEATED,  CAPTURED  AND  EXECUTED — 
DRAKE  CIRCUMNAVIGATES  THE  WORLD — Is  KNIGHTED  AND  MADE  AN  ADMIRAL — 
TAKES  AND  SACKS  SANTO  DOMINGO  AND  CARTAGENA — His  EXPLOITS  IN  EUROPE 
— FAILS  TO  TAKE  THE  TREASURE-GALLEON  AT  PUERTO  Rico — SACKS  AND 
BURNS  VARIOUS  TOWNS — AGAIN  TAKES  NOMBRE  DE  DIGS — FAILS  TO  TAKE 
OLD  PANAMA — His  DEATH  AND  BURIAL — His  CHARACTER. 


IN  accordance  with  the  economic  ideas 
then  prevalent,  Spain  was  naturally 
anxious  to  reserve  to  herself  the  ex- 
ploitation of  her  new  territories ;  but  it  was 
not  long  until  this  policy  was  thwarted, 
for  other  nations  were  determined  to  have 
a  share  in  whatever  spoils  were  going. 
Portugal  claimed  Brazil  in  virtue  of  its  dis- 
covery by  Pedro  Alvarez  de  Cabral  in 
March,  1500,  although  it  had  been  already 
discovered  in  January  of  the  same  year  by 
Vicente  Yafiez  Pinzon  for  Spain.  The  dis- 
tribution of  previously  unknown  lands 
made  by  Pope  Alexander  VI  in  two  bulls 
of  May  2  and  May  3,  1493,  and  the  shifting 
of  the  papal  line  of  demarcation  effected  by 
the  Treaty  of  Tordesillas  in  1494,  made 
good  the  claim,  and  Brazil  became  and 
remained  Portuguese. 

Nor  was  England  likely  to  be  an  idle 
onlooker,  or  scrupulously  to  respect  an 
imaginary  geographical  line,  by  whomso- 
ever drawn,  if  it  stood  in  the  way  of  her 
interests.  Sebastian  Cabot,  English-born 
though  of  Italian  parentage,  was  filled  by 
the  discoveries  of  Columbus  with  the  desire 
of  performing  similar  maritime  exploits, 
and  he  and  his  father,  John  Cabot,  so  suc- 

43 


cessfully  mooted  to  King  Henry  VII  the 
idea  of  shortening  the  route  to   India,  by 
sailing  westward  on  a  more  northerly  track 
than   Columbus   had   followed,   that   that 
astute  sovereign  authorized  them  by  patent 
of  1496  to  seek  out,  subdue,  and  occupy,  at 
their  own  expense,  any  land  before   "un- 
known to  all  Christians."    Accordingly,  on 
May  2,  1497,  the  Cabots  set  sail  from  Bris- 
tol, and  returned  on  August  6,  having  in 
the  meantime  discovered  in  June  the  Terra 
Primum  visa,  or  "land  first  seen,"  which  is 
generally  supposed  to  have  been  part  of  the 
mainland  of  North  America,  possibly  Lab- 
rador.    If  this  supposition  is  correct,   the 
Cabots  sighted  the  continent  before  Co- 
lumbus  or   Amerigo   Vespucci.      In    1498 
Sebastian  Cabot  again  sailed  into  the  west 
from  Bristol  port,  and  explored  some  1 ,800 
miles  of  the  coast-line  of  the  newly  discov- 
ered country.     Further  commissions  were 
issued  by  Henry  VII  in  1501,  but  nothing 
resulted,  and  then,  strange  to  say,  for  a 
period  of  sixty  or  seventy  years  nothing  was 
officially  done  in  England  to  dispute  with 
Spain  the  possession  of  any  part  of  America. 
In  the  meantime,  however,  the  French 
had  been  busy.    There  is  some  record  of  a 


44 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA  CANAL 


French  expedition  to  Brazil  as  early  as 
1503,  and  the  Bretons  under  John  Denys 
are  said  to  have  explored  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence  in  1506.  In  1524  Giovanni 
Verrazano,  a  Florentine,  undertook  the 
first  official  expedition  to  America  on  be- 
half of  the  court  of  France.  He  sailed 
from  Dieppe  in  January  with  four  ships, 
but  he  had  only  one,  the  Dauphine,  when 
he  reached  the  North  American  shore.  He 
followed  the  coast  from  Cape  Remain  in 
South  Carolina,  or  thereabouts,  as  far  as 
Newfoundland,  and  frequently  landed.  He 
returned  to  Dieppe  in  the  following  July. 
In  1534  and  1535  Jacques  Cartier  dis- 
covered Canada,  explored  the  estuary 
of  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  gave  its  name 
to  Montreal.  In  1562  a  Huguenot  colony, 
financed  and  protected  by  Admiral  Coligny, 
made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  settle 
on  the  coast  of  South  Carolina.  A  second 
Huguenot  colony  settled  in  1564  in 
Florida,  but  was  totally  wiped  out  by  the 
Spaniards  under  Pedro  Menendez.  A 
bloody  revenge  was  taken  for  the  cruelties 
of  Menendez  by  Captain  de  Gourgues  in 
1567,  but  he  accomplished  nothing  more, 
and,  not  daring  to  attack  the  fort  of  St. 
Augustine,  which  had  been  erected  in  1565, 
he  sailed  away,  leaving  Spain  still  supreme 
in  America. 

But  if  the  English  government  was  su- 
pine, that  was  not  the  case  with  the 
English  mariner  merchants.  With  that  in- 
stinct for  commerce  which  has  always  been 
their  characteristic,  and  that  spirit  of  adven- 
ture which  they  so  conspicuously  showed 
during  the  sixteenth  century,  they  soon 
began  to  do  a  surreptitious  trade  with  the 
West  Indies.  Already  in  1499  Ojeda  re- 
ported that  he  found  Englishmen  cruising 
on  the  Pearl  Coast,  and  as  early  as  1518 
there  is  record  that  an  English  vessel,  with 
a  cargo  of  wrought  iron  and  vessels  of  pew- 
ter and  tin,  arrived  at  Santo  Domingo  and, 
being  repulsed  from  there  by  order  of  the 
governor,  proceeded  to  Porto  Rico,  where 
those  on  board  were  allowed  to  barter  their 
cargo  for  provisions.  A  few  years  later,  as  has 
been  discovered,  a  secret  agent  for  English 


merchants  was  resident  in  the  West  Indies, 
a  fact  which  would  go  to  prove  that  a  trade 
was  being  done.  In  1565  Captain  Parker 
arrived  off  the  coast  of  Darien  to  trade  with 
the  natives,  an  action  so  deeply  resented 
by  the  Spaniards  that  they  sent  an  armed 
flotilla  to  drive  him  away.  Parker,  how- 
ever, refused  to  budge,  and  in  a  battle 
that  ensued  he  beat  off  his  assailants  and 
captured  one  of  their  ships. 

Nor  were  men  of  other  nationalties  Ipng 
behindhand.  French  pirates  and  Dutch 
Zee-roovers,  as  well  as  English  slavers  and 
smugglers,  are  known  to  have  cruised  about 
among  the  West  Indies  early  in  the  six- 
teenth century.  Corsairs  from  France 
actually  burned  the  Spanish  settlement  of 
Havana  in  1555,  and  slaughtered  all  the 
inhabitants.  These  various  nomadic  bands 
ultimately  developed  into  the  notorious 
Buccaneers  of  the  seventeenth  century. 

Among  the  celebrated  Englishmen  of 
that  period  who  helped  to  thwart  the  policy 
of  Spain  and  to  humble  her  arms  at  sea, 
the  first,  in  point  of  time,  whose  name  we 
meet  is  Sir  John  Hawkins.  To  him  is  gen- 
erally assigned  the  credit — such  as  it  is — of 
being  the  first  English  slave  trader  to  enter 
the  Caribbean  Sea.  A  Plymouth  man  and 
a  sailor  by  profession,  he  came  to  know  that 
negroes  from  the  Guinea  coast  were  profit- 
able commodities  to  sell  in  the  West  Indies, 
and  he  made  three  voyages  thither  with 
cargoes  of  living  freight  for  that  purpose  in 
1562,  1564,  and  1567.  On  the  last  of  these 
expeditions  he  was  accompanied  by  his 
kinsman,  Francis  Drake,  who  had  already 
been  to  the  Spanish  Main  on  a  similar  mis- 
sion with  Captain  John  Lovell  in  1565. 
Hawkins's  squadron,  which  consisted  of  six 
vessels  all  told,  sailed  from  Plymouth  on 
October  2,  1567,  and,  having  secured  four 
or  five  hundred  slaves  on  the  African  coast, 
proceeded  to  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  coasted 
along  the  northern  shore  of  North  America, 
the  commander  selling  his  slaves  at  each 
port  of  call.  At  Rio  Hacha  he  was  pre- 
vented from  trading  and,  construing  this 
prohibition  as  a  violation  of  a  treaty  made 
between  Charles  V  and  Henry  VIII  and 


I.  Sir  John  Hawkins. 

3-  Frangois  L'Olonois  —  From  Eaquemeling,  1684. 


PIRATES  AND   BUCCANEERS 

2.  Sir  Francis  Drake. 

4.  Bartholomew  Portugues  —  From  Esquemeling,  1684. 


DRAKE'S  RAID  ON  THE  ISTHMUS 


45 


then  still  existing,  Hawkins  attacked  and 
captured  the  town  (1568),  and  was  then 
allowed  to  sell  some  two  hundred  of  his 
slaves  secretly  and  at  night.  Debarred 
from  Cartagena,  the  English  seamen  made 
their  way  through  contrary  winds  to  San 
Juan  de  Ulloa  (Vera  Cruz).  There  they 
were  attacked  by  a  fleet  of  thirteen  armed 
Spanish  vessels  under  Alvarez  de  Razan, 
and  so  severely  defeated  that  only  two  ves- 
sels, the  Minion  of  100  tons,  on  which  was 
Hawkins,  and  the  Judith  of  50  tons,  on 
which  was  Drake,  succeeded  in  making 
their  way  back  to  England  in  January, 
1569. 

Hawkins  appears  to  have  sought  no  op- 
portunity of  revenge  until  it  came  ready  to 
his  hand,  when,  as  Rear- Admiral  on  the 
Victory,  he  helped  to  defeat  the  Invincible 
Armada  in  1588.  Not  so  with  Drake.  In 
1570  and  1571  he  made  two  westerly  voy- 
ages mainly  for  purposes  of  exploration. 
On  both  he  not  only  traded  with  the  in- 
habitants but  also  studied  the  coast  of 
Darien,  and  found  out  all  he  could  about 
the  route  taken  by  the  treasure  trains  in 
crossing  the  isthmus  from  Panama  to 
Nombre  de  Dios.  In  May,  1572,  he  once 
more  sailed  from  Plymouth  with  two  ships, 
the  Pasha  of  70  tons,  and  the  Swan  of  25 
tons,  with  a  company  of  73  men  and  boys, 
included  in  whom  were  his  brothers  John 
and  Charles  Drake  and  John  Oxenham.  In 
July  he  dropped  anchor  in  a  hidden  harbor 
in  the  Gulf  of  Darien,  which  he  had  dis- 
covered on  an  earlier  voyage,  and  to  which 
he  had  given  the  name  of  Port  Pheasant. 
Here  he  was  joined  by  Captain  James 
Rause  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  who  along  with 
his  own  English  barque  brought  in  two 
Spanish  vessels  he  had  recently  captured. 
About  two  weeks  later  the  whole  party 
sailed  for  the  Isle  of  Pines.  Here  Drake 
left  Rause  with  a  small  party  to  guard  the 
ships,  and  taking  73  men,  in  three  pinnaces 
and  a  shallop,  he  set  out  himself  to  capture 
Nombre  de  Dios.  This  feat  he  accom- 
plished after  a  sharp  hand-to-hand  fight  on 
the  morning  of  July  29,  1572,  but,  as  the 
dislodged  garrison  was  returning  and  succor 


was  arriving  from  Panama,  and  as  Drake 
was  sorely  wounded,  the  English  free- 
booters had  to  beat  a  hasty  retreat  and  so 
secured  but  little  loot.  The  necessity  for 
flight  must  have  been  very  urgent,  for  they 
saw,  and  left  behind  them,  silver  in  bars  to 
the  value  of  a  million  pounds  sterling,  and 
had  actually  reached  the  door  of  the  King's 
Treasure  House,  where,  as  they  well  knew, 
were  stored  in  large  quantities  pearls, 
jewels,  and  gold.  They  got  safely  away, 
however,  in  their  pinnaces  and  in  a  Spanish 
merchant  vessel  which  they  took  in  the 
harbor,  and  went  back  to  the  Isle  of  Pines. 

Rause  then  returned  to  England,  and 
Drake  sailed  to  the  vicinity  of  Cartagena, 
where  he  made  prize  of  some  Spanish  ships. 
While  lying  before  Cartagena  he  seems  to 
have  developed  the  plan  of  capturing  on 
land  the  treasure -train  as  it  conveyed 
across  the  isthmus  the  silver  and  gold  from 
Peru.  It  was  then  the  middle  of  August 
and  the  rainy  season  was  on,  preventing 
overland  transportation  of  bullion,  so  that 
a  delay  of  some  months  was  necessary  be- 
fore the  venturesome  scheme  could  be  tried. 
In  the  meantime  the  great  pirate  privateer, 
whose  very  name,  metamorphosed  into  El 
Draque,  was  already  causing  terror  along 
the  coast,  put  into  a  harbor  in  the  Gulf  of 
Darien,  to  which  his  men  gave  the  name  of 
Port  Plenty  because  of  the  abundant  stores 
they  took  with  them  and  also  because  of 
the  bounteous  supplies  of  fish,  deer,  and 
wild  hog  which  they  there  found. 

The  active  spirit  of  the  commander 
would  not,  however,  allow  him  to  be  still. 
Leaving  his  brother  in  charge  of  the  shore 
camp  at  Port  Plenty,  he  sailed  along  the 
coast  in  two  pinnaces,  effected  more  than 
one  landing,  captured  six  vessels  well  stored 
with  provisions,  and,  in  sight  of  two  armed 
frigates  which  declined  to  engage  him, 
burned  and  sank  two  ships  which  had  been 
sent  out  of  Cartagena  without  cargoes.  On 
his  return  to  the  camp  in  November,  he 
found  that  his  brother  John  had  been  killed 
in  an  attempt  to  board  a  Spanish  frigate 
from  the  Lion  pinnace  without  sufficient 
offensive  equipment.  He  was  to  suffer  still 


46 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA  CANAL 


further  losses,  for  when  the  dry  season  came 
in  January  his  men  were  attacked  by  a 
calenture,  and  twenty-eight  of  them,  in- 
cluding his  remaining  brother,  died. 

Word  soon  came  in  from  friendly  Cimar- 
rones  that  the  galleons  for  conveying  the 
plate  to  Spain  had  arrived  at  Nombre  de 
Dios,  and  that  the  overland  pack  train 
might  accordingly  be  expected  to  start 
from  Panama  without  much  delay.  This 
was  the  opportunity  for  which  Drake  was 
waiting.  Early  in  February,  1573,  leaving 
all  the  sick  and  a  few  men  in  health  as  a 
guard  for  the  camp  and  vessels,  he  started 
with  only  eighteen  companions  on  his  bold 
enterprise.  He  was  joined  on  the  way  by 
thirty  Cimarrones  under  their  chief,  Pedro. 
On  the  seventh  day's  march  they  came  to 
a  high  tree  on  a  mountain  top,  and,  ascend- 
ing it  by  means  of  steps  cut  in  the  trunk, 
Drake  saw  both  the  North  and  the  South 
seas  at  the  same  time,  being  thus  the  first 
Englishman  to  set  eyes  on  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
Three  days  later  from  a  point  of  vantage  he 
was  looking  down  the  main  street  of  Old 
Panama  at  the  plate  fleet,  which  had  ar- 
rived from  Peru.  Through  a  Cimarrone  spy 
he  learned  that  the  mule  train,  bearing 
provisions,  silver,  gold,  and  jewels,  was  to 
start  that  night.  Thereupon  he  fell  back 
towards  Cruces,  and,  dividing  his  men  into 
two  groups,  stationed  one  on  one  side  of 
the  Camino  Real  and  the  other  on  the 
other  side,  with  about  fifty  yards  between 
them,  so  as  to  attack  the  mule  train  in 
front  and  rear  at  the  same  time  and  thus 
secure  all  the  treasure.  His  scheme,  which 
was  so  daring  in  its  simplicity,  miscarried 
through  an  accident.  His  men  had  put  on 
their  shirts  over  their  armor  so  as  the  more 
easily  to  recognize  one  another  in  case  of  a 
fight,  and  one  of  them,  Robert  Pike  by 
name,  having  imbibed  too  freely  of  brandy 
and  being  impelled  by  drunken  curiosity, 
stood  up  when  he  heard  a  horseman  coming 
from  Cruces.  This  strange  apparition  in 
white  so  frightened  the  unknown  rider,  that 
he  clapped  spurs  to  his  animal,  and  quickly 
got  out  of  harm's  way,  and  galloping  to- 
wards Panama  warned  those  in  charge  of 


the  treasure  of  danger  ahead.  When  the 
train  did  arrive  at  the  place  of  ambush,  it 
was  captured  without  even  the  show  of 
resistance;  but  there  was  neither  silver, 
gold,  nor  jewels — nothing  but  provisions. 
The  treasurer  of  Lima  had  met  craft  with 
craft.  Dreading  to  remain  any  longer  with 
so  small  a  force,  as  he  knew  the  next  train 
to  come  along  would  be  heavily  guarded, 
Drake  broke  up  his  ambush  and,  utilizing 
the  captured  mules,  made  a  dash  on  Cruces, 
which,  after  a  smart  skirmish,  he  captured 
and  held  for  one  night.  Not  finding  any 
loot  of  value,  he  took  his  departure  the 
next  morning,  and  in  about  a  week  reached 
his  camp  and  ships. 

Drake  next  turned  his  attention  towards 
the  capture  of  a  frigate  which  he  learned 
was  soon  to  leave  Veragua  with  a  million  of 
gold  on  board.  Taking  only  one  ship,  the 
Minion,  he  was  guided  thither  by  a  Genoese 
pilot  of  a  vessel  which  he  had  recently 
taken;  but  as  soon  as  they  reached  the  en- 
trance of  the  harbor  by  night,  two  signal 
guns  were  fired  and  were  answered  by  two 
other  guns  from  the  direction  of  the  town, 
which  lay  five  leagues  up  the  harbor. 
Judging  that  the  whole  coast  line  was  on 
the  alert,  Drake,  baffled  once  more,  drew 
off  and  returned  to  his  camp,  where  he  had 
the  minor  satisfaction  of  finding  John 
Oxenham  in  possession  of  a  captured  frigate, 
which  contained  plenty  of  corn  and  some 
hogs  and  poultry.  Here  he  was  joined  by 
about  seventy  French  corsairs,  whom  he 
gladly  welcomed,  as  they  greatly  strength- 
ened his  force  for  his  next  undertaking. 

The  Cimarrone  spies  had  brought  in  the 
pleasing  intelligence  that  three  pack  trains 
of  bullion,  with  190  mules  each  carrying 
three  hundred  pounds,  was  to  arrive  at 
Nombre  de  Dios  on  the  1st  of  April.  Sail- 
ing on  March  30  from  his  rendezvous  point 
with  fifteen  Englishmen,  twenty  French- 
men, and  a  number  of  Cimarrones,  Drake 
landed  not  far  from  that  town.  He  then 
cut  in  through  the  jungle  until  he  struck 
the  Camino  Real  about  a  mile  on  the  Pan- 
ama side  of  Nombre  de  Dios.  The  next 
night,  March  31,  he  stationed  his  men  in 


CAPTURE  OF  JOHN  OXENHAM 


47 


concealment  along  the  road  until  the  mule 
team  came  in  sight.  They  then  fired  a  vol- 
ley of  gunshot  and  arrows,  which  brought 
the  mules  to  a  stop,  and  after  a  short  but 
vigorous  defense  the  guards  fled.  The  free- 
booters went  leisurely  through  the  spoils, 
and  took  all  the  treasure  they  could  with 
safety  carry.  To  their  great  regret  they 
were  obliged  to  leave  behind  about  fifteen 
tons  of  bar  silver.  After  some  exciting  ad- 
ventures they  at  length  reached  their  ships, 
and  having  made  a  fair  division  of  the  booty 
with  the  Frenchmen,  the  Englishmen  sailed 
for  home.  They  arrived  in  Plymouth,  after 
an  absence  of  nearly  fifteen  months,  on 
Sunday,  August  9,  1573.  When  the  ships 
reached  the  wharf,  divine  service  was 
going  on,  but  nearly  all  the  congregation 
flocked  out  of  the  church  to  see  the  daring 
navigator  who  had  brought  what  his 
fellow  townsmen  considered  his  great 
adventure  to  so  successful  a  termination. 
For  over  four  years  Drake,  being  other- 
wise occupied,  was  unable  to  give  any  at- 
tention to  the  Spanish  Main.  But  one  of 
his  companions,  John  Oxenham,  thought  he 
would  emulate  the  deeds  of  his  commander. 
In  J575  Oxenham  set  sail  for  the  coast  of 
Darien,  having  one  ship  of  120  tons  and  70 
men.  From  the  Cimarrones,  who  were  still 
friendly  to  the  English,  he  learned  that, 
taught  by  experience,  the  Spaniards  now 
sent  a  strong  guard  of  soldiers  with  the 
treasure-train  on  its  overland  route.  Oxen- 
ham  thereupon  abandoned  his  first  idea  of 
robbing  the  train,  and  decided  to  cross  the 
isthmus  and  seek  his  fortune  in  the  South 
Sea.  He  ran  his  vessel  ashore  and  buried 
most  of  his  ordnance,  and  after  a  toilsome 
march  from  the  Caribbean  coast  into  the 
interior,  he  and  his  companions  at  length 
reached  a  river  which  flowed  into  the  Paci- 
cific.  Down  this  they  floated  on  a  large  pin- 
nace which  they  had  hastily  constructed, 
and  so  sailed  through  the  Bay  of  San  Miguel 
and  out  into  the  Gulf  of  Panama — the  first 
Englishmen  to  cross  the  isthmus  and  enter 
the  South  Sea.  In  a  few  days  they  were  for- 
tunate enough  to  make  prize  of  two  barques, 
one  from  Quito  with  bread  and  wine  and 


60,000  pesos  of  gold,  and  the  other  from 
Lima  containing  100,000  pesos  of  bar-silver. 
They  then  made  for  the  Pearl  Islands,  but 
finding  only  a  few  pearls  there,  they  has- 
tened back  to  the  bay  of  San  Miguel,  and 
proceeded  to  recross  the  isthmus  with  their 
spoils,  using  the  riverway  as  far  as  they 
could.  A  discussion  took  place  about  the 
division  of  the  gains,  and  Oxenham,  beach- 
ing the  pinnace,  buried  the  treasure,  and 
set  out  to  find  Cimarrones  to  help  him  to 
carry  it  to  where  his  ship  lay  on  the  north 
coast. 

The  delay  thus  caused  proved  fatal.  No 
sooner  had  the  Englishmen  left  the  Pearl 
Islands  than  a  messenger  was  dispatched 
in  all  haste  to  apprise  the  governor  of  Pan- 
ama of  the  facts.  The  governor  acted  with 
promptitude,  and  within  two  days  sent  out 
four  vessels  with  100  soldiers  and  numerous 
Indians,  under  the  command  of  Juan  de 
Ortega,  with  instructions  to  seek,  find,  and 
punish  the  marauders  who  had  had  the 
audacity  to  carry  on  their  depredations  in 
the  South  Sea,  still  regarded  as  the  inviola- 
ble property  of  Spain.  Ortega  successfully 
tracked  them  to  where  the  pinnace  had 
been  left,  and  then  followed  the  land 
trail,  came  on  the  buried  treasure,  un- 
earthed it,  and  proceeded  to  carry  it  back 
to  Panama.  Oxenham,  having  in  the 
meantime  heard  of  the  pursuit,  turned 
back  to  regain  the  coveted  treasure. 
A  fight  took  place  which  resulted  very  de- 
cisively in  favor  of  the  Spaniards,  who  beat 
off  the  attackers  and  not  only  held  the 
treasure,  but  killed  eleven  of  their  assailants 
and  took  seven  of  them  prisoners.  On 
their  arrival  at  Panama  the  prisoners  were 
forced  to  tell  all  they  knew,  and  especially 
about  the  location  of  Oxenham 's  ship  on 
the  Caribbean  shore.  Word  was  at  once 
sent  to  Nombre  de  Dios,  and  when  Oxen- 
ham  and  the  survivors  of  his  party  reached 
the  spot,  they  found  their  ship,  cannon, 
and  stores  removed.  They  were  thus 
caught  in  a  perfect  trap.  They  wandered 
about  among  the  natives  for  awhile  and 
endeavored  to  build  canoes  to  escape  in, 
but  eventually  were  made  prisoners  by  the 


48 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


Spaniards.  Brought  to  Panama  and  ques- 
tioned as  to  whether  he  had  a  commission 
from  the  English  queen  or  any  other  ruler, 
Oxenham  replied  that  he  was  acting  en- 
tirely on  his  own  account  and  fighting  for 
his  own  hand.  He  and  his  men  were  there- 
upon condemned  to  death,  and  most  of 
them  were  executed  at  Panama.  Oxenham 
himself,  with  his  officers  and  some  boys, 
was  sent  to  Lima  to  be  interrogated  by  the 
viceroy,  and  there  all,  save  the  boys,  were 
put  to  death.  Thus  the  first  English  cross- 
ing of  the  isthmus  and  entry  into  the  Pacific 
Ocean  had  a  most  disastrous  ending. 

Drake  never  forgot  the  view  he  had  ob- 
tained of  the  South  Sea  from  the  tree-top 
on  the  isthmus,  nor  a  vow  that  he  had  made 
to  explore  that  strange  ocean  one  day  in  an 
English  ship.  As  soon  as  he  was  free  to 
undertake  such  an  expedition,  he  got  to- 
gether a  squadron  of  five  ships,  and  with 
them  started  from  Plymouth  on  December 
13,  1577,  on  what  was  ultimately  to  prove 
to  be  his  celebrated  voyage  of  circumnavi- 
gation of  the  globe.  His  exploits  on  the 
Golden  Hind  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  his 
performances  ashore  whenever  he  touched 
land,  read  like  tales  of  romance,  instead  of 
a  narrative  of  sober  facts ;  but  they  do  not 
belong  to  this  history.  Suffice  it  to  say 
that  El  Draque  terrorized  the  whole  west- 
ern coast  line  of  Spanish  America,  captured 
ships  at  Valparaiso  and  Callao,  robbed  a 
llama- train,  boarded  the  treasure  galleon 
nicknamed  the  Cacafuego  and  plundered 
her  of  26  tons  of  silver,  80  pounds  of  gold, 
13  chests  of  money,  and  numerous  jewels, 
took  possession  of  the  country  now  known 
as  California  for  the  English  queen  and 
called  it  New  Albion,  sailed  for  home  by 
way  of  the  Philippines,  the  Moluccas,  the 
Celebes,  Java,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
and  Sierra  Leone,  and  finally  dropped  an- 
chor in  Plymouth  Harbor  on  Monday,  Sep- 
tember 26,  1580,  having  been  absent  three 
years  all  but  three  months,  and  being  the 
first  Englishman,  and  the  second  of  any 
country,  to  circumnavigate  the  globe.  In 
recognition  of  this  remarkable  performance, 
he  was  knighted  in  April,  1581,  by  Queen 


Elizabeth  at  Deptford  on  the  deck  of  his 
own  ship,  the  Golden  Hind. 

In  1585  Drake  was  commissioned  as  an 
admiral  and  set  out  with  a  fleet  to  attack 
Spain  once  more  in  her  western  colonies. 
He  captured  and  sacked  Santo  Domingo  in 
Hispaniola  (1586)  and  held  it  to  ransom  for 
25,000  ducats,  and  then  served  Cartagena 
in  similar  style,  the  ransom  here  being 
30,000  ducats.  He  then  intended  to  take 
Nombre  de  Dios  a  second  time,  and  thence 
cross  the  isthmus  to  Panama  to  strike  an- 
other stroke  for  the  treasure,  but  was  de- 
terred by  the  great  mortality  among  his 
men  from  calenture.  Instead,  he  sailed  for 
Cuba;  thence  to  Florida,  where  he  cap- 
tured the  fort  of  San  Juan  de  Pinos  and 
burned  St.  Augustine;  thence  to  Roanoke, 
where  he  took  on  board  the  103  survivors 
of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh's  colony;  and  thence 
for  Plymouth,  where  he  arrived  on  July  28, 
1586,  bringing  with  him  as  spoils  specie  to 
the  value  of  60,000  pounds  sterling  and 
240  pieces  of  ordnance. 

Between  April  and  June  of  the  following 
year  (1587),  with  a  fleet  of  21  ships,  Drake 
sailed  into  the  harbor  of  Cadiz,  drove  the 
armed  galleys  under  the  guns  of  the  castle, 
looted  and  destroyed  more  than  a  hundred 
ships  in  the  harbor  and  a  hundred  more 
which  he  subsequently  met,  and  took  and 
brought  into  Plymouth  a  Portuguese  car- 
rack,  the  St.  Philip,  heavily  laden  with 
treasures  from  the  East.  As  vice-admiral 
Drake  was  second  in  command  to  the  lord 
high  admiral  of  England,  Lord  Howard  of 
Effingham,  in  the  series  of  engagements  in 
which,  aided  materially  by  their  allies  the 
winds,  the  English  defeated  the  Invincible 
Armada  in  1588.  Next  year  he  was  still 
busy  fighting  in  Europe;  and  in  the  four 
following  years  he  was  performing  duties 
incidental  to  civil  life. 

But  the  lure  of  the  West  was  always  upon 
him.  Ashore  or  afloat,  he  had  the  con- 
suming desire  to  make  another  dash  at 
Nombre  de  Dios  and  thence  to  make  a 
trans-isthmian  march  to  sack  Panama. 
To  compass  this  end  he  had  got  together 
by  August,  1595,  a  fleet  of  26  vessels.  But 


DEATH  OF  SIR  FRANCIS  DRAKE 


49 


Queen  Elizabeth,  having  heard  that  a  plate- 
ship  with  treasure  to  equip  another  Armada 
was  in  difficulties  in  Porto  Rico,  ordered  the 
fleet  to  proceed  thither  in  search  of  her. 
Near  Porto  Rico  old  Sir  John  Hawkins, 
who  was  vice-admiral  on  this  expedition, 
died  and  was  buried  at  sea.  The  Spaniards, 
having  learned  in  the  meantime  that  Drake 
was  on  the  way,  took  off  the  treasure  and 
carried  it  ashore  and  then  sank  the  great 
galleon  in  the  mouth  of  the  harbor  of  San 
Juan.  These  were  excellent  tactics,  and 
they  foiled  Drake.  He  succeeded  indeed  in 
making  his  way  into  the  harbor,  where  he 
burned  six  ships;  but  he  was  unable  to 
accomplish  his  chief  purpose,  and  so  he 
stood  away  for  the  Spanish  Main.  He 
sacked  and  burned  La  Hacha,  Rancheria, 
Santa  Marta,  and  other  towns  and  villages. 
He  then  took  Nombre  de  Dios,  and  sent 
out  a  force  of  750  soldiers  under  Sir  Thomas 
Baskerville  to  follow  the  Camino  Real  to 
Panama.  The  Spaniards,  however,  were 
well  prepared.  Obstructions  were  erected 
along  the  road  at  every  point  of  vantage, 
and  the  little  army  was  raked  by  gunshots 
from  parties  lying  in  ambush  in  the  jungle. 
Thus  hampered  at  every  step,  Baskerville 
got  no  more  than  half  way  to  Panama  when 
he  thought  it  part  of  discretion  to  turn  back. 
When  he  and  his  men  arrived,  footsore  and 
half  starved,  Nombre  de  Dios  was  given 
over  to  the  flames,  and  all  the  vessels  in 
the  harbor,  as  well  as  those  which  had  been 
beached,  were  burned. 

The  English  then  steered  for  Porto 
Bello,  and  on  the  way  Drake  fell  sick. 
From  Porto  Bello  they  proceeded  to  San 
Juan  de  Nicaragua,  but  were  driven  back 
by  a  storm.  Drake  became  delirious  and 
talked  incoherently.  Then  he  got  up,  put 
on  his  uniform,  called  clearly  for  his  arms, 
lay  down  thus  accoutred,  and  died  within 
an  hour.  The  ships  continued  their  course 
to  Porto  Bello  and  there  came  to  anchor. 
Next  day,  January  29,  1596,  the  admiral's 
body  was  placed  in  a  coffin  of  lead,  carried 
a  league  to  sea,  and  there  committed  to  the 
waves.  Sir  Thomas  Baskerville  then  as- 
sumed the  command  and  steered  for  Eng- 


land. Off  the  Isle  of  Pines  near  Cuba  he 
fell  in  with  twenty  Spanish  ships  and  after 
a  sharp  action  repulsed  them.  The  expedi- 
tion, which  had  so  unfortunate  an  ending 
in  the  loss  of  its  great  leader,  reached  Eng- 
land in  safety  the  following  May. 

Drake  was  about  fifty-six  years  of  age  at 
the  time  of  his  death.  He  appears  to  have 
been  brown-haired,  f air-corn plexioned,  and 
under  medium  height,  but  broad-chested 
and  strong-limbed.  He  stands  boldly  out 
as  one  of  the  historic  figures  of  the  spacious 
times  of  the  great  Elizabeth.  His  ethics,  if 
judged  by  modern  standards,  would  doubt- 
less not  pass  muster;  but  they  were  the 
ethics  of  the  time.  Those  who  find  that 
there  is  a  glamour  of  romance  about  the 
raids  and  harryings  of  the  Scottish  border 
— and  who  does  not? — or  who  are  willing 
to  overlook  the  seamy  side  of  Dick  Tur- 
pin's  character  for  the  sake  of  his  daring 
if  mythical  ride  to  York,  will  assuredly 
find  that  the  glory  of  Drake's  career  more 
than  compensates  for  its  questionable  in- 
cidents of  smuggling,  and  piracy,  and  high- 
way robbery.  Nor  must  we  forget  that 
he  had  some  very  commendable  traits  of 
character.  He  laid  it  down  as  an  inflexi- 
ble rule,  both  to  his  own  men  and  to  the 
Cimaroons  who  were  his  allies,  that  they 
must  never  harm  a  woman  and  never 
attack  a  man  who  was  not  carrying  weapons 
against  them.  And  something  of  old-time 
chivalry  is  found  in  his  relations  with  the 
dignitaries  of  the  cities  he  sacked,  for  we 
find  him  courteously  treating  them  and 
even  hospitably  entertaining  them  when- 
ever opportunity  permitted.  He  was,  be- 
sides, in  his  pirate  days,  scrupulously  fair 
in  his  dealings  with  his  fellow-thieves. 
Although  his  positive  achievements  in  for- 
eign parts  are  not  to  be  compared  to  those 
of  the  Conquistadores,  who  carved  out  for 
Spain  colonies  of  greater  riches  and  extent 
than  all  the  kingdoms  and  empires  that 
Europe  then  knew,  yet  he  rendered  signal 
services  to  his  country.  He  showed  how 
weak  Spain  was  in  her  distant  colonies,  and 
proved  to  onlooking  Europe  that  by  sea 
as  well  as  by  land  England  was  growing 


50  HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA  CANAL 

to  be  one  of  the  great  powers.  Both  by  feared  and  respected.  In  each  character 
his  daredevil  exploits  as  a  plain  pirate  he  left  a  proud  name  which  is  enshrined 
and  his  more  rational  performances  as  an  in  song  and  story  and  which  his  country- 
admiral  of  the  fleet,  he  made  Englishmen  men  will  never  willingly  let  die. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


PANAMA'S  EARLY  GROWTH  AND  DECLINE 

GROWTH  AND  PROSPERITY  OF  PANAMA — ITS  SIZE  AND  POPULATION — ITS  DECLINE — 
THE  CIMARRONES:  THEIR  RAVAGES — EXPEDITIONS  AGAINST  THEM — THE 
AUDIENCIA  OF  PANAMA  ABOLISHED — RESTORED — THE  AUDIENCIA  DE  LOS  CON- 
FINES— PANAMA  SUBJECTED  TO  PERU — TRANSFERRED  TO  NEW  GRANADA — 
— RIVAL  ROUTES  THROUGH  CENTRAL  AMERICA — ABANDONMENT  OF  NOMBRE 
DE  Dios — SETTLEMENT  FOUNDED  AT  PORTO  BELLO — DISAPPEARANCE  OF 
EARLY  COLONIES. 


THROUGH  all  vicissitudes  Panama 
continued  for  many  years  not  only 
to  hold  its  own  but  to  grow  in  popu- 
lation and  wealth.  Situated  in  the  very 
center  of  the  colonial  possessions  of  Spain, 
its  position  as  the  terminus  of  the  Camino 
Real  and  as  the  Pacific  port  of  entry  for 
gold,  silver,  pearls,  and  general  merchan- 
dise from  South,  Central,  and  North  Amer- 
ica, from  the  neighboring  islands,  and  from 
China,  the  Moluccas,  and  the  Philippines, 
as  well  as  the  port  of  distribution  for  com- 
modities brought  from  Europe,  made  it  the 
great  emporium  between  East  and  West, 
and  gave  it  an  importance  such  as  no  other 
American  city  for  a  long  time  possessed. 
Its  warerooms  were  piled  high  with  natural 
products  and  the  products  of  industry  from 
every  quarter  of  the  world;  its  merchants 
vied  with  those  of  any  other  country  in 
wealth  and  display.  A  veritable  golden  age 
of  prosperity  had  come  to  the  former  ob- 
scure village. 

The  size  and  population  of  the  city  of 
Panama,  however,  have  been  probably 
greatly  exaggerated.  In  1529,  ten  years 
after  its  foundation,  it  had  600  house- 
holders, and,  despite  an  unhealthy 
climate,  and  the  spread  of  infectious  dis- 
eases, the  number  continued  for  many 
years  to  increase.  But  we  are  told  that  in 
1610,  its  population  was  scarcely  one-third 
of  what  it  had  been  in  1585.  At  the  later 
date  Panama  had,  all  told,  eleven  streets, 
three  squares,  and  484  houses,  besides  a 
cathedral,  a  hospital,  seven  religious  insti- 
tutions, and  ten  official  buildings.  A  de- 


structive fire  which  occurred  in  1644  burned 
down  97  houses,  and,  following  this  event, 
Juan  de  Vega  Bazan,  the  governor,  wrote 
to  King  Philip  IV. :  "  Panama  has  now  but 
a  small  population,  and  this  decreasing 
more  and  more  every  day."  Yet  Esque- 
melin,  who  accompanied  Morgan's  buc- 
caneers when  they  sacked  the  city  in  1671, 
says  that  it  then  contained  "two  thousand 
houses  of  magnificent  and  prodigious  build- 
ing,"  inhabited  by  vastly  rich  merchants, 
and  five  thousand  houses  more,  occupied  by 
persons  of  lesser  quality  and  tradesmen.  It 
is  difficult  to  doubt  or  dispute  the  state- 
ments of  an  eyewitness;  but  the  increase 
here  indicated  seems  quite  incredible,  and 
all  subsequent  investigation  would  go  to 
show  that  Old  Panama  never  contained 
seven  thousand  houses  and  a  corresponding 
population.  If  we  set  the  number  of  in- 
habitants down  at  10,000  in  its  palmiest 
days,  it  is  likely  that  we  shall  not  be  far 
wrong. 

The  era  of  greatest  prosperity  of  Panama 
was  probably  from  about  the  middle  to  the 
end  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Early  in  the 
seventeenth  century  it  entered  on  a  period 
of  decline.  The  causes  of  the  falling  off 
were  many.  The  mines  of  Tierra  Firme, 
which  reached  their  greatest  output  about 
157°.  were  thenceforward  but  indifferently 
worked,  the  pearl  fisheries  were  exhausted 
and  lay  idle,  trade  in  the  necessaries  of 
life  was  in  the  hands  of  monopolists,  who 
rigged  the  market  to  suit  their  own  pur- 
poses and  increase  their  gains.  The  imports 
of  treasure  from  the  three  Americas  began 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


also  to  diminish,  for  the  yield  was  not  main- 
tained, and,  besides,  Cartagena  had  in  some 
measure  superseded  the  isthmian  cities  as 
a  port  of  call  and  an  entrepot  of  commerce 
between  the  new  world  and  the  old,  espe- 
cially in  the  matter  of  pearls  and  of  Central 
American  products,  which  latter  were  con- 
veyed thither  by  way  of  the  Desaguadero 
River  and  the  Caribbean  Sea.  In  addition, 
the  colonial  policy  of  the  mother-country 
was  short-sighted  in  the  extreme.  The 
trade  between  Panama  and  China  and  the 
Philippines  was  highly  lucrative,  but  be- 
cause it  led  to  a  decrease  of  trade  in  the 
Castilian  kingdom,  it  was  absolutely  for- 
bidden by  royal  decrees  of  1578,  1593,  1595, 
1599,  and  1609.  Even  the  trade  in  native 
products  was  hampered  by  fiscal  regulations 
which  had  regard  more  to  the  prosperity  of 
Spain  than  to  that  of  her  colonies.  Striking 
evidences  of  the  falling-off  of  commerce  are 
shown  by  two  facts:  first,  that  the  revenues 
of  the  casa,  or  custom-house,  of  Cruces, 
which  had  been  formerly  rented  out  at 
10,000  pesos  a  year,  were  let  in  1610  for 
2,000;  and  secondly,  that  the  number  of 
merchant  vessels  reaching  the  isthmus, 
which  had  fluctuated  from  71  in  1585  to 
69  in  1596  and  reached  its  highest  point  of 
94  in  1589,  had  by  1606  dwindled  to  17. 

A  revival  of  the  pearl  industry  and  of 
gold-mining  in  the  isthmus  did  indeed  take 
place  near  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, and  the  latter  business  was  then  so 
brisk  that  more  gold  was  sent  to  Panama 
from  Veragua  and  especially  from  Darien 
than  from  all  the  other  mines  in  Spain's 
colonial  possessions;  but  the  depredations 
of  corsairs  and  others  had  become  so  fre- 
quent and  destructive  that,  from  1748  on- 
ward, intercourse  between  the  home  coun- 
try and  her  American  colonies  was  gener- 
ally by  way  of  Cape  Horn,  and  the  sending 
of  fleets  to  the  isthmus  was  abandoned. 
Before  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  the 
mines  were  again  exhausted,  agriculture 
and  manufactures  were  neglected,  and  the 
trade  of  Panama  had  gone  down  almost  to 
the  vanishing  point. 

Another  cause  of  disturbance  of  business 


and  its  consequent  decline  in  the  sixteenth 
and  seventeenth  centuries  was  the  condi- 
tion brought  about  by  the  importation  of 
negro  slaves.  This  policy  had  been  in- 
augurated in  1508  and  had  been  recom- 
mended by  Las  Casas,  although  he  after- 
wards repented  of  it,  and  as  early  as  1517 
it  had  been  authorized  by  royal  order.  In 
the  years  following  large  numbers  of  negroes 
were  imported  from  the  Portuguese  settle- 
ments on  the  African  coast,  and  a  lucrative 
trade  in  those  unfortunate  human  beings 
was  done  alike  by  those  who  received  the 
necessary  license  and  by  those  who  were 
engaged  illicitly  in  such  enterprises.  So 
important  was  this  traffic  considered  that 
in  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  which,  in  1713, 
brought  to  an  end  England's  share  in  the 
War  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  a  special 
assiento  was  included,  which  gave  to  En- 
glishmen for  30  years  the  exclusive  right  to 
supply  the  Spanish  colonies  with  negro 
slaves,  as  well  as  the  privilege  of  sending 
every  year  to  Porto  Bello  one  vessel  of  500 
tons  burden  laden  with  European  merchan- 
dise. This  assiento  was  made  over  to  the 
South  Sea  Company  in  1720:  it  was  finally 
abrogated  in  1750,  a  compensation  of  £100,- 
ooo  being  paid  by  Spain  to  the  company 
in  consideration  of  its  cancellation. 

Now,  from  the  earliest  times,  many  of 
those  negroes,  driven  thereto  by  bad  treat- 
ment, escaped  and  took  refuge  in  the  jun- 
gle, the  forests,  and  the  mountain  defiles, 
where,  in  ever-increasing  numbers,  they  led 
a  roving  life,  and  frequently  made  common 
cause  with  the  native  Indians  against  their 
common  oppressor.  They  continually  at- 
tacked both  the  treasure  train  on  its  way 
from  Panama  to  Nombre  de  Dios  and  pas- 
sengers en  route  to  or  from  either  city. 
They  despoiled  mining-camps,  set  fire  to 
houses,  destroyed  plantations,  carried  off 
women,  stole  merchandise,  and  slew  set- 
tlers. In  all  their  attacks  they  gave  no 
quarter,  for  they  expected  none  themselves. 
In  process  of  time  they  became  organized 
into  regular  companies,  and,  under  the  name 
of  Cimarrones  (by  Englishmen  frequently 
called  Cimaroons),  became  a  far-spread 


GOVERNMENT  OF  TIERRA  FIRME 


53 


source  of  terror  to  Spanish  officials,  mer- 
chants, and  colonists. 

By  1554  the  menace  to  life  and  property 
had  grown  so  great  that  the  viceroy  of 
Peru,  Andres  Hurtado  de  Mendoza,  Mar- 
ques de  Canete,  then  on  his  way  to  his 
province,  commissioned  Pedro  de  Ursua, 
founder  of  the  city  of  Pamplona,  to  raise 
troops  and  proceed  against  the  offending 
marauders.  With  about  200  men  Ursua 
started  from  Nombre  de  Dios  on  his  difficult 
mission.  The  Cimarrones,  to  the  number 
of  600,  were  under  a  man  of  their  own  race, 
Bayona  by  name,  whom  they  had  elected 
king.  For  two  years  the  guerilla  warfare 
was  drawn  out,  but  at  length  Ursua  suc- 
ceeded in  capturing  Bayona,  who  was  sent 
as  a  prisoner  to  Spain,  and  in  forcing  those 
of  his  followers  who  were  still  left  to  sue  for 
peace.  In  1570  the  Cimarrones  founded 
a  town  of  their  own,  Santiago  del  Prin- 
cipe. In  1574,  on  submitting  and  guaran- 
teeing to  lead  a  peaceful  life,  they  were  by 
royal  decree  declared  to  be  free  men.  The 
peace  thus  secured  was  of  short  duration, 
however,  and  depredations  on  the  part  of 
the  Cimarrones  became  so  frequent  that 
the  Spanish  king  determined  to  extermi- 
nate them.  In  1578  Pedro  de  Ortega  Valen- 
cia was  sent  against  them  at  the  head  of  a 
well-equipped  force;  but  he  did  not  fully 
succeed  in  his  attempt.  The  Cimarrones, 
acting  in  conjunction  with  the  buccaneers, 
opened  a  road  in  1596  from  Santiago  del 
Principe  to  the  River  Chagre,  with  the  ob- 
ject of  more  easily  seizing  treasure  and  mer- 
chandise on  the  Camino  Real.  Despite 
every  expedition  sent  against  them  and 
every  attempt  to  wipe  them  out,  they  re- 
mained for  years  a  constant  threat  to 
Spanish  interests,  and  the  allies  of  every 
invader  who  wished  to  devastate  the  Span- 
ish settlements  or  to  humble  the  Spanish 
power. 

The  Audiencia  Real,  which,  as  we  have 
seen,  was  established  at  Panama  in  1533, 
was  abolished  in  1543,  and  Panama  was 
made  subject  to  the  Audiencia  de  los  Con- 
fines, which  was  located  first  at  Comayagua, 
then  at  Gracias  a  Dios,  and  finally  at  San- 


tiago de  Guatemala.  Later,  however, 
Panama  was  given  an  audiencia  of  its  own, 
for  we  find  that  early  in  1560  a  royal  decree 
was  issued,  by  which  the  government  of 
Tierra  Firme  was  vested  in  the  president 
of  the  audiencia  resident  in  Panama.  This 
proceeding  stimulated  Guatemala  to  long- 
continued  resistance,  which  finally  suc- 
cumbed only  in  face  of  subsequent  imper- 
ative mandates.  In  1564  the  Audiencia  de 
los  Confines  was  removed  to  Panama,  a 
fact  which  caused  great  demonstrations  of 
enthusiasm  throughout  the  isthmus.  Its 
jurisdiction  extended  as  far  north  as  the 
Gulf  of  Fonseca  on  one  ocean  and  the 
mouth  of  the  River  Ulua  on  the  other,  but 
did  not  include  Gracias  £  Dios  or  San  Gil 
de  Buenavista,  which,  with  their  districts 
and  the  provinces  of  Guatemala,  Chiapas, 
Soconusco,  and  Vera  Paz,  were  handed 
over  to  the  audiencia  of  New  Spain  or 
Mexico.  This  was  an  inequitable  arrange- 
ment for  Guatemala  and  the  other  prov- 
inces, and,  after  many  petitions  on  the 
subject,  the  audiencia  was  in  1569  once 
more  transferred  to  Santiago. 

By  royal  decree  of  February  26,  1571, 
confirmed  subsequently  in  1614,  1620,  and 
1628,  Tierra  Firme  was  brought  under  the 
domination  of  the  viceroy  of  Peru  in  all 
that  appertained  to  government,  war,  and 
finance,  but  not  in  civil  matters,  which  were 
left,  as  before,  in  the  control  of  the  audien- 
cia of  Panama.  This  condition  of  affairs 
lasted  until  1718,  in  which  year  the  three 
provinces  of  which  the  isthmus  then  con- 
sisted—  Castilla  del  Oro,  Veragua,  and 
Darien — were  transferred  to  New  Granada, 
the  seat  of  government  of  which  was  at 
Santa  Fe  de  Bogota.  With  New  Granada, 
or  part  of  it,  Tierra  Firme  continued  to  be 
associated,  with  one  or  two  short  intervals, 
until  it  declared  its  independence  in  1903, 
and  set  up  government  on  its  own  account 
as  the  Republic  of  Panama.  In  1794  an 
Audiencia  Real  y  Chancelleria  was  estab- 
lished at  Panama,  having  for  its  jurisdiction 
the  provinces  of  Castilla  del  Oro  and  Vera- 
gua, and  touching  east,  south,  and  west, 
respectively,  on  the  territories  subject  to 


54 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


the  audiencia  of  New  Granada,  of  Quito, 
and  of  Guatemala. 

The  route  between  Panama  and  Nombre 
de  Dios  was  not  allowed  to  retain  its  su- 
premacy unchallenged.  Although  the  dis- 
tance between  the  two  cities  was  only 
eighteen  leagues,  the  cost  of  the  journey 
was  proportionately  very  high.  Besides, 
the  climate  of  Nombre  de  Dios  was  extreme- 
ly unhealthy;  it  was  liable  to  be  flooded  in 
the  rainy  season,  and  in  the  dry  season  it 
suffered  from  the  want  of  fresh  water;  the 
harbor  was  bad  and  shipwrecks  there  were 
frequent ;  and  town  and  harbor  lay  exposed 
as  an  easy  prey  to  pirates.  For  these  rea- 
sons many  merchants  were  found  to  favor 
the  removal  of  the  Atlantic  port  of  entry 
and  disembarkation  to  one  of  the  harbors 
on  the  Honduras  coast,  whence  the  over- 
land journey  to  the  Pacific,  though  nearly 
three  times  as  long,  could  be  performed  at 
a  more  reasonable  rate  of  charge.  An  in- 
quiry into  this  matter,  undertaken  at  the 
instance  of  the  king  by  Juan  Garcia  de 
Hermosillo  in  1554,  resulted  in  a  report, 
made  in  1556,  in  which  Trujillo  in  Hon- 
duras was  advocated  as  the  port  of  call, 
whence  goods  and  passengers  could  be  con- 
veniently carried  across  country  to  Realejo 
on  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca,  and  there  reshipped 
for  transportation  to  Peru  and  elsewhere. 
Further  investigation  was  carried  on  be- 
tween 1556  and  1558,  and  a  recommenda- 
tion of  the  transfer  proposed  by  Hermosillo 
was  the  result.  Petitions  in  this  sense  were, 


naturally  enough,  adopted  by  the  cabildo, 
or  town-council,  of  Santiago  in  1559,  1561, 
and  1562.  A  memorial  from  Felipe  de 
Aninon,  who  had  lived  long  in  the  Indies, 
recommending  the  abandonment  of  Nom- 
bre de  Dios  and  Panama,  in  favor  of  Puerto 
de  Caballos  and  Fonseca,  respectively,  con- 
tained some  cogent  reasoning,  and  carried 
great  weight  with  the  Council  of  the  Indies 
and  the  king. 

At  length,  on  the  report  of  the  royal  sur- 
veyor, Jean  Baptiste  Antonelli,  a  change 
was  effected,  but  by  it  Panama  remained 
undisturbed,  and  the  Atlantic  port  of  entry 
was  not  removed  from  Tierra  Firme,  be- 
cause another  site  was  selected  in  that  terri- 
tory. "If  it  might  please  your  majesty," 
wrote  Antonelli,  "it  were  good  that  the 
city  of  Nombre  de  Dios  be  brought  and 
builded  in  this  harbor."  By  "this  harbor" 
was  meant  that  of  the  village  of  Porto 
Bello,  which  was  situated  about  five  leagues 
west  of  Nombre  de  Dios.  Porto  Bello  had 
the  advantage  of  a  commodious  harbor  with 
good  anchorage,  and  could  readily  be  forti- 
fied against  attack  from  the  sea.  There, 
accordingly,  in  1597  was  founded  a  new  set- 
tlement, which  in  time  became  one  of  the 
most  important  as  well  as  one  of  the  most 
famous  cities  on  the  Atlantic  coast. 

Belen,  San  Sebastian,  Antigua,  and  Nom- 
bre de  Dios,  the  earliest  settlements,  had 
thus  either  wholly  or  partly  disappeared; 
another  was  Acla,  which  by  1580  was 
no  longer  existent. 


CHAPTER  IX 


THE  BUCCANEERS 

FORTIFICATIONS  OF  TIERRA  FIRME — PARKER  TAKES  PORTO  BELLO — THE  BUCCANEERS 
— FATE  OF  L'OLONNOIS — MANSVELT'S  ATTACK  ON  NATA  AND  CARTAGO — 
MORGAN'S  CAREER — SACK  OF  PORTO  BELLO — CAPTURE  OF  FORT  SAN  LORENZO 
— MORGAN'S  TRANS-ISTHMIAN  MARCH — CAPTURE  OF  PANAMA — DESTRUC- 
TION OF  PANAMA  BY  FIRE — MORGAN  CHEATS  His  COMRADES — HE  ESCAPES 
WITH  THE  SPOILS — His  SUBSEQUENT  CAREER — FOUNDATION  OF  NEW  PANAMA 
— ITS  FORTIFICATIONS — PORTO  BELLO  AGAIN  TAKEN  BY  PIRATES — THE  EM- 
PEROR OF  DARIEN — KING  GOLDEN-CAP — CAPTURE  OF  SANTA  MARIA — BATTLE 
IN  PANAMA  BAY — PANAMA  BLOCKADED — SAWKINS  ATTACKS  PUEBLO  NUEVO — 
His  DEATH — RAIDS  OF  CAPTAIN  SHARP — WATLING  ATTACKS  ARICA — His 
DEATH — SACK  OF  ESPARZA — SHARP  TAKES  THE  SAN  PEDRO — SHARP'S  RETURN 
TO  ENGLAND — His  TRIAL  AND  ACQUITTAL — DAMPIER  RECROSSES  THE  ISTHMUS 
— SURGEON  WAFER'S  EXPERIENCES — DAMPIER  JOINS  ANOTHER  BUCCANEER 
PARTY — THE  BUCCANEERS  OUTSIDE  PANAMA — THEY  FAIL  TO  TAKE  THE 
TREASURE  FLEET — DAMPIER'S  SUBSEQUENT  CAREER — CAPTAIN  TOWNLEY'S 
DEPREDATIONS — GROGNIET  AND  TOWNLEY  ATTACK  NICARAGUA — TOWNLEY 
CAPTURES  VILLA  DE  LOS  SANTOS — SECURES  IMMENSE  BOOTY — THE  BUC- 
CANEERS AMBUSCADED — DEATH  OF  TOWNLEY — DEPREDATIONS  IN  VERAGUA 
— FURTHER  RAIDS  OF  THE  BUCCANEERS — THEIR  OVERLAND  MARCH  TO  THE 
ATLANTIC — GARCIA  DEFEATS  PETITPIED — GARCIA  TURNS  TRAITOR — His  EX- 
PLOITS— His  DEATH — CAUSES  OF  THE  COLLAPSE  OF  THE  BUCCANEERS. 


THE  ravages  of  Drake  and  the  in- 
vasions of  other  adventurers  had 
proved  conclusively  that  the  coast 
guards  established  in  1529  by  the  governor  of 
Santo  Domingo,  with  instructions  to  seize 
every  ship  that  did  not  fly  the  flag  of  Spain 
and  to  enslave  its  crew,  were  ridiculously 
inadequate  to  the  grave  emergencies  which 
had  since  arisen.  It  was  evidently  neces- 
sary for  Spain  to  adopt  more  vigorous  meas- 
ures to  secure  her  distant  colonies  from  out- 
side attack.  We  accordingly  find  that  in 
1580  three  men-of-war  were  stationed  on 
the  coast  of  the  isthmus  as  a  protection 
against  pirates  and  raiders,  and  eleven 
years  later  a  larger  fleet  still  was  sent  for 
the  same  purpose  to  the  West  Indies.  But 
this  was  not  enough;  land  defenses  were 
essential.  Therefore  Cruces  and  other 
points  on  Tierra  Firme  were  fortified.  In 
J595  the  fort  of  San  Lorenzo  was  erected 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Chagre.  Standing  on 
a  high  rock  which  made  it  inaccessible  from 


the  south,  it  was  protected  on  its  northern 
side  by  the  river  which  there  widened. 
Four  bastions  with  big  guns  swept  the  land- 
ward approaches,  and  two  others  com- 
manded the  outlet  of  the  river,  which  a 
sunken  reef  and  sand  bar  made  still  more 
difficult  of  entry.  The  fortress  was  sur- 
rounded with  palisades  filled  in  with  earth. 
A  drawbridge,  which  spanned  a  yawning 
chasm  in  the  rock  thirty  feet  deep,  was  the 
sole  method  of  approach  to  its  one  and 
only  entrance.  San  Lorenzo  was  un- 
doubtedly a  strong  citadel. 

Still  stronger  were  the  defenses  of  Porto 
Bello.  We  have  seen  that  one  of  the  reasons 
for  the  removal  of  the  settlement  of  Nombre 
de  Dios  to  Porto  Bello  was  the  fact  that  the 
latter  place  could  be  much  more  easily  ren- 
dered secure  against  attack  from  the  sea. 
In  the  same  year  (1597)  in  which  the  re- 
moval took  place  artificers  were  sent  out 
from  Spain  to  erect  without  delay  the 
necessary  defensive  works,  and  by  them 


55 


HISTORY   OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


Porto  Bello  was  stoutly  fortified.  The 
fortress  of  San  Felipe,  with  thirty-five  great 
pieces  of  brass  ordnance  and  a  garrison  of 
fifty  soldiers,  protected  the  entrance  to  the 
harbor;  directly  opposite  it  was  a  smaller 
fort  named  Santiago,  with  five  pieces  of 
ordnance  and  thirty  soldiers;  in  Triana, 
an  eastern  suburb,  there  was  another  for- 
tified castle;  and  similar  forts  commanded 
all  the  approaches  by  land  and  sea.  In  the 
city  itself  the  King's  Treasure  House  was 
solidly  built,  and  was  always  guarded  by  a 
numerous  and  well  armed  force.  All  these 
defenses  were  soon  to  be  put  to  a  severe 
test. 

In  November,  1601,  Captain  William 
Parker,  with  200  men  and  two  ships,  two 
shallops,  and  a  pinnace,  sailed  from  Ply- 
mouth, and,  after  an  adventurous  voyage, 
during  which  he  had  several  successful  pirat- 
ical engagements,  he  arrived  off  the  island 
of  Bastimentos.  Here  he  embarked  150  of 
his  men  in  his  vessels  of  light  draught,  and 
entered  the  river  on  which  Porto  Bello  lies 
in  the  early  morning  hours  of  February  7, 
1602.  The  moonlight  showed  the  little 
flotilla  plainly  to  the  sentries  on  Fort  San 
Felipe,  and  those  watchers  of  the  night 
immediately  challenged  to  know  whence 
the  new  arrivals  came.  The  reply,  given 
purposely  in  Spanish  with  intent  to  de- 
ceive, was  that  they  had  come  from  Carta- 
gena. The  ruse  was  successful,  and  the 
strangers  were  ordered  to  anchor,  an  order 
with  which  they  at  once  complied.  Later, 
when  the  excitement  caused  by  his  coming 
had  somewhat  subsided,  Parker  contrived 
to  slip  past  both  San  Felipe  and  Santiago, 
and  landing  at  the  suburb  of  Triana,  he 
immediately  set  that  town  on  fire  and  made 
straight  for  Porto  Bello  itself.  Here  he 
found  the  governor,  a  brave  man  named 
Melendez,  at  the  head  of  a  squadron  of 
troops  ready  to  receive  him.  A  short  fight 
ensued,  which  resulted  in  favor  of  Parker, 
and  the  governor  and  his  party  had  to  take 
refuge  in  the  houses,  where  they  stood  a 
siege  of  four  or  five  hours,  and  then  sur- 
rendered. The  governor,  who  was  badly 
wounded,  and  several  leading  citizens  were 


made  prisoners.  The  raiders  found  in  the 
treasure-house  booty  to  the  value  of  10,000 
ducats,  and  elsewhere  in  the  town  large 
quantities  of  plate,  merchandise,  and 
money  were  secured.  Beyond  burning  a 
few  negro  huts  as  a  warning,  the  pirates 
did  no  damage  to  the  town,  and  having 
fairly  divided  the  booty  and  released  the 
prisoners  without  ransom,  Parker  and  his 
men,  on  two  Spanish  ships  that  they  found 
in  the  harbor,  sailed  down  the  river  and, 
determinedly  returning  the  fire  of  the  forts, 
got  safely  away. 

More  formidable  and  more  bloodthirsty 
were  the  next  foemen  by  whom  Tierra 
Firme  was  threatened.  All  the  bands  of 
sea-rovers  or  pirates,  English,  French,  and 
Dutch,  who  followed  in  the  wake  of  the 
Spaniards,  made  the  various  harbors  of  Santo 
Domingo  favorite  places  of  call,  because  wild 
cattle  were  plentiful  in  every  part  of  the 
island  and  ships  could  there  be  revictualled 
at  very  little  expense.  The  places  where 
the  flesh  of  the  cattle  was  dried  were  called 
"boucans,"  and  from  this  word  was  derived 
the  term  boucanier  or  buccaneer,  the  name 
by  which  those  raiders  of  the  seventeenth 
century  are  now  universally  known.  About 
1630  the  little  island  of  Tortuga  became  the 
headquarters  of  the  buccaneers.  In  1640 
they  amounted  to  300  men,  and  then  for 
the  first  time  selected  a  leader.  The  Span- 
iards, whose  dominions  they  devastated, 
naturally  looked  upon  them  as  enemies, 
but  by  the  other  European  powers  they 
were  secretly  regarded,  and  sometimes 
openly  treated  as  allies  and  friends.  In 
fact,  when  Cromwell's  British  troops  cap- 
tured Jamaica  in  1655,  they  were  materially 
helped  by  a  large  force  of  buccaneers. 

The  buccaneers  were  generally  men  of 
ferocious  mien  and  mind.  In  their  early 
history  a  few  of  them  stand  out  in  a  proud 
preeminence  of  wickedness  and  crime,  such 
as  Montbar,  Pierre  le  Grand,  and  Barto- 
lome  Portuguez;  but  the  most  dreaded  cut- 
throat of  them  all,  an  arch-fiend  in  cruelty 
and  ferocity,  was  Francois  L'Olonnois. 
Luckily,  for  the  purposes  of  this  narrative, 
we  have  not  to  chronicle  the  performances 


MORGAN  SACKS  PORTO  BELLO 


57 


of  L'Olonnois  further  than  to  say  that, 
after  a  revolting  career,  it  was  in  Darien 
that  he  met  his  end.  In  or  about  1665  he 
was  obliged  to  go  ashore  in  search  of  pro- 
visions, and  he  and  all  his  party  save  one 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  natives  and  were 
roasted  alive.  As  the  English  translator  of 
Esquemelin  puts  it,  "The  Indians  tore  him 
in  pieces  alive,  throwing  his  body  limb  by 
limb  into  the  Fire,  and  his  Ashes  into  the 
Air,  that  no  trace  or  memory  might  remain 
of  such  an  infamous  inhuman  Creature." 

Another  celebrated  buccaneer  was  Mans- 
velt.  About  the  year  1664  Mansvelt 
planned  to  sack  Nata  by  reaching  it  over- 
land from  the  Caribbean.  He  first  cap- 
tured the  island  of  Santa  Catarina,  where 
he  planted  a  buccaneer  settlement  and  left 
it  in  charge  of  one  St.  Simon,  a  Frenchman. 
He  then  proceeded  to  his  attack  on  Nata, 
but  found  such  extensive  preparations  made 
by  the  president  of  the  audiencia  of  Panama 
to  defend  it  that  he  had  to  give  up  his 
attempt  as  impracticable.  He  then  turned 
his  attention  to  Cartago,  the  capital  of 
Costa  Rica,  but  here  again  he  was  foiled. 
On  his  return  he  found  his  colony  on  Santa 
Catarina  flourishing  and  every  preparation 
made  to  retain  permanent  possession.  Suc- 
cessive appeals  to  the  governors  of  Jamaica 
and  Tortuga  to  aid  him  in  a  further  attack 
on  Cartago  proved  unavailing,  and  Mans- 
velt died  soon  after.  In  August  the  presi- 
dent of  Panama  recovered  with  but  little 
difficulty  Santa  Catarina  from  the  buc- 
caneers. 

Second  in  command  to  Mansvelt  in  his 
attempted  raid  was  Henry  Morgan,  whose 
name,  to  English-speaking  people  at  least, 
is  perhaps  better  known  than  that  of  any 
other  buccaneer.  Morgan  was  Welsh  by 
birth  and  belonged  to  a  respectable  family 
in  comfortable  circumstances.  Embarking 
while  still  a  mere  lad  on  board  a  ship  bound 
for  Barbados,  he  was  sold  as  a  slave  by 
the  ship's  master  when  the  vessel  touched 
port.  Having  contrived  to  escape,  he  made 
his  way  to  Jamaica,  where  he  joined  a  party 
of  raiders  who  were  about  to  start  for  the 
Spanish  West  Indies.  With  the  gains  of 


this  and  other  similar  expeditions,  he  was 
enabled  to  purchase  part  ownership  of  a 
vessel,  of  which  he  was  elected  captain,  and 
in  which  he  made  a  paying  trip  to  the  coast 
of  Campeche.  It  was  on  his  return  that 
he  was  appointed  vice-admiral  of  Mans- 
velt's  fleet.  On  Mansvelt's  death,  Morgan 
was  elected  captain-general  of  the  buc- 
caneers, a  position  which  gave  him  control 
of  twelve  ships  and  seven  hundred  men.  A 
raid  on  Puerto  Principe  in  Cuba  not  prov- 
ing financially  profitable,  Morgan  turned 
his  attention  to  Tierra  Firme,  on  the  coast 
of  which  he  appeared  with  nine  ships  and 
four  hundred  and  sixty  fightingmen  in  June, 
1668.  A  night  attack  was  then  planned 
on  Porto  Bello.  Having  first  taken  and 
blown  up  the  castle  of  Triana  with  its  de- 
fenders, he  advanced  on  the  town  itself, 
of  which,  after  some  desperate  hand-to- 
hand  fighting,  he  had  gained  complete  pos- 
session by  evening  of  the  following  day. 
The  scenes  that  ensued  are  beyond  descrip- 
tion. Having  secured  their  prisoners,  who 
were  nearly  all  wounded,  in  a  building  in 
which  they  had  neither  food,  water,  nor 
attendance,  the  victors  gave  themselves 
over  to  every  species  of  rioting  and  de- 
bauchery. Matron  and  maid  and  religious 
recluse  were  alike  the  victims  of  the  pirates' 
cruel  lust.  The  following  day  was  devoted 
to  the  plunder  of  the  churches  and  the 
houses  and  to  the  taking  of  more  prisoners. 
The  town  was  held  to  ransom  for  100,000 
pesos.  A  force  of  1,500  men,  sent  to  the 
rescue  by  the  president  of  Panama,  was  de- 
feated and  routed  by  100  picked  men  sent 
against  them  by  Morgan  and  posted  in  a 
narrow  defile  through  which  the  relieving 
army  had  to  pass.  For  fifteen  days  Mor- 
gan held  Porto  Bello,  and  then,  having  re- 
ceived the  stipulated  ransom  and  taken  the 
best  guns  of  the  fortresses  and  spiked  the 
remainder,  he  and  his  men  took  their  de- 
parture. At  Cuba,  to  which  they  steered, 
a  distribution  of  spoils  took  place.  The 
coin,  bullion,  and  jewels  were  valued  at 
260,000  pesos  and  there  were  besides  large 
quantities  of  silk,  linen,  cloth,  and  other 
merchandise. 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


This  notable  exploit  added  so  much  to 
Morgan's  reputation  that  crowds  of  re- 
cruits, French  as  well  as  English,  began  to 
swarm  to  his  standard,  and  soon  he  had  at 
his  command  a  flotilla  of  fifteen  vessels  and 
960  daredevil  fighters.  With  these  he 
made  forays  on  Maracaibo  and  Gibraltar 
in  the  modern  Venezuela,  retiring  there- 
from with  plunder  to  the  amount  of 
250,000  pesos,  in  addition  to  merchandise 
and  slaves. 

Morgan's  next  and  last,  as  wellas  his  great- 
est, pirateering  exploit  was  the  sack  of  Pana- 
ma. For  this  expedition  his  ranks  were  swell- 
ed with  recruits  from  Jamaica,  and  when  he 
assembled  his  forces  at  Cape  Tiburon,  he 
had  thirty-seven  ships  and  2,000  com- 
batants. Each  vessel  carried  cannon  vary- 
ing in  number  from  four  to  thirty  pieces. 
Morgan  took  the  title  of  admiral,  flew  the 
royal  standard  of  England  on  his  flag-ship, 
and  proceeded  to  make  war  in  regular  fash- 
ion on  Spain  in  her  new  world  dependen- 
cies. His  first  attempt  was  to  capture  Santa 
Catarina  once  more,  and  without  much  diffi- 
culty he  succeeded  in  gaining  possession  of 
it  and  of  a  well  fortified  adjacent  islet  on 
December  21,  1670.  Thence  he  dispatched 
Captain  Bradley  with  five  ships  and  400 
men,  and  instructed  him  to  capture  Fort  San 
Lorenzo  at  the  mouth  of  the  Chagre.  This 
was  a  difficult  task,  for,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  San  Lorenzo  was  admirably  planned 
for  defense,  and  just  then  it  was  garrisoned 
by  314  well  armed  veterans  and  a  number 
of  skilled  Indian  archers.  But  there  was  no 
resisting  the  onslaught  of  the  buccaneers. 
After  a  fierce  fight,  in  which  luck  greatly 
favored  the  attacking  party,  the  fortress 
fell.  The  fatalities  on  both  sides  were 
numerous.  Of  the  garrison  of  San  Lorenzo 
only  thirty  were  still  living  when  Bradley 
made  his  last  and  successful  advance  to 
storm  the  walls. 

As  soon  as  Morgan  learned  of  Bradley's 
success  he  came  up  with  the  remainder  of 
his  ships  and  men,  and  leaving  a  force  of 
500  to  guard  the  castle  and  150  to  guard 
the  fleet,  he  started  overland  for  Panama 
with  some  1300  adventurers.  The  way  was 


long  and  toilsome,  and  great  were  the  suf- 
ferings of  the  buccaneers  from  the  inclem- 
ency of  the  weather  as  well  as  from  hunger 
and  fatigue.  At  one  time  they  had  to  be 
content  with  a  diet  of  dried  hides;  at  an- 
other they  were  glad  to  kill  some  dogs  and 
cats  to  eat.  At  length  after  a  terrible  nine 
days'  march  they  came  in  sight  of  the  city 
of  their  quest.  Next  day  the  Spanish  forces 
to  the  number  of  400  horse  and  2,400  foot, 
with  some  few  pieces  of  artillery,  were 
drawn  up  to  oppose  them  on  a  plain  in 
front  of  the  city.  The  ensuing  battle  was 
fast  and  furious,  and  in  two  hours  victory 
rested  with  Morgan  and  his  men.  The 
city  was  then  easily  taken.  The  loot  found 
was  not  very  great,  being  cpnfined  prin- 
cipally to  a  few  gold  and  silver  utensils, 
concealed  in  wells,  and  to  silks  and  cloths, 
of  which  there  was  a  considerable  quan- 
tity, but  most  of  the  citizens  had  fled  to 
the  adjacent  islands  taking  with  them 
everything  that  could  be  conveniently  car- 
ried. No  sooner  were  the  buccaneers  in 
possession  than  several  of  the  largest  houses 
were  seen  to  be  in  flames,  and,  despite  all 
efforts  on  the  part  of  both  the  raiders  and 
the  inhabitants  to  check  the  progress  of  the 
fire,  practically  the  whole  city  was  burned 
down  before  midnight.  Disappointed  in 
the  booty  secured,  Morgan  determined  to 
remain  at  Panama  in  order  to  search  the 
surrounding  country,  sea,  and  islands,  and 
bring  in  whatever  valuables  could  be  found 
and  as  many  prisoners  as  could  be  taken 
with  a  view  to  their  subsequent  ransom. 
After  holding  his  ground  for  four  weeks  he 
started  on  February  24,  1671,  for  San 
Lorenzo,  with  six  hundred  prisoners  and 
175  pack-animals  carrying  the  spoils. 
When  it  came  to  a  division  of  the  booty, 
there  was  much  heart-burning,  for  each 
man  received  but  200  pesos,  whereas  a 
portion  of  2,000  or  3,000  pesos  had  been 
expected.  They  strongly  suspected  that 
Morgan  had  by  some  trick  managed  to 
secure  a  grossly  disproportionate  amount 
of  the  more  valuable  articles  for  himself, 
and  the  commander,  doubtless  well  aware 
of  the  correctness  of  the  surmise  and  fear- 


REBUILDING  OF  PANAMA 


59 


ing  for  his  own  safety  and  for  the  security 
of  his  ill-gotten  gains,  stole  away  by  night 
with  only  three  or  four  vessels  and  made 
for  Jamaica,  where  he  duly  arrived.  He 
there  engaged  in  the  formation  of  plans  for 
other  piratical  adventures,  but  the  political 
situation  had  changed,  peace  had  been  made 
between  England  and  Spain  in  1670,  the 
treaty  of  Madrid,  which  recognized  the 
English  possession  of  Jamaica  and  other 
territory  in  the  western  hemisphere,  had 
been  signed,  and  a  new  governor  had  been 
sent  to  that  island  with  instructions  to  see 
that  the  provisions  of  the  treaty  were 
strictly  enforced.  Morgan's  pirateering 
plans  were  thus  perforce  brought  to  a  pre- 
mature end;  but  the  new  state  of  affairs 
probably  suited  his  purpose  just  as  well. 
Taking  advantage  of  the  promulgation  of 
a  general  pardon  and  indemnity  for  all  past 
offences,  he  went  to  England,  where  he  was 
knighted,  appointed  a  lord  of  the  admiralty, 
and  finally  deputy  governor  of  Jamaica.  In 
this  latter  capacity  he  used  a  strong  hand 
in  putting  down  such  raids  as  those  in 
which  he  had  himself  once  taken  so  active 
a  part. 

Those  of  his  followers,  to  the  number  of 
700  or  800,  whom  he  had  left  in  the  lurch  at 
San  Lorenzo  soon  found  themselves  in  a 
pitiable  plight.  Their  only  resource  to  save 
themselves  from  absolute  starvation  was  to 
pillage  the  shores  of  Castilla  del  Oro,  and 
having  done  this  pretty  thoroughly,  they 
returned  to  Port  Royal  in  Jamaica,  with 
very  little  to  show  for  their  celebrated  sack 
of  the  wealthy  city  on  the  Pacific  shore. 

When  the  court  of  Spain  learned  of  the 
destruction  of  Panama,  orders  were  at  once 
issued  to  have  a  new  city  built  in  a  situa- 
tion where  it  could  be  strongly  fortified. 
The  site  selected  was  on  a  peninsula  at  the 
foot  of  the  hill  of  Ancon  about  two  leagues 
to  the  west  of  the  old  one,  and  here  a  city 
almost  in  the  form  of  a  square  was  planned. 
The  foundations  were  laid  in  1573.  A  deep 
moat,  with  entrances  through  three  massive 
gates,  separated  the  city  from  the  mainland. 
A  wall  ten  feet  wide  and  varying  in  height 
from  twenty  to  forty  feet,  and  provided  with 


forts  and  watch  towers  at  frequent  inter- 
vals, was  carried  clear  around  the  city.  On 
the  side  of  the  sea  coral  reefs  running  out 
for  fully  half  a  mile  prevented  the  near 
approach  of  any  large  vessel  even  at  high 
tide.  It  is  related  that  so  long  were  the 
walls  in  building  that  on  one  occasion  the 
Spanish  king,  being  asked  why  he  looked 
so  earnestly  toward  the  west  out  of  a  win- 
dow in  one  of  the  upper  rooms  in  his  palace 
at  Madrid,  replied  that  he  was  trying  to 
see  the  walls  of  New  Panama,  which,  he 
added,  were  so  expensive  that  they  ought 
to  be  high  enough  to  be  visible  from 
Europe ;  and  when  the  Council  of  the  Indies 
had  audited  the  accounts,  they  issued  the 
sarcastic  inquiry  whether  the  fortifications 
were  of  silver  or  of  gold.  Whatever  their 
cost,  the  fortifications  were  good  and  endur- 
ing and  served  their  purpose  well,  for  during 
Spanish  occupation  Panama  was  never 
sacked  again. 

Despite  treaties  of  peace  and  interna- 
tional agreements,  it  was  not  to  be  ex- 
pected that  lawless  men  like  the  buccaneers 
would  suddenly  abandon  their  favorite  en- 
terprises. Nor  did  they.  In  1679  Porto 
Bello  fell  again  a  prey  to  pirates,  who  de- 
spoiled it  of  several  thousand  pesos'  worth 
of  booty.  These  same  desperadoes  then 
joined  themselves  to  a  still  larger  force,  and 
made  a  league  with  the  natives  of  the  Sam- 
ballas  or  San  Bias  islands  and  the  Darien 
Indians  for  the  purpose  of  once  more  attack- 
ing Panama.  Under  the  guidance  of  the 
cacique  Andre's,  whom  they  styled  the  em- 
peror of  Darien,  they  sailed  with  seven  ships 
and  366  men  from  Golden  Island,  and  on 
April  5,  1680,  landed  on  Darien  under  the 
supreme  command  of  Captain  Bartholomew 
Sharp.  Accompanied  by  their  allies  under 
Andres,  they  first  marched  on  Santa  Maria, 
because  that  was  the  place  where  was  stored 
the  gold  from  the  adjacent  mines  for  subse- 
quent transportation  to  Panama.  On  the 
way  they  were  joined  by  another  friendly 
cacique,  and  further  on  they  came  to  an 
Indian  village  where  resided  Andres's  son, 
Antonio,  who,  from  his  usual  head-gear, 
received  from  the  freebooters  the  sobriquet 


6o 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


of  King  Golden-Cap,  and  who  joined  them 
with  150  of  his  followers.  They  arrived  at 
Santa  Maria  at  dawn  on  April  15  and  after 
a  short  struggle,  which  the  buccaneers 
mostly  carried  on  with  their  cutlasses, 
scarcely  using  their  firearms  at  all,  over- 
mastered the  garrison  of  260,  and  took 
possession  of  the  place.  Unfortunately  for 
them  a  shipment  of  gold  to  the  weight  of 
300  pounds  had  been  made  to  Panama 
a  few  days  before,  so  that  very  little 
booty  was  forthcoming.  They  held  the 
town  for  two  days  and  then  gave  it  over 
to  the  flames. 

From  this  point  there  was  some  hesitation 
about  advancing,  and  in  order  to  secure 
unanimous  action  Captain  Coxon  was 
elected  to  the  supreme  command.  Then  in 
thirty-five  canoes  and  a  piragua  they  pro- 
ceeded by  way  of  the  Santa  Maria  River  to 
the  Gulf  of  San  Miguel.  One  section  of  the 
pirates,  to  the  number  of  sixty-eight,  in 
a  piragua  and  some  canoes  was  attacked 
on  reaching  the  Bay  of  Panama  on  April 
23  by  three  Spanish  men-of-war,  and  a  hot 
fight  lasting  from  sunrise  to  noon  resulted 
in  the  defeat  of  the  Spaniards  and  the  cap- 
ture of  two  of  their  warships.  The  victors 
then  made  for  the  Island  of  Perico,  where 
they  found  five  ships  lying  at  anchor  and 
abandoned.  Two  of  these  they  burned,  one 
they  used  as  a  hospital  for  their  wounded, 
and  the  other  two  they  appropriated  for 
other  purposes.  They  also  burned  the 
warships  which  they  had  taken  in  the  bat- 
tle. Captain  Sharp,  who  had  gone  to  the 
Pearl  Islands  for  water  and  there  captured 
a  brigantine,  to  which  he  transferred  his 
crew,  was  delayed  by  contrary  winds  and 
therefore  was  absent  from  the  action,  but 
he  joined  his  comrades  two  days  later. 

The  freebooters  remained  for  about  ten 
days  before  Panama,  during  which  time 
Coxon  with  about  fifty  men  set  sail  with 
the  intention  of  going  back  to  the  North 
Sea.  He  was  accompanied  by  Andres  and 
Antonio  and  the  other  Darien  chief.  Those 
left  behind  sailed  on  May  2  under  Captain 
Sawkins,  who  had  been  appointed  to  suc- 
ceed Coxon,  to  the  island  of  Taboga,  es- 


tablished a  successful  blockade  of  Panama, 
and  made  prize  of  several  vessels.  From 
Taboga  they  went  to  Otoque  and  thence  to 
Quibo,  the  modern  Coquimbo,  off  the  coast 
of  Veragua.  From  Quibo  Sawkins  with 
sixty  men  made  an  attack  on  Pueblo  Nuevo, 
but  lost  his  life  while  heading  a  charge,  and 
the  attempt  on  the  settlement  proved  a 
failure.  Following  this  Sawkins's  men,  to 
the  number  of  about  seventy,  and  the  re- 
maining Indians  left  for  the  purpose  of 
recrossing  the  Isthmus. 

Sharp  was  now  once  more  in  command, 
and  with  the  146  men  still  remaining  under- 
took a  cruise  southward.  They  plundered 
many  towns,  captured  many  Spanish  ves- 
sels, and  secured  immense  booty.  Another 
dispute  having  arisen  as  to  whether  they 
should  return  or  continue  southward,  Sharp 
was  again  deposed  and  John  Watling  put 
in  his  place.  Sailing  northward  once  more, 
they  made  an  unsuccessful  attack  on  Arica, 
which  cost  Watling  his  life.  It  was  then 
proposed  that  Sharp  should  be  again  ap- 
pointed to  command,  but  on  this  question 
there  was  a  great  division  of  opinion,  and 
it  was  finally  agreed  to  put  the  matter  to  a 
vote  and  to  allow  the  minority,  if  dissatis- 
fied, to  take  the  long  boat  and  canoes  and 
go  where  they  chose.  The  majority  was 
found  to  be  on  the  side  of  Sharp,  and  the 
minority,  to  the  number  of  forty-seven,  un- 
der William  Dampier  made  their  way  to 
the  isthmus,  intending  to  return  overland 
to  the  Atlantic.  Sharp  continued  his  north- 
ward course,  but  did  not  try  to  molest. 
Panama.  He  sacked  and  burned  Esparza, 
where  he  took  many  prisoners,  and  then 
turning  southward  once  more,  he  captured 
the  San  Pedro  treasure  ship  with  37,000 
pesos,  and  plundered,  burned,  and  de- 
stroyed all  along  the  coast  of  South  Amer- 
ica. Rounding  Cape  Horn  safely  he  ar- 
rived at  the  Island  of  Antigua  on  February 
i,  1682.  There  the  crew  dispersed,  and 
those  who  could  manage  it  took  ship  for 
England.  Arrived  there,  Sharp  and  some 
of  his  followers  were,  at  the  instance  of  the 
Spanish  ambassador,  put  on  trial  for  piracy. 
Their  defence  was  that  they  had  for  their 


I.  Sir  Henry  Morgan. 

3.  Morgan's  attack  on  Panama.  —  From  Esquemeling,  1700. 


RAIDS  OF  THE  BUCCANEERS 

2.  Sacking  of  Porto  Bello.  —  From  Esquemeling,  1700. 


DAMPIER,  WAFER,  AND  TOWNLEY 


61 


acts  the  authority  of  commissions  from  the 
independent  caciques  of  Darien,  who,  as 
they  strongly  urged,  were  by  no  means  sub- 
jects of  Spain.  Either  on  this  plea  success- 
fully sustained  or  in  default  of  evidence 
sufficient  to  convict,  they  secured  a  verdict 
of  acquittal. 

Dampier  and  his  forty-six  comrades,  who 
had  seceded  from  Sharp's  party  at  Arica, 
succeeded  after  incredible  toil  and  hard- 
ships in  crossing  the  isthmus  in  twenty- 
three  days  with  the  loss  of  only  one  man. 
Rowing  over  from  the  mouth  of  the  Con- 
cepcion  River  to  La  Sound  Key,  one  of  the 
Samballas  group  of  islands,  they  were  there 
taken  aboard  a  French  privateer,  and  their 
wanderings  were  thus  brought  to  a  tem- 
porary end. 

A  surgeon,  Lionel  Wafer,  who  was  one  of 
Dampier's  party,  was  wounded  by  an  ex- 
plosion of  gunpowder,  and  with  four  others 
remained  behind  in  an  Indian  village, 
where  they  were  kindly  treated  and  Wafer 
was  carefully  nursed  back  to  health.  They 
remained  for  several  months  among  the 
Indians,  but  eventually  rejoined  some  of 
their  comrades  in  the  West  Indies.  Wafer 
learned  the  language  of  the  natives  and 
noted  their  occupations  and  customs,  as  well 
as  the  physical  features  of  the  country,  and 
gave  to  the  world  the  record  of  his  experi- 
ence and  observations  in  his  interesting 
"  New  Voyage  and  Description  of  the  Isth- 
mus of  America,"  which  was  published  at 
London  in  1699. 

Dampier  had  evidently  an  adventurous 
and  roving  disposition,  for  we  find  him  in 
August,  1683,  engaging  in  a  buccaneering 
expedition  under  Captains  Cook  and  Eaton, 
which,  on  reaching  the  western  coast  of 
South  America,  was  swelled  by  new  arri- 
vals, French  and  English,  at  different 
points.  On  the  death  of  Cook  off  Cape 
Blanco  in  Costa  Rica  Captain  John  Davis 
received  the  command.  The  history  of  this 
expedition  is  very  interesting,  but  for  the 
purposes  of  the  present  narrative  only  one 
or  two  points  in  connection  therewith  seem 
to  require  notice. 

The  first  was  the  engagement  of  the  buc- 


caneers with  the  Spanish  treasure  fleet  out- 
side Panama  on  May  28,  1685,  and  their 
failure  to  take  it  owing  to  a  clever  stratagem 
adopted  by  the  Spanish  admiral.  The  ex- 
pedition having,  like  the  one  last  described, 
subsequently  split  into  different  sections, 
Dampier  went  with  Captain  Swan  to 
Mexico  and  thence  across  the  Pacific  to  the 
Ladrone  Islands  and  the  Philippines.  Here 
there  was  a  mutiny,  and  Swan,  with  some 
forty  of  his  men,  was  put  ashore  on  the 
island  of  Mindanao,  where  he  was  eventually 
murdered  by  the  natives.  Dampier  landed 
at  the  Nicobar  Islands  and  did  not  return 
to  England  until  1691.  He  afterwards  en- 
gaged in  other  voyages  of  a  more  orthodox 
character,  and  survived  until  about  1712. 
He  published  at  London  in  three  volumes, 
1697-1709,  a  fascinating  account  of  his 
wanderings  with  Cook,  Davis,  and  Swan, 
under  the  title  of  "A  New  Voyage  Around 
the  World." 

The  second  matter  of  interest  referred  to 
above  has  to  do  with  the  depredations  on 
Tierra  Firme  of  Captain  Townley  and  a 
combined  force  of  French  and  English 
pirates  under  his  command.  Townley,  who 
had  joined  the  main  expedition  on  March  3, 
1685,  had  at  first  accompanied  Swan  when 
the  division  of  forces  was  effected,  but 
parted  company  with  him  off  the  Mexican 
coast,  and  had  then  fallen  in  with  the 
French  captain  Grogniet  and  joined  him  in 
April  and  May,  1686,  in  attacks  on  Gran- 
ada, Realejo,  and  Chinandega,  all  of  which 
places  they  took  without  securing  much 
booty.  On  the  9th  of  May  the  com- 
manders separated,  and  Townley  and  his 
band  of  Frenchmen  and  Englishmen  made 
on  their  own  account  a  descent  on  Villa 
de  los  Santos  on  the  Rio  Cubita,  where 
they  secured  loot  in  money  and  merchan- 
dise to  the  value  of  over  1,500,000  pesos, 
besides  taking  300  prisoners.  On  their  re- 
turn to  the  shore  with  their  spoils,  they  were 
ambuscaded  several  times  by  the  Span- 
iards and  suffered  many  losses  in  killed 
and  wounded,  and  had  the  further  mortifi- 
cation of  seeing  their  booty  recaptured. 
Finally  negotiations  were  entered  into,  and 


62 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA  CANAL 


the  prisoners  were  ransomed.  The  buc- 
caneers then  proceeded  to  the  Pearl  Islands, 
and  for  two  months  terrorized  the  whole 
Bay  of  Panama,  capturing  numerous  ves- 
sels with  great  slaughter,  and  descending  on 
the  land  almost  at  will.  In  one  naval  en- 
gagement Townley  was  mortally  wounded 
and  died  on  September  8,  1686.  His  fol- 
lowers devoted  themselves  for  the  remain- 
der of  the  year  to  depredations  on  the  coast 
of  Veragua  and  in  the  adjacent  islands  and 
bays.  Joined  once  more  by  Grogniet  early 
in  1687,  they  harassed  the  shores  of  South 
and  Central  America  and  Mexico,  and  then, 
having  acquired  great  wealth,  they  decided 
to  return  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  enjoy  their 
riches,  and  take  their  ease.  Starting  out 
280  strong  on  January  2,  1688,  they  made 
a  famous  march  overland  from  Segovia  to 
Cape  Gracias  d  Dios,  encountering  and 
overcoming  on  the  way  great  dangers  alike 
from  man  and  nature ;  reached  the  Atlantic 
on  March  9 ;  and  succeeded  in  gaining  the 
French  and  English  settlements  in  the  West 
Indies,  where  they  were  finally  dispersed. 
One  of  them,  Raveneau  de  Lussan,  pub- 
lished at  Paris  in  1689  his  account  of  the 
events  of  the  expedition  under  the  simple 
title  of  "Journal  d'un  Voyage." 

The  last  piratical  affair  of  importance 
with  which  we  are  called  upon  to  deal 
occurred  in  1726,  when  the  mestizo,  Luis 
Garcia,  was  commissioned  by  the  governor 
of  Panama  to  employ  Indians  for  the  pur- 
pose of  wiping  out  the  French  filibusters, 
whose  devastations  on  the  coast  of  Tierra 
Firme  were  still  continued.  The  result  was 
the  victory  of  Garcia,  the  death  of  Petitpied 
the  leader  of  the  French,  and  the  break-up 
of  his  marauding  band.  Encouraged  by  his 
success,  Garcia  himself  then  turned  traitor 
to  the  Spaniards,  and  persuading  some  of 


the  caciques  of  Darien  to  throw  off  Spanish 
allegiance  and  form  a  government  of  their 
own,  he  began  an  insurrectionary  campaign, 
in  which  at  first  he  made  ready  progress, 
marching  from  the  River  Yavisa  to  Santa 
Maria,  killing  and  despoiling  as  he  went. 
Santa  Maria  itself  was  also  taken  and 
burned.  These  proceedings  naturally 
aroused  considerable  alarm,  and  the  presi- 
dent of  Panama  sent  out  a  body  of  picked 
men  to  suppress  the  revolt.  At  the  same 
time  he  offered  to  reward  any  one  who 
would  bring  in  the  body  of  Garcia,  dead 
or  alive.  This  proved  to  be  an  excellent 
tactical  move,  for  the  mestizo  perished 
at  last  ignominiously  at  the  hands  of  a 
negro.  With  the  death  of  the  leader  the 
insurrection  was  suppressed. 

The  trend  of  political  affairs  in  Europe: 
the  Peace  of  Ryswick  in  1697;  the  ascent 
of  the  Spanish  throne  by  Philip  V.,  the 
first  of  the  Bourbon  dynasty,  in  1700;  the 
War  of  the  Spanish  Succession  from  1702 
to  1713;  and  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  in  the 
last  mentioned  year:  all  tended  to  disin- 
tegrate the  buccaneers.  In  particular,  the 
feelings  of  antipathy  between  the  French 
and  the  English  nations,  which  the  great 
twelve  years'  war  with  its  varying  fortunes 
did  so  much  to  arouse  and  maintain,  has- 
tened the  snapping  of  the  bond  of  union 
that  had  hitherto  linked  French  filibuster 
and  English  privateer  in  one  common  cause 
under  the  common  name  of  buccaneers. 
But,  in  addition  to  all  that,  the  policy  of 
the  buccaneers,  being  based  primarily  on 
destruction,  did  not  contain  in  itself  the 
elements  of  permanency,  and  was  bound 
sooner  or  later  to  bring  their  great  but 
loose- jointed  organization  to  an  end.  The 
pressure  of  outside  affairs  served  only  to 
hasten  its  inevitable  collapse. 


CHAPTER  X 


THE  DARIEN  SCHEME 

WILLIAM  PATERSON — His  EARLY  LIFE — PROPOSES  THE  DARIEN  SCHEME — FOUNDS  THE 
BANK  OP  ENGLAND — REVIVES  THE  DARIEN  SCHEME  IN  SCOTLAND — OPPOSITION 
IN  ENGLAND — ENTHUSIASTIC  SUPPORT  IN  SCOTLAND — THE  FIRST  EXPEDITION — 
FOUNDING  OF  NEW  EDINBURGH — ACTION  OF  THE  SPANIARDS — ACTION  OF  KING 
WILLIAM  III — FAILURE  OF  THE  FIRST  EXPEDITION — ABANDONMENT  OF  NEW 
EDINBURGH — THE  SECOND  EXPEDITION — ITS  FAILURE — THE  THIRD  EXPEDI- 
TION— THE  SCOTS  DEFEAT  THE  SPANIARDS — SIEGE  OF  NEW  EDINBURGH — ITS 
CAPITULATION  AND  SURRENDER — END  OF  THE  DARIEN  SCHEME — AFTER-CA- 
REER OF  PATERSON — His  DEATH — His  CHARACTER. 


THE  possibilities  of  Panama,  or  at  least 
a  portion  of  it,  as  a  great  commercial 
entrep6t  for  the  trade  of  the  East  and 
the  West  appealed  forcibly  to  William  Pat- 
erson,  who,  in  a  wholly  dispassionate  view, 
must  be  allowed  to  have  possessed  one  of 
the  keenest  financial  minds  of  the  late 
seventeenth  and  early  eighteenth  centuries. 
Paterson  was  born  in  April,  1658,  on  the 
farm  of  Skipmyre,  in  the  parish  of  Tine- 
wald,  in  Dunfriesshire,  Scotland.  He  lived 
there  until  he  was  about  seventeen  years 
old,  when  religious  persecution  combined 
with  natural  ambition  to  drive  him  forth 
to  seek  his  fortune.  His  mercantile  begin- 
nings were  necessarily  humble,  and  we  find 
that  he  carried  a  peddler's  pack  through  a 
considerable  portion  of  England.  He 
finally  drifted  to  Bristol,  then  a  port  of 
great  importance,  and  thence  he  shipped 
for  America.  His  principal  place  of  abode 
in  the  New  World  appears  to  have  been 
the  Bahamas.  His  career  there  is  shrouded 
in  mystery,  for  what  he  did  no  one  can 
exactly  tell.  He  is  said  by  some  to  have 
been  a  preacher,  by  others  a  missionary, 
and  by  others  again,  a  buccaneer.  It  is 
probable  enough  that  he  was  something  of 
all.  From  the  buccaneers,  in  any  case, 
as  well  as  from  personal  inspection,  he 
derived  that  information  regarding  the 
geography  and  conditions  of  Tierra  Firme 
from  which  he  evolved  the  vast  design 
which  is  known  to  history  as  the  Darien 
Scheme. 


Returning  to  England,  Paterson  en- 
deavored to  interest  the  ministry  in  his 
plans,  but  both  James  II  and  his  advisers 
gave  him  the  deaf  ear.  He  then  (1687) 
passed  over  to  the  continent,  but  met  with 
no  greater  success  in  Hamburg,  Amsterdam, 
or  Berlin.  Yielding  for  the  time,  he  re- 
turned to  London,  engaged  in  business,  and 
very  quickly  amassed  a  fortune.  He  always 
had  big  things  in  his  mind.  Thus  we  find 
him,  about  1690-1692,  associated  with  two 
others  in  forming  the  Hampstead  Water 
Company;  and  neither  then  nor  since  have 
promoters  of  waterworks  engaged  in  their 
operations  for  philanthropy  alone. 

But  a  bigger  enterprise  still  was  soon 
hatched  in  Paterson's  fertile  brain.  He  saw 
that  not  only  the  mercantile  community 
but  also  the  government  itself  were  in  sore 
need  of  better  banking  accommodations 
than  then  prevailed.  In  any  sudden  emer- 
gency a  public  loan  could  not  be  negotiated, 
even  on  the  gilt-edged  security  of  the  land- 
tax,  at  less  than  eight  per  cent,  interest,  and 
then  only  after  much  delay  and  urgent  en- 
treaty; but  the  rate  was  more  usually  ten 
or  twelve  than  eight.  To  change  conditions 
so  irksome,  Paterson  had  already  proposed 
the  foundation  of  a  national  bank  in  1691 ; 
but  the  "interests"  of  that  day,  accustomed 
to  fatten  on  usurious  profits  and  enraged  at 
anything  that  threatened  their  monopoly, 
were  powerful  enough  to  have  the  matter 
postponed.  Paterson,  however,  knowing 
how  valuable  his  plan  was  and  being  of  a 


64 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


determined  and  persevering  nature,  brought 
his  proposal  before  the  cabinet  again  in 
1693,  and,  despite  a  strong  and  even  stormy 
opposition,  it  was  ratified  by  parliament, 
and  by  charter  granted  under  the  Acts  5 
and  6,  William  III.,  C.  20,  the  Bank  of 
England  came  into  existence  on  July  27, 
1694. 

As  is  the  case  with  all  great  financial  un- 
dertakings, the  underlying  idea  of  the  Bank 
of  England  was  extremely  simple.  The 
company  advanced  to  the  government 
£1,200,000  in  consideration  of  receiving  an 
annuity  of  £100,000  made  up  of  eight  per 
cent,  by  way  of  interest  and  £4,000  for  ex- 
penses of  management.  The  beneficial 
effects  of  this  institution  were  speedily  ap- 
parent, and  went  forward  so  rapidly  that 
during  the  reign  of  George  I  the  normal 
national  rate  of  interest  was  only  three  per 
cent.,  and  the  government  seldom  had  to 
pay  more  than  four. 

Paterson  was  one  of  the  original  directors 
of  the  Bank,  but  in  less  than  a  year  he  came 
forward  with  another  great  scheme  for  an 
"Orphan  Bank,"  and  as  his  fellow-directors 
were  afraid  of  the  competition  which  the 
proposed  new  institution  might  cause,  and 
as  in  any  case  they  were  rather  fearful  of 
the  able  Scotsman  whose  brain  teemed  with 
one  financial  plan  after  another,  friction  en- 
sued, and  the  founder  of  the  Bank  of 
England  had  to  retire  from  its  board. 

At  this  juncture  Paterson  was  attracted 
to  the  possibilities  which  seemed  to  be 
offered  to  a  man  of  financial  genius  by  his 
native  land.  The  Scottish  people  were 
naturally  anxious  to  share  in  the  super- 
abundant trade  which  at  that  time  was 
rapidly  enriching  England.  Already  in 
1693  the  Scottish  parliament,  with  an  eye 
to  the  promotion  of  commerce,  had  passed 
an  act  under  which  letters  patent  were  to 
be  granted  to  all  who  would  set  up  new 
manufactures,  establish  new  settlements, 
or  carry  on  any  new  trade.  Taking  advan- 
tage of  the  opening  thus  offered,  some 
Englishmen,  who  had  been  trying  to  cut 
into  the  trade  of  the  East  India  Company 
and  had  been  defeated  by  that  company  in 


the  English  parliament,  entered  into  nego- 
tiations with  some  Scottish  merchants,  who 
undertook  to  procure  from  their  own  par- 
liament a  special  act  for  the  foundation  of 
a  new  colony. 

This  was  just  the  opportunity  that  Pater- 
son needed.  He  proceeded  to  Edinburgh, 
where  he  paraded  his  knowledge  of  Amer- 
ica, and  hinted  not  obscurely  that  he  pos- 
sessed a  great  secret,  that,  in  fact,  he  knew 
in  those  distant  parts  a  country  in  which 
there  were  no  Spaniards,  in  which  there 
were  rich  gold  mines  in  plenty,  and  which 
was  ideally  situated  for  trade  with  all  parts 
of  the  world.  He  did  not  at  first  name  this 
mysterious  and  happy  territory,  but  sug- 
gested that  the  West  Indies  ought  to  be 
included  in  the  scope  of  the  proposed  bill. 
The  result  was  that  in  1695  an  act  of  the 
Scottish  parliament  established  the  "  Com- 
pany of  Scotland  trading  to  Africa  and  the 
Indies."  To  this  act  William  III,  then  in 
camp  in  Flanders,  hastily  gave  the  royal 
assent.  Then  Paterson  named  his  promised 
land.  It  was  in  the  Isthmus  of  Darien  that 
he  proposed  settlements  should  be  estab- 
lished both  on  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific 
coast,  which  settlements,  he  prophesied, 
should  "hold  the  keys  of  the  commerce  of 
the  world."  To  English  adventurers  the 
whole  plan  was  so  alluring  that  in  nine  days 
they  subscribed  £300,000,  or  half  the  capi- 
tal stock.  The  scheme,  indeed,  was  con- 
ceived on  new  and  generous  lines.  Trade 
was  to  be  free,  ships  of  every  nation  were 
to  have  the  privilege  of  putting  into  the 
harbors  of  the  projected  settlements,  and 
no  distinction  of  race  or  religion  was  to  be 
made. 

Immediately  the  English  parliament  was 
up  in  arms.  The  House  of  Lords  invited 
the  House  of  Commons  to  a  conference, 
and  a  joint  address  was  drawn  up  and  pre- 
sented to  the  king.  This  address  stated 
that  the  Scottish  Company  was  likely  to 
cause  much  damage  to  English  trade,  which 
stood  the  chance  of  being  diverted  to  Scot- 
land, and  that  in  particular  the  setting  up 
of  Scottish  plantations  in  America  would 
prove  of  great  detriment  to  English  com- 


FOUNDING  OF  NEW  EDINBURGH 


merce  in  tobacco,  cotton,  sugar,  wool,  and 
masts.  The  Commons  even  went  so  far  as 
to  pass  a  resolution  declaring  that  the  di- 
rectors of  the  new  company  were  guilty  of 
high  crimes  and  misdemeanors,  and  clam- 
ored for  their  impeachment.  All  this  stirred 
the  phlegmatic  William  to  action,  and  he 
dismissed  from  office  the  lord  high  com- 
missioner of  Scotland  and  the  two  Scottish 
secretaries  of  state,  and  gave  it  to  be  un- 
derstood that  when  he  signed  the  act  he 
had  been  deceived  as  to  its  true  intent. 
This  action  on  the  part  of  the  king  gave 
satisfaction  in  England,  and  quieted  the 
East  India  Company,  which  was  at  the 
bottom  of  the  opposition.  Another  very 
practical  result  was  that  the  English  sub- 
scriptions were  withdrawn,  and  a  similar 
amount  subscribed  in  Hamburg  was,  under 
threat  from  England,  also  cancelled. 

In  Scotland,  on  the  other  hand,  a  wave 
of  indignation  spread  over  the  whole  coun- 
try at  an  opposition  which  was  avowedly 
based  on  trade  jealousy,  and  money  poured 
in  from  all  quarters,  from  the  Highlands  as 
well  as  from  the  Lowlands,  in  aid  of  a 
scheme  which  promised  to  promote  Scot- 
tish trade,  to  minister  to  Scottish  glory, 
and  to  bring  confusion  and  dismay  to  the 
monopolists  across  the  border.  Duchesses 
and  provosts  were  among  the  subscribers; 
maids  paid  in  their  dowries  and  widows  sold 
their  jointures  to  swell  the  company's  funds 
with  the  proceeds.  Altogether  a  sum  of 
£400,000  was  speedily  forthcoming. 

With  part  of  the  money  an  expedition  was 
equipped.  Five  large  vessels,  freighted  with 
merchandise,  military  stores,  and  provis- 
sions,  were  got  ready.  There  was  no  lack  of 
volunteers.  The  aristocracy  sent  their 
younger  sons  in  the  firm  belief  that  they 
were  thus  putting  them  on  the  high  road 
to  prosperity;  feudal  lords  and  landowners 
stripped  their  estates  to  send  out  their  vas- 
sals and  tenantry;  and  many  army  officers, 
who  found  their  former  occupation  taken 
from  them  by  the  Treaty  of  Ryswick  con- 
cluded in  1697,  volunteered  for  service  in 
the  El  Dorado  of  the  west.  Altogether 
1,200  persons  embarked,  and  hundreds  of 


others,  mostly  soldiers  and  sailors,  were 
with  difficulty  restrained  from  stowing 
themselves  away  in  the  ships.  Practically 
the  whole  population  of  Edinburgh  poured 
down  to  Leith  to  witness  the  departure  of 
the  national  argosy  on  July  26,  1698,  and 
amid  the  blessings  and  prayers  of  the  nation 
the  ships  weighed  anchor  and  stood  out  to 
sea. 

For  some  reason,  which  is  not  now  very 
plain,  Paterson  had  at  first  no  place  of  honor 
or  command,  but  nevertheless  he  and  his 
wife  and  her  maid,  as  well  as  a  few  other 
women,  were  among  those  who  embarked. 
At  Madeira,  however,  where  the  ships 
touched  on  August  29,  Paterson  was  ap- 
pointed on  the  Council  to  which  the  directors 
of  the  company  had  entrusted  the  direction 
of  the  affairs  of  the  proposed  colony.  The 
expedition  had  more  than  average  good 
luck,  for  on  the  voyage  only  forty-four  of 
the  intending  colonists  died.  After  sundry 
calls  on  the  way  the  fleet  at  length  anchored 
off  Golden  Island.  They  landed  on  the 
mainland  on  November  3,  took  possession, 
and  started  a  settlement,  to  which  they 
gave  the  name  of  New  Edinburgh.  A  little 
fort  erected  to  command  the  harbor  with  a 
battery  of  sixteen  guns  they  called  Fort  St. 
Andrew.  The  country  was  named  Cale- 
donia, and  the  harbor  and  surrounding 
water  became  known  as  Caledonia  Bay. 
Friendly  relations  were  at  once  established 
with  the  neighboring  native  chieftains,  and 
treaties  of  friendship,  union,  and  perpetual 
confederation  were  entered  into  with  them. 

These  proceedings  naturally  aroused  the 
ire  of  the  Spaniards.  The  Spanish  ambas- 
sador at  London  committed  to  writing  a 
formal  protest,  and  the  governor  of  Panama 
and  Cartagena  took  the  more  practical  step 
of  gathering  land  and  sea  forces  to  expel 
the  interlopers.  Partly  to  conciliate  Spain, 
and  partly  to  placate  his  English  subjects 
at  home  and  in  the  New  World,  King  Will- 
iam III  issued  orders  to  the  governors  of 
Virginia,  New  York,  New  England, 
Jamaica,  and  Barbados,  directing  them  to 
refuse  food  or  other  assistance  to  the  Darien 
colonists,  and  to  make  proclamation  pro- 


66 


HISTORY   OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


hibiting  their  people  from  holding  any  com- 
munication with  them. 

Against  the  effects  of  these  prohibitions 
and  proclamations  the  Scottish  colonists 
might  in  time  have  made  headway,  and  with 
the  aid  of  the  Indians  they  might  have  been 
able  to  repel  the  attacks  of  the  Spanish  set- 
tlers; but  other  causes  were  at  work  to 
bring  about  their  downfall.  About  three 
hundred  of  them  belonged  to  the  gentleman 
class,  and  were  as  unfitted  for  manual 
labor  as  they  were  unaccustomed  to  it  and 
scornful  of  it.  The  others,  hardy  sons  of 
a  northern  clime  and  willing  enough  to 
work,  were  unable  to  cope  with  the  tem- 
perature of  the  tropics.  The  councillors 
were  incompetent  and  were  continually 
quarrelling  among  themselves.  No  word 
of  any  sort  reached  them  from  the  directors 
of  the  company  in  Scotland ;  and  that  was 
discouraging.  Their  Indian  allies,  remem- 
bering the  exploits  of  the  buccaneers,  were 
disappointed  and  disgusted  on  finding  that 
so  large  a  force  did  not  proceed  at  once  to 
attack  the  common  foe,  and  were  contin- 
ually bringing  in  alarming  reports  of  the 
threatening  movements  of  the  Spaniards. 
Scarcity  of  provisions  led  to  disease,  and 
disease  brought  on  death,  among  the  vic- 
tims being  Paterson's  wife.  Utterly  dis- 
couraged and  dismayed,  alike  by  their  ex- 
perience and  their  prospects,  the  colonists, 
having  lost  more  than  a  quarter  of  their 
original  number,  finally  determined  to 
abandon  their  ill-starred  enterprise,  and 
sailed  for  New  York,  en  route  for  Scotland, 
on  June  20,  1699.  The  last  man  to  embark 
was  Paterson,  and,  as  he  was  suffering  from 
a  fever,  he  had  to  be  carried  on  board,  pro- 
testing vehemently  all  the  time  against  the 
too  hasty  evacuation  of  New  Edinburgh. 
On  the  way  400  died,  and  the  survivors 
made  their  way  back  to  Scotland  in  one 
out  of  the  five  ships  on  which  a  few  months 
earlier  they  had  set  sail  from  Leith  with 
such  high  hopes. 

Paterson's  protests  had  been  unavailing; 
but  they  were  justified.  It  was  a  pity  that 
the  Scottish  colonists  did  not  hold  out  a 
little  longer  than  they  did,  for  at  the  very 


moment  they  abandoned  their  settlement 
relief  was  on  the  way.  Towards  the  end 
of  December,  1698,  the  first  report  from 
the  colony  had  been  despatched  home  in 
charge  of  Alexander  Hamilton,  and  as  it 
brought  the  welcome  intelligence  that  the 
colony  was  established,  that  no  disaster 
had  been  incurred,  and  that  few  deaths 
had  taken  place,  it  was  received  with  great 
satisfaction,  thanksgiving  services  were 
held  in  the  churches,  and  the  populace  man- 
ifested its  joy  by  bonfires  and  the  ringing  of 
bells.  A  vessel  with  supplies  was  equipped 
and  sent  out,  but  it  was  wrecked  on  the 
Scottish  shore.  Two  other  ships  with  300 
recruits  and  plentiful  supplies  were  next 
hurried  off  in  May,  and  reached  Darien 
safely  in  August,  only  to  find  New  Edin- 
burgh deserted  and  their  fellow  countrymen 
departed. 

This  second  expedition  had  exceptional 
good  luck  on  the  way  out,  for  only  one  man 
died,  but  after  they  arrived,  disaster  came 
upon  them  rapidly.  Despite  the  absence 
of  the  large  number  of  colonists  whom  they 
expected  to  find,  they  had  decided  to  re- 
main in  possession,  in  the  expectation  of 
succor  from  another  relief  party  which  they 
knew  was  being  prepared  at  home;  but  of 
their  two  ships  that  one  which  contained 
most  of  their  supplies  was  accidentally  de- 
stroyed by  fire.  This  calamity  decided 
them  in  turn  to  abandon  Darien,  and  they 
sailed  for  Jamaica,  where  many  of  them 
sickened  and  died.  Twelve  venturesome 
spirits  remained  behind  at  New  Edinburgh 
to  await  the  arrival  of  the  third  expedition. 

That  expedition,  the  largest  of  them  all, 
was  speedily  on  the  way.  It  consisted  of 
four  ships,  with  1,300  persons  and  an  am- 
ple supply  of  provisions.  It  left  Scotland 
on  September  24,  1699,  and  after  losing  160 
lives  on  the  journey,  reached  Caledonia 
Bay  on  November  30.  There  they  found 
a  member  of  the  first  colonizing  party  in 
the  person  of  Captain  Thomas  Drummond, 
who  had  returned  in  a  sloop  from  New  York 
to  take  a  hand  in  the  resettlement  of 
Darien.  The  twelve  sturdy  leftovers  from 
the  second  expedition  were  also  located,  liv- 


COLLAPSE  OF  THE  DARIEN  SCHEME 


ing  peaceably  among  the  Indians.  The  new 
colonists  landed,  cleared  the  ground,  built 
new  huts,  and  renewed  friendly  relations 
with  the  natives.  But  the  new  councillors 
were  no  improvement  on  the  first,  plots 
were  formed  against  them,  and  dissension 
prevailed.  Disease  and  death  were  rife, 
and  always  there  was  danger  from  the  en- 
raged Spaniards.  Drummond,  whose  acts 
bespeak  him  a  man  of  spirit,  offered  to  take 
150  volunteers  and  some  Indians  and  pro- 
ceed to  attack  the  Spaniards  in  Porto  Bello. 
But  the  dominant  mind  in  the  council 
was  that  of  James  Byres,  a  fanatic  who 
held  that  it  was  unlawful  for  Christians, 
under  the  New  Testament  dispensation,  to 
make  any  war,  and  accordingly  the  council, 
far  from  listening  to  Drummond 's  courage- 
ous proposal,  had  its  author  arrested  and 
put  in  chains  on  some  trumped-up  charge 
of  concocting  a  plot  to  seize  the  vessels  and 
sail  away. 

Matters  were  thus  on  a  precarious  foot- 
ing when  Captain  Alexander  Campbell, 
who  had  been  appointed  by  the  directors 
governor  or  commander  of  Caledonia  by  land 
and  sea,  arrived  at  New  Edinburgh  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1700,  with  a  sloop  full  of  provisions. 
Campbell  first  released  Drummond  from 
his  chains,  and  then  set  out  with  200  Scots- 
men and  forty  Indians  to  do  battle  with 
the  Spaniards,  whom  his  native  scouts  re- 
ported to  be  coming.  The  opposing  forces 
met  at  a  place  called  variously  Yoratuba 
and  Topocante".  The  Spaniards,  with 
mulattos,  Creoles,  and  negroes  to  the  total 
of  300  or  400,  under  the  command  of  Miguel 
de  Cordonez,  had  barricaded  themselves 
on  a  hill,  but  the  Scots  carried  the  palisades 
with  a  rush,  and,  after  a  hot  engagement, 
the  Spaniards  fled. 

This  initial  success  seemed  to  be  of  good 
augury  for  the  new  governor's  administra- 
tion ;  but  the  danger  sprang  from  an  unex- 
pected quarter.  On  February  25,  eleven 
Spanish  sail  appeared  in  the  offing  and 
drove  in  the  boats  belonging  to  the  settle- 
ment. Troops  also  came  up  overland  from 
Panama  and  Santa  Maria.  The  result  was 
that  the  Darien  colonists  were  closely  be- 


leagured  by  land  and  sea.  To  add  to  their 
miseries  there  was  great  sickness  among 
them  and  many  deaths  ensued,  and  both 
provisions  and  ammunition  ran  low.  They 
were  thus  from  every  point  of  view  in 
a  pitiable  plight,  and  they  were  there- 
fore very  glad  when  the  Spanish  general, 
Don  Juan  Pimienta,  governor  of  Cartagena 
and  Panama,  sent  them  word  on  March  30 
that  he  wished  to  treat  with  them.  A  ca- 
pitulation decidedly  favorable  to  the  Scots 
was  arranged.  They  were  given  fourteen 
days  to  take  their  departure  from  Panama, 
and  it  was  expressly  agreed  that  they  were 
to  be  allowed  to  retain  their  arms  and  to 
go  forth  with  drums  beating  and  colors  fly- 
ing. The  arrival  of  another  Scottish  sloop, 
the  Speedy  Return,  in  no  wise  altered  these 
arrangements,  and  on  April  u,  1700,  the 
discomfited  and  dispirited  colonists  sailed 
away  from  New  Edinburgh.  They  were  so 
weakened  that  the  Spaniards  had  to  assist 
them  in  hoisting  the  sails,  especially  on  the 
big  sixty-gun  ship  the  Rising  Sun.  Camp- 
bell and  Drummond  eventually  got  back  to 
Scotland  in  their  respective  sloops,  but  dis- 
aster befell  the  other  vessels,  and  all  of  them 
were  wrecked;  and  of  the  original  1,300 
persons  whom  they  brought  out  only  360 
survived,  to  be  absorbed,  for  the  most  part, 
among  the  various  English  settlements  in 
the  West  Indies. 

A  final  effort  to  sustain  the  Scottish  col- 
ony was  made  by  the  sloop,  the  Margaret 
of  Dundee,  which  left  Scotland  on  March 
9,  1700,  and  arrived  in  Caledonia  Bay  on 
June  16;  but  her  captain,  one  Patrick  Mac- 
Dowall,  finding  the  Spaniards  in  possession 
of  town  and  fort,  fired  a  few  shots  by  way 
of  defiance,  ran  up  his  colors,  and  sheered 
off  to  Jamaica. 

Thus  ended  in  death,  disaster,  and  defeat 
the  Scottish  attempt  to  settle  Darien.  Its 
originator,  Paterson,  lost  his  reason  on  the 
way  home,  but  he  soon  recovered,  and  his 
fertile  brain  was  forthwith  at  work  on  new 
schemes.  His  first  care  was  to  try  to  pre- 
vent the  final  abandonment  of  the  Darien 
colony,  and  his  next  to  try  to  have  it  re- 
vived; but  circumstances  were  too  strong 


68 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


for  him  and  he  had  to  accept  the  inevitable. 
He  then  became  an  ardent  advocate  of  a 
parliamentary  union  between  England  and 
Scotland,  and  when,  in  1707,  that  union 
was  effected,  he  was  elected  a  member  of 
the  united  parliament  for  the  Dumfries- 
burghs.  One  of  the  last  acts  of  the  Scottish 
parliament  was  to  recommend  him  to  Queen 
Anne  for  compensation  for  his  services, 
losses,  and  sufferings.  After  long  delays,  a 
grant  of  £18,241  was  made  to  him  by  way 
of  indemnity  by  the  British  parliament  in 
1715.  He  lived  in  London  from  1701,  and 
died  there  January  22, 1719* 

Paterson's  writings  on  finance,  the  union 
between  England  and  Scotland,  colonial 
enterprise,  trade,  administration,  and  sun- 
dry social  and  political  questions,  amount- 
ing to  twenty-two  publications  in  all,  show 


him  to  have  had  a  wonderful  grasp  of  affairs, 
and  in  most  respects  to  have  been  a  long  way 
in  advance  of  his  time.  He  suffered,  too,  as 
many  original  minds  have  suffered  before 
and  since,  from  the  purloining  of  his  ideas, 
and  the  credit  of  many  of  his  proposals  was 
given  to  others.  Very  appropriately  there- 
fore there  is  affixed  to  the  only  picture  of 
him  that  has  come  down  to  us  the  inscrip- 
tion, "Sic  vos  non  vobis."  The  crowning 
calamity  to  his  posthumous  fame  is  that  his 
name  is  principally  associated  with  a  great 
colonization  project  which  failed,  but  which, 
if  his  monitions  had  been  regarded  and  if 
it  had  not  been  hampered  and  baffled  by 
English  trade  jealousy,  might  easily  have 
realized  his  dream  of  putting  into  British 
hands  at  an  early  date  the  keys  of  the  com- 
merce of  the  world. 


CHAPTER  XI 


THE  ENMITY  OF  ENGLAND 

CROMWELL  AND  SPAIN — PENN  AND  VENABLES  TAKE  JAMAICA — OPERATIONS  OF  BLAKE 
— TREATY  BETWEEN  ENGLAND  AND  SPAIN — CARDINAL  ALBERONI  AND  BRITISH 
TRADE — HOSIER'S  EXPEDITION — ITS  DISASTROUS  RESULTS — EXCITEMENT  IN 
ENGLAND — TREATY  OF  SEVILLE — FURTHER  BRITISH  COMPLAINTS — ATTACKS 
ON  WALPOLE — BRITISH  TRADE  WITH  PANAMA — "JENKINS'S  EARS" — WAL- 
POLE'S  NEGOTIATIONS — THEIR  FAILURE — VERNON  SENT  TO  PORTO  BELLO 
— WAR  PROCLAIMED — OGLE  AND  CATHCART  SENT  TO  JAMAICA — ANSON  SENT 
TO  THE  PACIFIC — DOMINION  OF  SPAIN  IN  AMERICA  THREATENED — VERNON 
TAKES  PORTO  BELLO — REJOICINGS  IN  ENGLAND — CAPTURE  OF  FORT  SAN 
LORENZO — REPULSE  OF  THE  BRITISH  AT  CARTAGENA — VERNON  FAILS  TO 
MARCH  TO  PANAMA — His  RECALL — ANSON'S  PROCEEDINGS — His  ACTIONS 
IN  THE  PACIFIC — HE  CAPTURES  A  TREASURE  SHIP — His  CIRCUMNAVIGATION 
OF  THE  GLOBE — PEACE  OF  AIX-LA-CHAPELLE — TREATY  OF  MADRID — FIRES 
IN  PANAMA — PEACE  IN  TIERRA  FIRME — TROUBLE  IN  DARIEN — OPERATIONS 
OF  ARIZA — DARIEN  INDIANS  UNSUBDUED. 


THE  antagonism  between  England 
and  Spain,  which  had  been  marked 
during  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth 
and  had  flared  up  into  mostly  impotent 
manifestations  once  or  twice  under  her  two 
immediate  successors,  swelled  into  consid- 
erable volume  in  the  time  of  the  Common- 
wealth and  again  during  the  first  half  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  In  the  plenitude  of 
his  power  Lord  Protector  Cromwell  de- 
manded from  Spain  that  no  Englishman 
should  ever  be  subject  to  the  Inquisition, 
and  that  there  should  be  free  trade  for  all 
Englishmen  with  the  West  Indies  and  the 
South  American  continent.  When  the 
Spanish  representative  in  London  replied 
that  such  a  demand  was  tantamount  to 
asking  for  the  King  of  Spain's  two  eyes, 
Cromwell,  whose  favorite  dictum  was  that 
a  ship  of  the  line  was  the  best  ambassador, 
sent  forth  a  gallant  fleet  under  Penn  and 
Venables,  which,  with  the  aid  of  the  buc- 
caneers, as  already  noted,  took  Jamaica  in 
J655,  and  made  it,  what  it  has  ever  since 
remained,  a  British  possession.  In  Sep- 
tember, 1656,  one  of  the  captains  serving 
under  Blake,  the  great  English  admiral  and 
general  at  sea,  captured  a  part  of  the  plate 
fleet,  and  in  the  following  April  Blake  him- 


self with  twenty-five  ships  ran  in  under  the 
guns  of  the  seven  forts  and  the  castle  of 
Santa  Cruz  in  Teneriffe,  and  demolished  the 
plate  fleet  of  that  year  which  was  lying  at 
anchor  in  the  bay. 

In  the  reign  of  Charles  II,  after  the 
English  troops  had  materially  helped  the 
Portuguese  to  defeat  the  Spaniards,  under 
Don  John  of  Austria,  at  the  great  battle  of 
Evora,  there  was  concluded  (1667)  between 
England  and  Spain  a  treaty  of  commerce 
and  navigation.  This  treaty  was  renewed  by 
the  Peace  of  Utrecht  in  1713;  but  in  1717 
when  Cardinal  Alberoni,  the  Spanish  prime 
minister,  was  thwarted  in  the  prosecution 
of  his  ambitious  schemes  for  his  adopted 
country  by  his  failure  to  interrupt  the  good 
understanding  between  King  George  I  and 
the  Emperor  Charles  VI  of  Austria,  he 
suspended  the  execution  of  the  commercial 
treaty  and  permitted  various  vexations  to 
be  practised  upon  English  merchants  trad- 
ing with  Spain  and  her  colonies.  In  1720 
the  Assiento  was  conferred  by  the  British 
government  on  the  South  Sea  Company, 
and  was  one  of  the  assets  on  which  the 
gambling  in  the  company's  stocks  which 
took  place  that  year  was  based.  War  was 
formally  declared  by  England  on  Spain  on 


69 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


December  17,  1718,  and,  after  many  dis- 
asters to  the  latter  country,  peace  was 
made  by  the  treaty  of  Madrid,  June  13, 
1721. 

But  the  shifting  policy  of  Europe  did  not 
allow  the  status  thus  established  to  be  of 
long  duration,  and  after  Spain  and  Austria 
had  combined  against  France  and  England 
in  1725,  a  British  fleet  under  Rear-admiral 
Hosier  was  dispatched  in  1726  to  the  West 
Indies,  with  orders  to  take  or  block  up  the 
Spanish  galleons  containing  the  treasures 
from  Peru,  the  Isthmus,  and  Mexico.  This 
proved  to  be  one  of  the  most  fatal  expedi- 
tions that  ever  left  the  shores  of  England. 
The  ships  had  been  badly  provisioned  and 
appointed,  and  some  of  them,  already  un- 
sea worthy  before  they  sailed,  rotted  and 
went  to  pieces  in  foreign  waters.  Hosier 
himself  and  a  considerable  number  of  his 
men  perished  miserably  of  yellow  fever  and 
other  diseases  off  Porto  Bello  and  the  Span- 
ish Main.  In  1727  on  the  signing  of  pre- 
liminaries of  peace  in  June,  the  British  gov- 
ernment recalled  its  ships  from  the  blockade 
of  Porto  Bello,  and  thus  allowed  the  plate 
fleet  to  return  to  Spain. 

King  Philip,  however,  did  not  ratify  the 
preliminaries  or  relinquish  any  of  his  pre- 
tensions, and  England  and  Spain  continued 
in  a  dubious  state  between  peace  and  war. 
By  1729  Spain,  in  fact,  had  interrupted  the 
trade  which  had  for  some  time  been  carried 
on  by  connivance,  though  not  by  actual 
permission,  between  the  British  colonies 
and  the  West  Indies  and  the  Spanish  do- 
minions on  the  South  American  continent, 
and  the  merchants  of  London  and  other 
English  centers  of  business,  suffering  in 
their  turn  from  this  interruption,  vented 
their  complaints  in  petitions  to  parliament. 
The  commons  agreed  in  a  declaration 
(1729)  that  the  Spaniards  had  violated 
treaties,  and  also  in  an  address  desiring 
that  King  George  II  would  be  pleased  to 
use  his  utmost  endeavors  to  procure  a  just 
and  reasonable  satisfaction  for  these  in- 
juries, and  to  secure  to  his  subjects  the  free 
exercise  of  commerce  and  navigation  to  and 
from  the  British  colonies  in  America.  The 


consequent  representations  resulted  in  the 
Treaty  of  Seville,  November  9,  1729,  by 
which  Spain  joined  in  a  defensive  alliance 
with  England,  France,  and  Holland,  con- 
firmed preceding  treaties,  revoked  the  ex- 
clusive privileges  granted  to  the  subjects 
of  the  emperor  by  the  Treaty  of  Vienna, 
put  the  English  trade  in  America  on  its 
former  footing,  restored  all  captures,  and 
confirmed  the  Assiento. 

In  1733,  on  the  meeting  of  parliament, 
complaints  were  made  that  Spain  had  not 
yet  made  satisfaction  for  the  depredations 
which  had  been  committed  upon  British 
merchants  during  the  last  quarrel,  and 
King  George  was  obliged  to  confess  that 
the  meetings  of  the  commissioners  of  the 
two  crowns  had  been  delayed,  and  that  he 
could  give  no  perfect  account  of  their  pro- 
ceedings. The  fact  was  that  the  Spanish 
court  claimed  that  all  or  most  of  these 
British  merchants  had  been  engaged  in  an 
illicit  trade  to  the  Spanish  Main,  and,  ac- 
cording to  their  principle,  nearly  all  trade, 
except  that  in  negroes  licensed  by  the 
Assiento,  was  smuggling. 

By  1738  public  opinion  in  England  was 
highly  inflamed  against  Spain.  Sir  Robert 
Walpole,  the  British  prime  minister — "the 
cur-dog  of  Britain  and  spaniel  of  Spain, "as 
he  had  been  most  unjustly  called  by  Bishop 
Atterbury — was  attacked  by  his  opponents 
in  parliament  on  the  ground  that  he  had 
not  protected  a  trade  which  really  amounted 
to  smuggling,  that  he  had  not  put  down 
the  guarda-costas  in  the  West  Indies,  and 
that  he  had  not  declared  war  to  compel 
Spain  to  admit  the  principle  of  free  trade 
to  her  American  colonies.  Those  attacks 
on  the  Minister  were,  of  course,  entirely 
political  in  their  nature  and  were  wholly 
unreasonable,  for  both  by  the  general  law 
of  nations,  which  gave  every  independent 
power  the  right  to  regulate  its  trade  and 
its  colonies  in  its  own  way,  and  by  recent 
as  well  as  old-standing  treaties,  which  recog- 
nized this  right  and  in  express  terms  re- 
quired England  to  assent  to  the  Spanish 
regulations  in  the  New  World,  Walpole  had 
been  plainly  prevented  from  pursuing  the 


THE  FABLE  OF  JENKINS'S  EARS" 


course  which  he  was  now  so  glibly  de- 
nounced for  not  adopting.  If  the  treaty  of 
1670  on  the  one  hand  confirmed  to  England 
the  possession  of  her  colonies  in  North 
America  and  the  West  Indies,  on  the  other 
it  expressly  provided  that  no  British  ship 
should  approach  the  Spanish  colonies  in 
South  America,  unless  through  stress  of 
weather  or  when  authorized  by  a  special 
trade  license  from  the  court  of  Spain.  The 
treaty  of  Seville  of  1729  did  no  more  than 
put  the  matter  of  trading  rights  on  its 
former  footing.  The  second  clause  of  the 
treaty  of  1670  presupposed  the  right  of 
search — a  right  which  was  exercised  some- 
times in  a  vigilant  but  more  often  in  a 
very  remiss  manner.  The  result  was  that 
English  adventurers,  disregarding  treaty 
obligations  and  acting  very  much  as  the 
buccaneers  had  done  before  them,  plun- 
dered the  coast  towns  of  the  Spanish 
colonies,  and  captured  or  defied  any  Span- 
ish ships  they  might  chance  to  fall  in 
with. 

The  restriction  as  to  allowing  only  one 
ship  a  year  to  trade  to  the  Spanish  posses- 
sions in  America  was  eluded  by  every 
dodge  and  device  which  the  ingenuity  of 
British  merchants  could  invent.  They 
had  indeed  the  excuse  that  they  were  sup- 
plying a  keenly  felt  want,  for  the  commodi- 
ties they  dealt  in  were  sorely  needed  by 
the  Spanish  settlers,  who  could  not  obtain 
them  so  good  and  cheap  in  any  other  way. 
Accordingly  English  goods  were  found  in 
every  Spanish-American  mart,  and  the 
annual  Panama  fair,  at  which  the  goods  im- 
ported directly  from  Spain  or  supplied 
under  license  from  that  country  were  sold, 
gradually  dwindled  away  until  it  was  but 
a  sorry  shadow  of  its  sometime  greatness. 
As  much  would  fain  have  more,  the  suc- 
cess of  their  illicit  trading  emboldened  the 
English  merchants  to  greater  efforts,  and 
made  them  more  and  more  querulous  when- 
ever an  English  ship  was  captured  or  de- 
tained, or  even  subjected  to  search.  Tales 
were  invented  of  Spanish  cruelty,  and  at 
every  repetition  the  English  people  howled 
the  louder  for  revenge. 


The  particular  instance  that  fanned  into 
flame  the  train  of  war  that  had  been  so 
long  smouldering  was  what  Edmund  Burke 
afterwards  characterized  as  "the/a&/eof 
Jenkins's  ears."  Jenkins  was  master  of  a 
small  vessel  which  plied  from  Jamaica,  and 
he  alleged  that  on  one  occasion,  when  he 
had  been  boarded  and  searched  by  a 
guarda-costa,  he  had  been  barbarously 
treated,  that  he  and  some  of  his  crew  had 
been  tortured,  and  that  the  Spaniards  had 
actually  cut  off  one  of  his  ears.  All  this 
had  occurred  seven  years  before,  but  in 
the  then  temper  of  the  public  mind  such 
a  consideration  carried  no  weight.  Jen- 
kins was  brought  before  the  British  House 
of  Commons,  and  when  he  had  told  his 
tale  and  was  asked  how  he  felt  under  the 
inhuman  treatment  to  which  he  said  he 
had  been  subjected,  he  replied:  "I  recom- 
mended my  soul  to  God,  and  my  cause  to 
my  country."  This  answer  electrified  the 
nation  and  at  once  stirred  it  to  ungovern- 
able wrath.  The  irony  of  the  situation  is 
that,  as  is  now  generally  believed,  either 
Jenkins  had  both  ears  on,  carefully  con- 
cealed by  his  wig  while  he  was  giving  his 
evidence,  or,  if  he  had  really  lost  an  ear, 
he  had  lost  it  as  a  felon  in  the  pillory  of 
England. 

In  face  of  all  the  storm  Walpole,  who 
loved  peace,  stood  firm,  and  still  endeav- 
ored to  bring  about  an  arrangement  by 
negotiation  before  having  recourse  to  war. 
But  the  two  plenipotentiaries  whom  he 
sent  to  Madrid  for  the  purpose  found  the 
Spaniards  indisposed  to  ratify  a  conven- 
tion made  in  January,  1739,  for  the  indem- 
nification of  losses  sustained  by  English 
merchants,  and  there  seemed  no  prospect 
of  an  accommodation.  Walpole  accord- 
ingly issued  in  July  letters  of  marque  and 
reprisal,  and,  accepting  a  rather  boastful 
offer  of  his  enemy,  Edward  Vernon,  to 
take  Porto  Bello  with  a  squadron  of  only 
six  ships,  sent  him,  as  vice-admiral  of  the 
blue  and  commander  of  the  fleet  in  the 
West  Indies,  to  that  enterprise  with  the 
force  he  had  named.  Next,  as  a  last  re- 
sort as  well  as  an  ultimatum,  Walpole  de- 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA  CANAL 


manded  an  absolute  renunciation  forever 
of  the  right  of  search  and  an  express  ac- 
knowledgment of  all  the  British  rights 
and  claims  in  America.  Those  demands 
Spain  rejected  with  all  her  old  pride,  and 
on  October  19,  1739,  war  was  proclaimed 
in  London.  The  exultation  of  the  popu- 
lace knew  no  bounds:  they  ran  through 
the  streets  shouting  wild  huzzas  and  rang 
the  church  bells  as  one  method  of  express- 
ing their  joy.  "They  may  ring  the  bells 
now,"  said  Walpole,  "but  they  will  soon 
be  wringing  their  hands." 

The  thing  to  do,  however,  was  to  make 
the  war  operations  as  effective  as  possible. 
Already  in  July,  1739,  Vernon  had  sailed 
for  America,  and  in  1740  Sir  Chaloner  Ogle, 
with  a  fleet  of  twenty-seven  ships  of  the  line 
and  a  number  of  frigates,  fire-ships,  bomb- 
ketches,  tenders,  hospital-ships,  and  store- 
ships,  accompanied  to  Jamaica  a  large  land 
force  which  was  commanded  by  Lord 
Cathcart.  At  Jamaica  they  were  joined 
by  four  battalions  raised  in  the  British 
colonies  of  North  America.  The  object 
of  this  whole  armament  was  to  cooperate 
with  Vernon  against  the  Spanish  settle- 
ments in  and  on  the  Atlantic.  Commodore 
Anson  was  sent  to  the  Pacific  with  a  small 
squadron  to  assist  Vernon  by  committing 
depredations  on  Peru,  attacking  Panama, 
and  capturing  the  treasure  fleet.  It  was 
confidently  expected  by  most  people  in 
England  that  all  these  armaments  would, 
between  them,  utterly  overthrow  the 
dominion  of  Spain  in  America. 

Vernon,  with  his  six  ships,  2,735  men, 
and  370  pieces  of  ordnance,  appeared  be- 
fore Porto  Bello  at  dawn  on  November  21, 
1739,  and  his  fleet  entered  the  harbor  in 
line  of  battle.  From  daylight  to  dark  a 
brisk  battle  was  fought  between  the  Brit- 
ish ships  and  the  Spanish  forts.  The  issue 
was  long  in  doubt,  but  eventually,  after 
gallantly  sustaining  an  almost  point-blank 
bombardment,  the  city,  the  fortifications, 
and  the  ships  in  the  harbor  were  surren- 
dered to  the  British  commander.  The  in- 
habitants were  not  molested,  nor  was  the 
town  pillaged,  but  some  10,000  pesos  in- 


tended for  the  pay  of  the  garrison  were 
found  and  were  distributed  among  the 
English  sailors  and  troops.  Having  re- 
moved all  the  ammunition  and  the  best 
of  the  cannon  to  his  own  ships,  and  spiked 
the  other  guns,  Vernon  demolished  the 
fortifications  that  his  batteries  had  left 
still  standing,  and  sailed  for  Jamaica,  where 
he  refitted  his  fleet. 

When  the  news  of  their  fellow-country- 
man's success  reached  England  the  joy  of 
the  nation  was  boundless.  London  cele- 
brated Vernon's  birthday  (November  12) 
in  1740  with  public  illuminations,  130 
medals  were  struck  in  his  honor,  and  he 
was  reflected — in  his  absence,  of  course — 
to  parliament  in  February,  1741,  and  in 
the  following  May  at  a  general  election 
he  was  returned  for  three  different  con- 
stituencies and  came  near  being  elected 
by  a  fourth. 

In  the  meantime  the  conqueror  of  Porto 
Bello  had  proceeded  in  February,  1740, 
from  Jamaica  to  the  mouth  of  the  Chagre, 
and  amused  himself  by  committing  depre- 
dations up  and  down  the  coast  of  Tierra 
Firme.  In  1741  he  joined  Ogle's  and 
Cathcart's  forces  at  Jamaica,  and  was 
then  in  command  of  the  greatest  arma- 
ment ever  previously  seen  in  those  waters. 
He  had  thirty  ships  of  the  line,  ninety 
other  vessels,  15,000  sailors,  and  12,000 
soldiers.  The  capture  of  Fort  San  Lo- 
renzo, demolished  by  Morgan  in  1671  but 
afterwards  rebuilt  and  much  more  strongly 
fortified,  was  easily  effected,  and  then, 
toward  the  end  of  March,  1741,  the  whole 
British  force  bore  down  on  Cartagena. 
The  Spanish  ships  that  lay  athwart  the 
harbor's  mouth  were  soon  destroyed  or 
taken,  the  forts  and  castles  on  Boca  Chica 
fell  into  the  invaders'  hands,  their  fleet 
sailed  into  the  immense  harbor,  and  the 
great  outwork  of  Castillo  Grande  was  aban- 
doned by  the  Spaniards  without  striking 
a  blow.  Here,  however,  the  success  of  the 
English  ended.  After  a  fierce  and  furious 
but  unavailing  attack  by  their  land  forces 
on  Fort  San  Lorenzo,  a  council  of  war  was 
called,  and  it  was  decided  to  abandon  the 


ANSON  CIRCUMNAVIGATES  THE  GLOBE 


73 


attempt  on  Cartagena  as  desperate  and 
to  go  back  to  Jamaica. 

In  Roderick  Random,  Smollett,  who  was 
on  this  expedition,  has  left  us  a  vivid  pic- 
ture of  the  famous  but  disastrous  attack 
on  Cartagena.  The  unhealthy  climate  had 
been  more  deadly  to  the  men  than  even 
the  guns  of  San  Lorenzo:  the  12,000  sol- 
diers had  been  reduced  to  3,000. 

In  July,  in  pursuance  of  orders  from 
home,  Vernon  proceeded  to  Cuba,  but 
failed  again  before  Santiago  in  that  island. 
A  new  reenforcing  fleet  of  four  ships  of 
war  with  3,000  more  soldiers  was  sent 
to  Vernon  from  England,  but  although  in 
1742  he  sailed  once  more  to  Porto  Bello, 
intending  to  land  there  and  march  to  Pan- 
ama, his  plans  were  frustrated  by  the 
rainy  season  and  by  sickness  and  mortal- 
ity among  his  troops,  and  he  had  effected 
nothing  more  when  he  was  recalled.  Sail- 
ing for  England  he  landed  at  Bristol  in 
January,  1743,  with  scarcely  one-tenth  of 
the  number  of  men  he  had  led  from  Jamaica 
to  Cartagena. 

In  the  meantime  Anson,  who  with  six  ves- 
sels had  left  England  in  the  autumn  of 
1640,  had  encountered  in  the  Pacific  a  fierce 
storm  which  lasted  fifty-eight  days  and 
scattered  his  little  fleet,  so  that  when  they 
finally  rendezvoused  at  Juan  Fernandez  in 
June,  1741,  only  three  ships  were  forth- 
coming and  most  of  the  men  died  of  scurvy. 
At  Juan  Fernandez  Anson  remained  104 
days,  and  then  bore  up  the  South  American 
coast,  where  he  emulated  the  performance 
of  the  buccaneers  by  burning  towns  and 
villages  and  making  prize  of  every  vessel 
he  met.  Vernon's  failure  at  Cartagena, 
which  Anson  learned  from  some  of  the 
prisoners  he  took,  rendered  cooperation 
across  the  Isthmus  a  practical  impossi- 
bility, and  so  the  Commodore  decided  to 
leave  Panama  alone.  He  finally  started 
with  only  one  ship,  the  Centurion,  to  cross 
the  Pacific,  and  on  the  way  he  fell  in  with 
and  captured  a  Spanish  galleon  on  her 
passage  trom  Acapulco  to  Manila,  having 
on  board  nearly  1,500,000  pesos.  Re- 
turning to  England  by  way  of  the  Cape  of 


Good  Hope  he  arrived  at  Spithead  on 
June  15,  1744,  having  spent  three  years 
and  nine  months  in  his  circumnavigation 
of  the  globe. 

The  total  treasure  he  brought  back 
amounted  to  £1,250,000  sterling,  and  this 
was  conveyed  in  solemn  procession  from 
Portsmouth  to  London  in  thirty  wagons 
guarded  by  the  ships'  crews  and  preceded 
by  the  officers  with  swords  drawn,  bands 
playing,  and  colors  flying.  It  was  really 
a  great  performance  on  Anson's  part,  and 
he  was  duly  rewarded  by  being  appointed 
rear-admiral  of  the  blue  and  one  of  the 
lords  of  the  Admiralty,  with  greater  hon- 
ors and  dignities  yet  to  come;  but  the 
treasure  he  brought  back  did  not  go  to  the 
nation,  and,  even  had  it  done  so,  it  would 
have  made  but  poor  compensation  for 
the  millions  of  pounds  sterling  and  the 
thousands  of  valuable  lives  that  the  West 
Indian  expedition  of  1739-1742  had  cost 
England. 

The  war  dragged  on  in  dilatory  fashion 
until  it  was  brought  to  an  end  by  the  Peace 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  October,  1748.  By 
this  peace  England  secured  from  Spain  the 
concession  of  none  of  the  main  principles 
for  which  the  war  had  been  in  the  first 
instance  undertaken — neither  the  satis- 
faction of  her  commercial  claims,  nor  the 
abolition  of  the  right  of  search,  nor  the 
free  trade  for  British  shipping  with  the 
Spanish  Main.  The  sole  gain  appears  to 
have  been  the  renewal  of  the  Assiento  for 
four  years.  It  comes,  therefore,  as  a  sort 
of  anti-climax  to  learn  that  two  years  later, 
in  a  time  of  peace,  part  at  least  of  the  de- 
mand in  connection  with  those  much  dis- 
puted restrictions  on  trade  was  conceded 
by  international  agreement.  By  the  Treaty 
of  Madrid,  signed  on  October  5,  1750,  the 
British  were  restored  to  sundry  privileges 
and  put  on  the  most-favored-nation  foot- 
ing. At  the  same  time  they  gave  up  the 
remaining  term  of  the  Assiento,  and  ob- 
tained for  the  South  Sea  Company  £100,- 
ooo  by  way  of  compensation  in  lieu  thereof. 
An  extraordinary  fact  is  that  the  treaty 
did  not  contain  one  word  about  the  right 


74 


HISTORY   OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


of  search,  which  had  been  the  immediate 
cause  of  the  war  of  1739  and  of  the  conse- 
quent destruction  of  so  much  property  and 
so  many  lives. 

During  all  the  turmoil  the  new  city  of 
Panama  was  fortunate  enough  to  escape 
conquests  by  a  foreign  foe ;  but  on  different 
occasions  during  the  course  of  the  eight- 
eenth century  it  received  serious  setbacks 
from  disastrous  conflagrations.  A  fire, 
which  raged  for  two  days  and  two  nights 
in  February,  1737,  laid  low  two- thirds  of 
the  city;  half  of  it  was  similarly  destroyed 
in  March,  1756;  and  in  April,  1771,  an- 
other fire  wrought  sad  havoc  among  its 
buildings. 

Outside  these  occurrences,  the  second 
half  of  the  eighteenth  century  passed  away 
uneventfully  and  fairly  peaceably  for  Tierra 
Firme.  To  this  state  of  affairs  many 
causes  contributed,  such,  for  example,  as 
the  disbanding  of  the  buccaneers,  the 
establishment  of  new  trade  centers  and 
routes,  and  the  political  conditions  in 
Europe  and  North  America.  Doubtless, 
however,  the  chief  cause  was  that  falling  off 
in  importance  and  wealth  which  has  been 
previously  mentioned.  The  peaceful  con- 
dition was  on  the  whole  an  unhealthy  symp- 
tom, because  it  was  evidence  of  a  rapid 
decline.  The  isthmian  cities,  ceasing  to 
be  prosperous,  no  longer  offered  rich  spoils 
to  the  raider,  and  were  therefore  no  longer 
objects  of  desire.  For  this  reason,  among 
others,  Tierra  Firme,  as  a  province  of  New 
Granada,  enjoyed  an  internal  tranquillity 


that  had  been  denied  to  it  as  an  independ- 
ent government  or  as  a  dependency  of  Peru, 
and  was  largely  free  from  those  struggles 
for  supremacy  and  power,  which,  however 
disgraceful  in  themselves,  made  its  earlier 
history  so  thrilling  in  fact  and  render  it 
so  fascinating  in  the  reading. 

There  was,  however,  one  section  of  the 
country,  namely  Darien,  in  v/hich  for  a  long 
time  peace  did  not  prevail,  and  in  which 
the  natives  were  never  brought  fully  into 
subjection  to  Spanish  rule.  Missionaries 
failed  to  convert  or  civilize  them;  forts 
and  strongholds  were  built  among  them 
in  vain.  The  missionaries  they  derided 
or  deceived  or  killed,  the  forts  they  pulled 
down  and  destroyed  and  put  the  garrisons 
to  death.  We  have  record  of  such  hap- 
penings in  1751,  1756,  and  as  late  as  1773. 
In  1774  the  governor,  Andre's  de  Ariza, 
took  active  and  skillful  steps  to  cope  with  a 
situation  that  was  always  threatening  and 
sometimes  dangerous,  and  he  gained  greater 
success  than  any  one  who  had  preceded 
him ;  but  the  most  that  can  be  said  of  the 
result  achieved  is  that  his  operations  re- 
duced the  hostile  native  tribes  to  a  sort  of 
sullen  submission  that  was  more  apparent 
than  real.  To  this  day  many  of  the  native 
inhabitants  of  Darien  yield  no  allegiance 
to  any  government  save  their  own  tribal 
regulations,  and  in  fact  their  territory  is 
to  all  intents  and  purposes  independent, 
and  acts  more  or  less  as  a  buffer  state  be- 
tween the  present  rival  republics  of  Co- 
lombia and  Panama. 


CHAPTER  XII 


PANAMA  REVOLTS  AGAINST  SPAIN 

THE  ISTHMUS  IN  1801 — ITS  LETHARGIC  CONDITION — FAILURE  TO  REVIVE  TRADE — MOVE- 
MENT FOR  INDEPENDENCE — VICE-ROYALTY  OF  PEREZ — OF  MONTALVO — AR- 
RIVAL OF  HORE — MACGREGOR'S  RAID — ITS  COLLAPSE — REPUBLIC  OF  CO- 
LOMBIA ESTABLISHED — PROGRESS  TOWARDS  INDEPENDENCE  IN  PANAMA — 
SAMANO'S  VICE-ROYALTY  — ACTION  OF  VICEROY  MOURGEON — PANAMA  PRO- 
CLAIMS ITS  INDEPENDENCE — REPUBLIC  OF  NEW  GRANADA  ESTABLISHED — 
REVOLTS  IN  PANAMA — THE  ISTHMUS  GUARD — SUCCESS  OF  RAN  RUNNELS — 
RIOTS  IN  PANAMA  —  FEELING  AGAINST  U.  S.  .CITIZENS  —  NEW  GRANADA 
BECOMES  A  CONFEDERATION — PANAMA  BECOMES  A  STATE — PROMULGATION 
OF  A  CONSTITUTION — GOVERNORSHIP  OF  CALVO — OF  OBALDIA — GUARDIA'S 
ADMINISTRATION — REVOLT  IN  NEW  GRANADA — PANAMA  JOINS  THE  UNITED 
STATES  OF  COLOMBIA — PANAMA  PROCLAIMED  A  SOVEREIGN  STATE — SANTA 
COLOMA  MARCHES  ON  PANAMA — WITHDRAWAL  OF  GUARDIA — ELECTION  OF 
MANUEL  DIAZ — GUARDIA  SLAIN — ADMINISTRATION  OF  DIAZ. 


A  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century  Tierra  Firme  still  formed 
part  of  New  Granada,  and  was 
under  the  general  sway  of  the  viceroy  at 
Santa  F£  de  Bogota,  but  had  its  own  im- 
mediate governor  with  headquarters  in 
the  city  of  Panama  and  with  jurisdiction 
over  the  rest  of  the  country.  For  adminis- 
trative purposes  it  was  divided  into  the 
three  provinces  of  Porto  Bello,  Veragua, 
and  Darien,  each  with  its  own  governor, 
and  into  the  two  partidos  of  Natd  and 
Alange,  each  under  an  alcalde  mayor. 
There  existed  a  judicial  organization  simi- 
lar to  that  in  force  in  other  Spanish  colo- 
nies, and  a  financial  department,  which  in- 
cluded custom-houses  at  Porto  Bello,  Chag- 
res,  and  Panama,  a  treasury  with  its  depend- 
encies, and  the  various  offices  in  charge  of 
the  crown  customs  and  monopolies.  There 
was  also  a  permanent  military  force  sta- 
tioned at  the  fortified  towns  of  Panama, 
Porto  Bello,  and  Chagres,  at  Nata,  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  Veragua,  and  elsewhere. 
Owing  to  the  decline  of  commerce,  agricul- 
ture, and  mining,  the  public  income  was 
unequal  to  the  upkeep  of  those  various 
public  services,  and  grants-in-aid  had  to 
be  obtained  from  time  to  time  from  Peru. 
Correspondent  to  the  depressed  material 


state  of  the  country,  the  people  were  also 
in  a  lethargic  condition,  were  poorly  edu- 
cated, and  led  a  care-free,  ambitionless, 
somnolent  sort  of  existence,  easily  finding 
means  of  livelihood  in  so  luxuriant  a  cli- 
mate, and  devoting  all  the  time  they  could 
to  gambling,  bull-fights,  and  other  forms 
of  amusement. 

An  attempt  was  made  to  give  a  fresh 
impetus  to  trade  by  the  reestablishment 
of  the  casa  de  contratacion  de  Indias,  in 
January,  1803,  and  hopes  were  entertained 
that,  as  a  result  of  this  proceeding,  Panama 
would  once  more  become  an  important 
port  of  call  and  commercial  center.  But 
those  hopes  proved  illusory,  for  during  that 
year  not  one  ship  came  from  Spain,  and 
the  trade  that  was  done  was  mostly  of  the 
smuggling  order,  and  the  principal  bene- 
ficiaries were  English  merchants.  It  was 
not  until  1809,  when,  for  political  reasons, 
permission  was  given  by  the  governor  of 
Panama  to  the  inhabitants  of  Tierra  Firme 
to  trade  with  Jamaica,  that  any  renewed 
commercial  activity  became  apparent. 

In  the  meantime  ideas  of  liberty  began 
to  stir  in  the  minds  of  the  Panamans,  as  in 
those  of  the  residents  of  other  parts  of 
Spanish  America.  Mexico  and  Central 
and  South  America  had  begun  that  move- 


75 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


ment  which  was  ultimately  to  result  in 
their  independence.  Nor  was  New  Gran- 
ada much  behindhand.  In  1810  the  gov- 
ernor of  Cartagena  was  arrested  by  the 
popular  party  and  sent  to  Habana,  and 
later  in  the  year,  the  viceroy  himself  was 
seized  in  his  own  capital,  Santa  F6  de 
Bogotd,  and  sent  first  to  Cartagena  and 
afterwards  to  Spain.  The  juntas,  which 
had  so  deftly  and  yet  with  such  a  high 
hand  carried  out  these  enterprises,  next 
invited  representatives  of  all  the  provinces 
of  the  vice-royalty  to  a  congress  for  the 
purpose  of  discussing  the  adoption  of  a 
new  form  of  government  subject  to  the 
mother  country.  As  yet  they  had  not  en- 
visaged the  prospect  of  breaking  wholly 
with  Spain.  This  congress,  which  assem- 
bled early  in  1811,  had  no  delegation  from 
Panama,  for  the  governor  of  that  country 
refused  either  to  take  part  himself  or  to 
allow  other  representatives  from  Tierra 
Firme  to  be  present. 

When  Benito  Perez,  the  recently  ap- 
pointed viceroy  of  New  Granada,  arrived 
in  America  in  February,  1812,  he  was  un- 
able to  proceed  to  the  seat  of  his  govern- 
ment at  Santa  Fe  de  Bogoat,  which  was 
then  held  by  the  revolutionists,  and  accord- 
ingly he  established  himself,  with  his  audi- 
encia  and  all  the  other  paraphernalia  of 
authority,  first  at  Porto  Bello  and  after- 
wards at  Panama.  Perez  proceeded  to 
direct  operations  from  Panama  against 
the  insurgents,  but  he  was  signally  unsuc- 
cessful, and  he  was  ere  long  deposed  by  the 
home  government.  Francisco  Montalvo, 
his  successor,  removed  to  Santa  Marta, 
and  thus  left  Tierra  Firme  comparatively 
free  to  work  for  its  independence.  The 
desire  for  freedom  rapidly  spread  there,  and 
when,  late  in  1813,  it  was  proposed  to  es- 
tablish a  confederation  consisting  of  New 
Granada, Quito,Venezuela,and Tierra  Firme, 
the  people  of  the  last-mentioned  country 
were  enthusiastic  in  its  favor.  They  were 
held  in  check,  however,  by  Joaquin  Car- 
rion, the  senior  oidor  of  the  audiencia  of  New 
Granada,  which  was  left  behind  at  Panama 
by  Montalvo  when  he  went  to  Santa  Mai  ta. 


In  1815  Spain,  seeing  the  danger  of  los- 
ing her  hold  on  her  American  colonies, 
dispatched  to  the  scene  of  hostilities  an 
expedition  of  15,000  men  and  a  large  fleet, 
well  equipped  with  artillery  and  stores, 
under  Mariscal  de  Campo  Pablo  Morillo, 
and  soon  afterward  a  fresh  force  under 
Alejandro  de  Hore  was  sent  out  to  co- 
operate with  Morillo  and  in  particular  to 
hold  Tierra  Firme.  Hore  was  appointed 
governor  of  Panama  and  applied  himself 
vigorously  to  the  maintenance  of  Spanish 
rule  throughout  his  province. 

In  December,  1818,  an  expedition  was 
fitted  out  in  England  to  abolish  Spanish 
dominion  on  the  isthmus.  The  moving 
spirits  in  this  undertaking  were  Gregor 
MacGregor  and  Jos£  Maria  del  Real,  and 
they  succeeded  in  enlisting  the  sympathy 
and  the  financial  support  of  some  English 
merchants  for  their  enterprise.  On  April 
8,  1819,  the  invading  force  appeared  with 
five  ships  before  Porto  Bello  and  easily 
captured  it.  Jose"  Elias  Lopez  and  Joaquin 
Vargas  Besgara  were  respectively  pro- 
claimed governor  and  vice-governor  of 
Tierra  Firme.  Arrangements  were  then 
made  for  a  march  to  Chagres  and  Panama, 
but  the  discipline  of  the  newcomers  was 
very  lax,  there  were  no  funds  to  pay  the 
troops,  and  sickness  and  death  decimated 
their  ranks.  Hore,  who  was  of  a  dis- 
tinctly aggressive  type,  did  not  wait  for 
the  enemy  to  come  to  him,  but  carried  the 
fight  to  them,  and  marching  across  the 
isthmus  with  about  500  men  reached 
Porto  Bello  on  April  29.  Early  the  follow- 
ing morning  an  attack  was  made  and  Porto 
Bello  was  retaken,  among  those  slain  in 
the  brief  battle  being  the  ill-starred  newly 
appointed  Governor  Lopez.  MacGregor 
escaped  by  rushing  to  the  beach  and  swim- 
ming to  one  of  his  ships.  After  negotia- 
tion, the  forts  surrendered,  and  that  was 
the  end  of  MacGregor's  raid. 

The  congress  held  in  December,  1819,  at 
Angostura,  in  Spanish  Guiana,  and  pre- 
sided over  by  Simon  Bolivar,  constituted 
New  Granada,  consisting  of  the  modern 
Colombia,  Venezuela,  and  Quito  or  Ecua- 


I.  Sally-port,  Fort  San  Lorenzo.  2.  Ruins  of  Cathedral,  Old  Panama.  3.  Spanish  Fort,  Porto  Bello. 

4.  Bridge  on  oldest  highway  across  American  Continent,  Panama  to  Nombre  de  Dios. 
5-  Torre  del  Homenage,  Santo  Domingo.        7.  Palace  of  Diego  Colon,  Santo  Domingo.         6.  Samana  Bay,  Santo  Domingo. 


PANAMA  DECLARES  ITS  INDEPENDENCE 


77 


dor,  into  an  independent  state,  to  which 
was  given  the  title  of  the  Republic  of  Co- 
lombia. As  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  or 
Tierra  Firme  at  that  time  belonged  to  New 
Granada,  it  naturally  formed  one  of  the 
departments  of  this  infant  republic,  and 
was  itself  divided  into  the  two  provinces 
of  Panama  and  Veragua. 

Concessions  to  popular  sentiment  now 
seemed  to  the  home  government  to  be  a 
necessity,  and  accordingly  a  change  in  the 
administration  was  effected.  The  consti- 
tutional regime,  granted  in  1810,  and 
finally  adopted  and  promulgated  in  1812 
but  abrogated  by  Fernando  VII  in  1814, 
was  restored  in  1820,  and  the  people 
of  the  isthmus  were  for  the  first  time 
allowed  to  exercise  the  right  of  suf- 
frage. The  ayuntamiento  now  estab- 
lished was  regarded  as  being  favorable  to 
independence,  and  it  is  said  that  the 
changed  aspect  of  affairs  so  painfully 
affected  Hore,  the  sturdy  champion  of  ab- 
solute monarchy,  that  it  brought  about 
his  death,  which  occurred  at  this  time. 
He  was  succeeded  in  the  military  command 
by  Pedro  Ruiz  de  Porras  and  in  the  civil 
governorship  by  Pedro  Aguilar,  of  whom 
the  former  was  friendly  to  constitutional 
government  and  the  latter  was  lukewarm 
in  defense  of  Spanish  privileges.  The  ca- 
bildo  was,  therefore,  free  to  demand,  as 
it  did  demand,  the  full  application  of  the 
various  measures  provided  in  the  national 
constitution.  Progress  in  this  direction 
was,  however,  checked  by  the  arrival  of 
the  viceroy,  Samano,  in  Panama,  with  the 
avowed  object  of  making  the  isthmus  the 
center  and  seat  of  his  government.  In 
the  carrying  out  of  this  determination  he 
was  opposed  by  the  cabildo  and  by  all  in 
favor  of  constitutional  principles,  but  by  the 
aid  of  the  military  he  succeeded  in  estab- 
lishing himself  at  Panama.  Uneasy  at 
his  presence,  but  nothing  daunted,  the  city 
council,  elected  in  1821,  renewed  the  de- 
mand for  the  enforcement  of  the  constitu- 
tion. Samano  put  them  off  by  evasions, 
and  a  tense  situation  was  relieved  only  by 
his  death  on  August  3. 


Samano's  successor  was  Juan  de  la  Cruz 
Mourgeon,  who,  however,  received  only 
the  title  of  captain-general,  with  the  under- 
standing that  he  was  to  be  made  full  vice- 
roy when  he  had  reconquered  two-thirds 
of  New  Granada.  Mourgeon  also  estab- 
lished himself  on  the  isthmus,  but  com- 
pletely reversed  the  policy  of  his  prede- 
cessor by  putting  the  new  constitution  in 
force.  This  action  of  his  appeared  to  give 
so  much  satisfaction  that  he  was  deceived 
into  the  belief  that  the  isthmus  was  safe 
for  Spain,  and  applying  himself  to  the  task 
of  gaining  his  viceregal  title  by  making 
the  necessary  territorial  gains,  he  got  to- 
gether four  vessels  and  some  infantry,  cav- 
alry, and  artillery,  and  set  sail  on  October 
22,  1821,  on  what  he  hoped  would  be  a 
career  of  conquest. 

No  sooner  was  his  back  turned  than  the 
movement  for  the  independence  of  Panama 
proceeded  apace:  meetings  were  held, 
plans  were  made,  the  troops  in  the  garrison 
were  tampered  with,  and  finally,  on  requisi- 
tion from  a  number  of  citizens,  there  was 
held  on  November  21,  1821 ,  an  open  session 
of  the  ayuntamiento,  at  which  a  resolution 
was  adopted  declaring  the  Isthmus  of  Pan- 
ama independent  of  Spain.  After  discus- 
sion, in  which  some  favored  absolute  in- 
dependence and  others  union  with  Peru, 
it  was  finally  decided  that  the  isthmus 
should  voluntarily  annex  itself  to  the  Re- 
public of  Colombia.  Jos6  de  Fabrega,  who 
assumed  the  title  of  Jefe  Superior  del  Istmo, 
was  entrusted  with  the  task  of  organizing 
the  new  government  and  putting  it  on  a 
permanent  basis.  A  minute  of  the  decla- 
ration of  independence  and  of  the  various 
other  resolutions  passed  was  drawn  up  by 
a  committee  appointed  for  the  purpose,  and 
was  signed  by  Fabrega,  by  the  bishop,  by 
twenty-five  or  thirty  leading  citizens,  and 
by  the  public  notary.  Thus  peacefully  did 
Panama,  after  more  than  300  years'  sub- 
jection, pass  forever  from  the  dominion 
of  Spain. 

In  1829  Venezuela  seceded  from  the  re- 
public of  Colombia,  and  in  1830  Quito  or 
Ecuador  followed  suit.  In  1831  the  re- 


78 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA  CANAL 


maining  territory,  corresponding  to  the 
modern  Colombia,  was  organized  into  the 
republic  of  New  Granada,  of  which  the 
isthmus  formed  a  part.  In  the  following 
year  a  constitution  was  promulgated  and 
the  territory  of  the  republic  was  divided  in- 
to eighteen  provinces,  each  of  which  was  to 
have  control  of  its  local  affairs.  The  prov- 
inces of  the  isthmus  were  Panama  and 
Veragua.  An  attempt  made  in  1831  by 
Colonel  Alzuru  to  detach  these  two  prov- 
inces from  New  Granada  ended  disas- 
trously, for  a  force  from  Bogotd  defeated 
the  rebels,  and  Alzuru  was  captured,  tried 
by  court-martial,  and  executed  in  the  city 
of  Panama.  Another  attempt  at  revolu- 
tion in  1832  was  easily  nipped  in  the  bud. 
For  about  nine  years  there  was  comparative 
quiet  on  the  isthmus,  and  then,  in  1840, 
the  affairs  of  New  Granada  being  chaotic, 
Panama  and  Veragua  declared  themselves 
independent  under  the  title  of  the  State 
of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  A  president 
and  a  vice-president  were  elected,  and  the 
machinery  of  government  was  set  in  motion. 
The  new  republic,  however,  was  short-lived, 
for  in  1841,  on  a  threat  of  the  use  of  force 
from  Bogota,  the  people  of  Panama  peace- 
fully submitted.  For  some  sixteen  years 
thereafter  the  relations  between  the  isthmus 
and  the  other  provinces  of  the  republic 
appear  to  have  been  satisfactory. 

A  combined  protest  made  in  1854  by  the 
consuls  of  the  United  States,  Great  Britain, 
France,  Portugal,  Denmark,  Ecuador,  Bra- 
zil, and  Peru  to  the  governor  of  Panama 
set  forth  that  passengers  crossing  the 
isthmus  were  not  afforded  proper  pro- 
tection, but  the  protest  produced  no  official 
result  except  a  denial  of  the  neglect  and  a 
refusal  by  the  governor  to  recognize  the 
right  of  the  consuls  to  make  such  represen- 
tations to  him.  The  facts,  however,  had 
been  truly  told,  for  the  isthmus  was 
crowded  with  criminals  and  desperadoes 
from  every  country,  attracted  thither  by 
the  prospect  of  plunder,  and  by  them  pas- 
sengers were  robbed,  baggage  was  rifled, 
and  women  were  insulted  and  outraged. 
In  view  of  this  deplorable  situation  the  citi- 


zens themselves  and  some  foreigners,  with 
the  acquiescence  of  the  governor,  organized 
a  police  force  known  as  the  Isthmus  Guard, 
whose  function  it  was  to  protect  the  route 
between  Panama  and  Colon.  At  its  head 
was  placed  a  young  Texas  ranger  with  the 
peculiar  name  of  Ran  Runnels,  who  had 
authority  to  inflict  even  the  death  penalty 
on  all  found  committing,  or  proved  to  have 
committed,  crimes  of  violence.  Runnels  set 
to  work  quietly  but  determinedly,  and  hav- 
ing caught  and  executed  some  of  the  rob- 
bers, he  so  terrified  the  rest  that  they 
quickly  left  the  country.  When  its  work 
was  done  the  Isthmus  Guard  was  dis- 
solved. 

Of  course  the  foreigners,  other  than 
bandits,  who  frequented  the  Isthmus,  or 
passed  through  it,  were  not  always  impec- 
cable, and  they  often  gave  great  annoy- 
ance to  the  residents  and  provoked  among 
them  feelings  of  intense  hostility.  To  this 
cause  are  to  be  assigned  some  minor  riots 
which  occurred  in  1850  and  1851,  and  also 
the  great  riot  which  broke  out  in  Panama 
city  on  April  15,  1856.  The  immediate 
origin  of  this  disturbance  was  the  refusal 
of  one  Jack  Oliver,  a  drunken  man,  to  pay 
for  a  slice  of  watermelon  which  he  had 
taken  from  a  fruit-stand.  A  fight  between 
foreigners  and  residents,  the  latter  mostly 
negroes,  then  ensued  and  lasted  three  hours, 
when  the  foreigners  were  obliged  to  take 
refuge  in  the  railroad  station.  Here  they 
were  surrounded  by  an  infuriated  mob,  who 
fired  upon  the  building  and  hit  one  man. 
The  doors  were  then  closed  and  those  in- 
side were  besieged.  A  force  of  troops  was 
sent  by  the  government,  at  the  request  of 
the  United  States  consul,  to  quell  the  dis- 
turbance, but  instead  of  dispersing  the 
mob,  they  fired  into  the  station  and  injured 
some  of  those  who  were  there  congregated. 
Finally  the  mob  forced  their  way  into  the 
building,  killed  and  wounded  several  per- 
sons, and  stole  everything  they  could  lay 
hands  on.  The  casualty  list  showed  that  of 
the  foreigners  sixteen  were  slain  and  fifteen 
wounded  and  of  the  residents  two  were  killed 
and  thirteen  wounded.  There  was  subse- 


PANAMA  ANNEXED  TO  COLOMBIA 


79 


quently  a  long  correspondence  on  the  sub- 
ject between  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment and  the  government  of  New  Granada, 
and  the  outcome  was  that  on  September 
10,  1857,  a  convention  was  agreed  to  be- 
tween Secretary  of  State  Cass  and  the 
minister  of  New  Granada  for  a  settlement 
of  all  claims,  New  Granada  admitting  its  re- 
sponsibility for  the  consequences  of  the  riot. 

One  result  of  the  whole  regrettable  affair 
was  that  American  passengers,  who  were 
formerly  wont  to  pass  some  time  on  the 
isthmus  and  to  spend  their  money  freely 
there,  thenceforward  hurried  across  the 
country  with  the  least  possible  delay,  and 
spent  nothing,  to  the  great  detriment  of 
the  business  people  of  Panama.  Another 
result  was  that  bad  feeling  was  engendered 
and  American  citizens  were  frequently  ill- 
treated,  so  that  in  February,  1859,  the 
president  of  the  United  States  found  it 
incumbent  on  him  to  ask  Congress  for  the 
necessary  authority  to  protect  Americans 
on  the  isthmus. 

In  1853  the  congress  of  New  Granada 
made  an  important  change  in  the  consti- 
tution, by  which  the  republic  became  a 
confederation,  and  each  of  its  constituent 
parts  was  given  the  right  to  declare  itself 
independent  and  to  enter  into  merely  fed- 
eral relations  with  the  central  body.  In 
1855  this  privilege  was  extended  to  the 
isthmus,  which,  as  a  member  of  the  confed- 
eration, was  made  into  a  state  consisting 
of  the  four  provinces  of  Panama,  Veragua, 
Chiriqui,  and  Azuero.  Under  this  new 
dispensation  the  Estado  or  State  of  Pan- 
ama promulgated  through  a  constituent 
assembly  its  constitution  on  September  17, 
1855.  There  was  to  be  a  legislature,  and 
the  executive  of  the  state  was  to  be  a 
governor  elected  by  popular  vote.  Until 
the  time  came  for  election  to  the  latter 
office,  the  executive  power  was  vested  in  a 
jefe  superior  provisorio. 

The  first  election  for  governor  took  place 
amid  stormy  and  exciting  scenes  on  August 
I5>  1856.  The  votes  were  duly  cast,  but, 
as  often  happens,  the  real  struggle  was  on 
the  count.  Here  an  extraordinary  state 


of  affairs  was  revealed,  for  the  white  sec- 
tion of  the  population  claimed  that  Bar- 
tolome  Calvo,  a  colored  man,  had  been 
elected  by  a  substantial  majority,  while  the 
negroes  maintained  that  the  choice  had 
fallen  on  a  white  man,  Manuel  Diaz.  So 
high  did  party  and  racial  feeling  run  that 
many  white  people  deemed  it  necessary 
to  take  refuge  on  a  United  States  war- 
sloop,  the  St.  Mary's,  whose  commander 
further  took  the  decisive  action  of  bringing 
his  vessel  inshore  and  landing  marines  to 
protect  the  whites.  The  legislature  finally 
declared  that  Calvo  had  been  elected  to 
serve  for  two  years  from  October  I,  1856. 
His  administration  was  wise,  prudent,  and 
moderate,  and  he  improved  the  financial 
condition  of  the  state  and  fostered  educa- 
tion. He  had  made  himself  respected  by  all 
parties  when  at  the  end  of  nineteen  months, 
on  his  election  to  the  attorney-generalship 
of  New  Granada,  he  resigned  the  governor- 
ship. The  term  was  completed  by  Ramon 
Gamboa,  the  first  designado. 

The  next  governor  was  Jose  de  Obaldia, 
who  held  office  from  October  I,  1858,  to 
September  30,  1860.  During  his  incum- 
bency an  attack  made  by  the  negroes  on 
the  whites  in  April,  1859,  was  frustrated 
only  by  the  intervention  of  a  force  of  mili- 
tary sent  to  restore  order.  On  this  occa- 
sion also  American  marines  were  landed, 
but  were  not  called  upon  to  use  their  arms. 
Another  similar  attack  in  September,  1860, 
was  put  down  by  the  landing  of  armed 
blue-jackets  from  the  British  ship  Clio. 

To  Obaldia  succeeded  Santiago  de  la 
Guardia.  Guardia's  administration  was 
disturbed  by  the  imbroglio  caused  by  the 
secession,  in  1860,  of  the  States  of  Cauca 
and  Bolivar  from  New  Granada  and  their 
formation  of  the  independent  confedera- 
tion of  the  Estados  Unidos  or  United  States 
of  Colombia,  under  the  dictatorship  of  Mos- 
quera.  With  the  object  of  keeping  his  own 
state  free  from  the  civil  war  then  going 
on,  Guardia,  on  September  6,  1861,  con- 
cluded with  the  representative  of  the  new 
nation  an  agreement  by  which  Panama 
was  to  become  a  member  of  the  confedera- 


8o 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


tion  without  taking  any  active  part  in  the 
struggle.  The  legislature  having  on  Octo- 
ber 15,  1 86 1,  approved  of  his  action,  the 
state  of  Panama  was  formally  annexed  to 
the  new  republic.  In  order  to  assert  its 
own  status  Panama,  in  July,  1862,  officially 
took  the  title  of  Estado  Soberano  or  sov- 
ereign state.  All  Guardia's  efforts  to  keep 
Panama  out  of  trouble  were,  however, 
unavailing.  In  July,  1862,  in  contraven- 
tion of  the  terms  of  the  agreement  of  the 
previous  year,  an  armed  body  of  troops 
under  General  Peregrine  Santa  Coloma 
was  sent  from  Cartagena  to  Colon,  and 


thence  proceeded  to  the  City  of  Panama, 
whereupon  Guardia,  yielding  to  force  ma- 
jeure,  removed  the  seat  of  government  to 
Santiago  de  Veragua.  Immediately,  with 
Coloma's  connivance,  a  meeting  consisting 
nearly  altogether  of  colored  men  assembled 
at  the  cabildo  of  Panama,  declared  Guardia 
deposed,  and  elected  Manuel  Diaz  as  pro- 
visional governor.  In  a  conflict  between 
the  opposing  factions  on  August  19  Guardia 
was  killed.  Diaz  continued  to  hold  office 
until  in  the  following  year  Panama  was 
definitely  merged  in  the  United  States  of 
Colombia. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  COLOMBIA 

UNITED  STATES  OF  COLOMBIA  ESTABLISHED — PANAMA  A  FEDERAL  AND  SOVEREIGN 
STATE — PANAMAN  CONSTITUTION  PROMULGATED — GOITIA  PROVISIONAL  PRESI- 
DENT— COLOMA  PRESIDENT — COLANCHA  PRESIDENT — DEPOSITION  OF  Co- 
LANCHA — PRESIDENCY  OF  JIL  COLUNJE — PRESIDENCY  OF  OLARTE — His  DEATH 
— RISE  AND  FALL  OF  JUAN  JOSE  DIAZ  AND  PONCE — PRESIDENCY  OF  COR- 
REOSO — SUCCESSION  OF  NEIRA — AIZPURU  DEPOSES  NEIRA — CERVERA  MADE 
PRESIDENT — RESTORATION  OF  NEIRA — LANDING  OF  U.  S.  TROOPS  IN  PANAMA 
— DIPLOMATIC  CORRESPONDENCE — ITS  RESULT — NEIRA'S  RESIGNATION — HE  is 
APPOINTED  PROVISIONAL  PRESIDENT — His  DEPOSITION — PRESIDENCY  OF  MIRO 
— ELECTION  AND  DEPOSITION  OF  AROSEMENA — AIZPURU  BECOMES  PROVISIONAL 
PRESIDENT — His  ADMINISTRATION — CORREOSO  BECOMES  PRESIDENT — His 
RESIGNATION — CASORLA  SUCCEEDS — AIZPURU  CAPTURES  CASORLA — CASORLA'S 
RESTORATION — His  RESIGNATION — ORTEGA  SUCCEEDS — PRESIDENCY  OF  CER- 
VERA— HE  is  IMPEACHED  AND  SUSPENDED — Ruiz  FILLS  THE  VACANCY — SUS- 
PENSION OF  CERVERA  DECLARED  INVALID — IBANEZ  DEPOSES  CERVERA — 
RESTORATION  OF  CERVERA — His  DEPOSITION — Ruiz  AGAIN  PRESIDENT — 
MARTIAL  LAW  PROCLAIMED — INTERVENTION  OF  COLOMBIA — CERVERA  RE- 
STORED— LAMBERT  ELECTED  PRESIDENT — PREVENTED  FROM  TAKING  OFFICE — 
His  ADDRESS  TO  COLOMBIA — CERVERA'S  RESIGNATION — LEON  MADE  PRESI- 
DENT— MEETING  OF  THE  CONVENTION — VILA  APPOINTED  PRESIDENT — HE 
GETS  LEAVE  OF  ABSENCE — AROSEMENA  BECOMES  TEMPORARY  PRESIDENT — 
AIZPURU'S  REVOLT — AROSEMENA  RESIGNS — AIZPURU  PROCLAIMS  HIMSELF 
PRESIDENT — AFFAIRS  AT  COLON — ACTION  OF  PRESTON — His  ROUT — COLON 
DESTROYED  BY  FIRE — PRESTON'S  FATE — AIZPURU  SURRENDERS — HE  is  SEN- 
TENCED TO  EXILE — PUNISHMENT  OF  CORREOSO. 

TO  a  convention  held  at  Rio  Negro,  president  elected  by  the  voters  of  Panama 
in  Antioquia,  in  February,  1863,  was  to  take  up  the  reins  of  government. 
Mosquera  resigned  his  dictator-  Goitia,  however,  did  not  fill  even  his  short 
ship,  whereupon  a  provisional  government  term,  for  he  was  forced  to  resign,  and  Pere- 
was  appointed,  and  a  constitution  was  grino  Santa  Coloma  was  chosen  by  the 
drawn  up  and  ratified  in  May,  under  which  legislative  assembly  in  his  room,  and  was 
the  nation  of  the  United  States  of  Colom-  afterwards  declared  to  have  been,  by  vote 
bia  came  formally  into  being,  with  the  of  the  people,  duly  elected  to  the  presi- 
Isthmus  as  one  of  its  federal  and  sovereign  dency.  Coloma's  tenure  of  office  was  also 
states.  A  Panaman  constituent  assembly,  short,  for  it  was  terminated  on  his  being 
which  began  its  sittings  on  May  6,  drew  up  chosen  as  a  representative  in  congress  at 
a  constitution  of  21  titles  and  112  articles  Bogota.  He  was  succeeded  by  the  vice- 
in  conformity  with  the  constitution  adopted  president,  Jos£  Leonardo  Colancha,  who 
by  the  United  States  of  Colombia.  This  was  deposed  by  a  military  cabal  on  March 
Panaman  instrument  was  promulgated  on  9,  1865.  Colancha  made  a  fight  for  his 
July  6.  The  president  of  the  constituent  rights,  but  he  was  defeated  in  two  battles 
assembly,  Pedro  Goitia,  was  appointed  and  taken  prisoner  in  the  second, 
provisional  president  of  the  State  to  hold  The  man  who  was  brought  to  the  front 
office  until  October  I,  on  which  date  the  by  this  military  coup  d'etat  was  Jil  Colunje, 

81 


82 


HISTORY   OF  THE   PANAMA  CANAL 


a  colored  man,  and  he  acted  as  president 
de  facto  until  a  convention,  which  met  on 
July  i,  confirmed  all  his  acts  and  appointed 
him  president  until  September  30,  1866. 
Two  small  uprisings  against  his  authority, 
at  Panama  and  David,  respectively,  were 
without  difficulty  put  down.  His  suc- 
cessor was  Vicente  Olarte  Galindo,  who 
had  defeated  Colancha's  troops  in  the  pre- 
vious year.  Olarte  soon  found  himself  at 
loggerheads  with  the  legislature,  but  he 
overawed  it  by  military  force  and  drove 
it  to  submission.  Although  Olarte  was 
liberal  in  his  views  and  tried  to  establish 
peace  and  good  feeling  among  the  various 
classes,  he  failed  to  find  favor  with  the 
negroes,  who  made  several  ineffectual  at- 
tempts to  break  his  power.  Under  circum- 
stances strongly  indicative  of  foul  play  he 
died  at  Panama  March  3,  1868.  The  first 
designado  not  being  on  the  spot,  the 
second,  Juan  Jos6  Diaz,  stepped  into  the 
vacant  place,  but  his  administration  was 
of  short  duration,  for  a  revolution,  engi- 
neered by  the  negroes  under  General  Fer- 
nando Ponce,  succeeded  on  July  5  in  bring- 
ing about  the  downfall  of  Diaz.  Ponce 
was  then  made  provisional  president,  but 
another  revolution  on  August  29  forced 
his  resignation. 

Buenaventura  Correoso,  the  first  desig- 
nado, succeeded.  He,  in  turn,  had  soon 
to  deal  with  another  revolt,  which,  after 
a  sharp  engagement  on  November  12  at 
the  Hatillo,  near  Santiago,  he  was  success- 
ful in  quelling.  A  constituent  assembly, 
summoned  by  himself,  then  elected  Cor- 
reoso president  for  a  four  years'  term  end- 
ing September  30,  1873.  He  resigned,  how- 
ever, on  October  i,  1872,  and  Gabriel  Neira, 
who  had  been  a  partisan  of  Colancha's, 
succeeded,  as  was  thought,  for  the  re- 
mainder of  the  term.  But  Neira  was  the 
victim  of  another  revolution  headed  by  Ra- 
fael Aizpuru,  the  fourth  designado  and 
commander  of  the  state  troops,  who 
marched  into  the  city  on  April  5,  1873,  and 
took  Neira  prisoner.  The  superior  court 
thereupon  called  Damaso  Cervera,  the  fifth 
designado,  to  the  supposedly  vacant  presi- 


dency. The  contest,  however,  was  not  yet 
over.  A  battalion  of  the  national  troops 
took  up  the  cause  of  Neira,  and,  after 
some  fighting  and  some  negotiations,  it 
was  finally  arranged  that  Neira  should  be 
reinstated,  and  he  resumed  his  office  in 
May.  In  September  there  was  another 
rising  under  Correoso,  but  it  was  unsuc- 
cessful. 

During  both  those  disturbances  it  was 
found  necessary  to  land  troops  from  United 
States  ships  of  war  to  protect  the  railroad 
transit  across  the  isthmus.  Later  in  the 
year  official  representations  on  behalf  of 
the  United  States  were  made,  embodying 
a  protest  of  the  Panama  Railroad  Company 
against  the  interference  with  traffic  of 
which  the  disturbances  were,  or  were  likely 
to  be,  the  cause,  and  demanding  that  the 
Colombian  government  should  take  the 
transit  under  its  own  direct  protection,  so 
as  to  safeguard  it  from  the  violence  of  local 
factions.  The  result  was  that  the  Colom- 
bian secretary  for  foreign  affairs  gave  the 
required  guarantee. 

When  the  constituent  assembly  met  on 
October  i,  Neira  tendered  his  resignation, 
which  was  accepted,  but  he  was  immedi- 
ately appointed  provisional  president.  At 
the  same  time  the  term  for  the  president 
to  hold  office  was  reduced  to  two  years.  In 
November  a  new  constitution  of  7  titles 
and  144  articles  was  adopted.  Two  days 
later  Neira  started  a  revolution  to  get  rid  of 
the  assembly,  but,  failing  in  his  attempt, 
he  was  deposed  by  that  body,  and  Gregorio 
Miro,  the  first  designado,  was  appointed 
president  for  the  term  ending  September 
30,  1875.  There  were  many  conspiracies 
against  Miro,  the  most  serious  of  which 
was  headed  by  Rafael  Aizpuru,  who  at- 
tempted to  set  up  a  provisional  govern- 
ment in  opposition  to  that  of  the  president. 
Miro  had  recourse  to  arms,  but  he  had  not 
succeeded  in  putting  down  the  revolt  be- 
fore the  expiration  of  his  term  of  office. 

Thenextelected  president  was  Pablo  Aro- 
semena,  who  maintained  his  position  for 
only  twelve  days — from  October  I  to  Octo- 
ber 12,  1875 — when  he  was  deposed  by  the 


DISTURBANCES  ON  THE  ISTHMUS 


federal  troops  under  General  Serjio  Ca- 
margo,  who  placed  Aizpuru  in  control  as 
"jefe  provisional  del  poder  ejecutivo"  and 
afterward  as  provisional  president.  In 
November  the  constituent  assembly  rati- 
fied Aizpuru's  acts,  and  sanctioned  his 
retention  of  the  presidency  until  the  due 
choice  of  his  successor.  On  December  6 
another  new  constitution  of  126  articles 
was  adopted,  and  on  the  same  day  Aizpuru 
was  elected  president  and  immediately 
entered  on  his  duties.  A  year  later  a  law 
was  enacted  changing  the  date  for  the 
inception  of  the  presidential  office  from 
October  I  to  January  I,  and  fixing  the 
duration  of  its  tenure  at  two  years.  Dur- 
ing Aizpuru's  administration  the  republic 
of  the  United  States  of  Colombia  was  dis- 
turbed by  a  civil  war,  and,  in  compliance 
with  a  requisition  from  Bogota,  the  State  of 
Panama  sent  both  the  Colombian  battalion 
and  troops  of  its  own  to  cooperate  with 
the  national  government  in  restoring  order. 
Under  the  new  regulations  as  to  date, 
Aizpuru  was  succeeded,  on  January  i,  1878, 
by  Buenaventura  Correoso,  but,  worn  out 
by  oft-recurring  disturbances,  Correoso  re- 
signed in  the  following  December,  and  the 
designado,  Jose  Ricardo  Casorla,  became 
president.  Casorla  had  to  contend  against 
two  revolts.  The  first  was  a  military  up- 
rising, which  was  put  down  only  after 
sharp  fighting  and  much  bloodshed.  The 
second  was  caused  by  Aizpuru.  Aizpuru 
had  been  elected  to  the  congress  at  Bogota^ 
as  a  senator  from  Panama,  but  leaving  the 
national  capital  he  proceeded  to  Colon  on 
June  7,  1879,  and  declared  himself  pro- 
visional executive  chief.  At  the  same 
time,  by  preconcerted  arrangement,  Cas- 
orla was  kidnapped  at  Panama  and  taken 
to  Colon,  where  he  was  detained  in  durance 
by  Aizpuru.  After  some  indecisive  fight- 
ing between  the  opposing  factions,  an  ar- 
rangement was  finally  come  to  whereby 
Casorla  was  released  and  restored  to  his 
office,  which,  however,  after  three  days  he 
resigned  in  favor  of  the  second  designado, 
Jerardo  Ortega.  Ortega  finished  the  re- 
mainder of  the  term. 


On  January  I,  1880,  Damaso  Cervera, 
the  president-elect,  entered  on  his  office, 
and,  though  the  butt  of  many  an  intrigue, 
succeeded  in  keeping  order  and  completing 
his  term.  His  successor  should  have  been 
Rafael  Nunez,  who  had  been  declared 
elected,  but,  as  the  latter  did  not  put  in  an 
appearance  on  January  I,  1882,  Cervera, 
as  first  designado,  was  continued  in  power 
as  acting  president  by  successive  votes 
during  1882,  1883,  and  1884.  In  July  of 
the  year  last  mentioned  he  was  impeached 
and  suspended  by  a  justice  of  the  superior 
court,  but  appealed  to  General  Wenceslao 
Ibafiez,  who  was  in  command  of  the  Co- 
lombian troops  stationed  in  Panama,  to 
maintain  him  in  his  position.  When  Cer- 
vera was  suspended  General  Benjamin 
Ruiz,  the  second  designado,  was  given  con- 
trol, but  within  four  days  a  majority  of 
the  superior  court  decided  that  the  decree 
of  suspension  of  Cervera  was  invalid,  and 
that  Ruiz  was  therefore  not  entitled  to 
the  presidential  office.  Despite  this  de- 
cision, Ibafiez  within  two  days  more  forced 
Cervera  out,  whereupon  Ruiz  again  took 
the  presidency  and  was  recognized  by  the 
Colombian  executive.  But  at  this  junc- 
ture there  arrived  in  Panama  General  Eloi 
Porto,  whose  rank  in  the  Colombian  army 
was  higher  than  that  of  Ibafiez,  and  through 
Porto's  intervention  Cervera  was  once  more 
restored.  Disturbances  then  took  place  in 
different  parts  of  the  Isthmus,  and  Cervera 
was  deposed  in  September  and  Ruiz  again 
made  president.  Cervera  retaliated  by 
proclaiming  martial  law.  Between  the 
warring  factions  there  took  place  a  sea  con- 
flict, in  which  Cervera  and  his  forces  were 
repulsed.  The  rebels  having  then  carried 
the  struggle  into  the  provinces  of  the  in- 
terior, the  Colombian  government  commis- 
sioned the  commander  of  its  forces  in  the 
Isthmus  to  restore  order  and  arrest  those 
who  were  disturbing  it.  To  strengthen 
his  hands  they  directed  an  armed  ship  to 
proceed  to  Panama  and  sent  General  San- 
todomingo  Vila  to  cooperate  with  him, 
In  discharge  of  his  instructions  General 
Gonima,  the  officer  in  question,  marched 


HISTORY   OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


to  Aguadulce,  where  he  induced  Ruiz  and 
his  supporters  to  abandon  hostilities  and 
to  recognize  the  government  of  Cervera. 

For  the  term  beginning  October  31,  1884, 
Juan  Manuel  Lambert  was  elected  presi- 
dent by  an  overwhelming  majority  in  July, 
and  was  ratified  by  the  assembly  when  it 
met  on  October  I,  but  by  his  opponents' 
intrigues,  which  General  Gonima  fostered 
and  encouraged,  he  was  prevented  from 
assuming  the  duties  of  his  office.  Cervera 
tendered  to  the  assembly  his  resignation  on 
October  I  and  again  on  October  20,  but  it 
was  not  accepted  on  either  occasion,  and 
on  October  2 1  he  was  by  almost  unanimous 
vote  requested  to  remain  in  power.  On 
November  12  Lambert  presented  to  the 
people  of  Colombia  an  address,  in  which 
he  registered  an  emphatic  protest  against 
the  unwarrantable  interference  of  the  fed- 
eral government  in  the  internal  affairs  of 
the  sovereign  State  of  Panama,  by  which 
his  election  by  his  fellow-citizens  to  the 
presidency  had  been  rendered  of  no  effect. 
At  the  same  time  he  patriotically  indicated 
that,  in  order  to  cause  no  complications  or 
disturbance,  he  did  not  intend  to  emerge 
from  private  life.  Cervera,  on  his  part, 
tendered  his  resignation  on  November  25 
to  the  superior  court — for  the  assembly 
had  adjourned  on  the  I3th — stating  that 
he  had  now  held  office  for  nearly  five  years, 
and  that  he  was  prepared  neither  to  sub- 
mit to  nor  oppose  the  interference  of  the 
federal  government.  Under  those  circum- 
stances the  resignation  was  accepted,  and 
Vives  Leon,  as  second  designado,  was  sum- 
moned to  the  presidency,  which  he  held 
until  January  6,  1885. 

In  the  meantime  a  convention,  elected  by 
direct  popular  vote  in  pursuance  of  a  law 
passed  by  the  assembly  in  the  previous 
October,  had  met  on  January  i,  1885,  and 
on  January  6,  it  appointed  General  Ramon 
Santodomingo  Vila  president  of  the  state, 
and  he  took  office  on  the  following  day. 
Already  on  January  3  Benjamin  Ruiz  and 
his  liberal  followers  had  seceded  from  the 
convention,  which,  as  they  alleged,  was  im- 
properly constituted.  Owing  to  prevail- 


ing disturbances  the  president  proclaimed 
martial  law  on  February  9,  and  the  con- 
vention brought  its  session  to  an  end  on 
the  nth.  Six  days  later  Vila  went  on 
leave  of  absence  to  Cartagena,  where,  as 
he  truly  enough  represented,  his  presence 
as  a  military  officer  was  required  on  account 
of  a  rebellion  in  Colombia,  and  Pablo  Arose- 
mena,  as  first  designado,  was  inducted  tem- 
porarily into  the  executive  office.  About 
a  month  later,  on  March  16,  Aizpuru  and 
some  250  men  attacked  and  overran  the 
city  of  Panama  with  much  bloodshed  and 
loss  of  life  and  great  destruction  of  prop- 
erty. To  protect  the  railroad  transit, 
marines  and  sailors  from  the  British  battle- 
ship Heroine  were  thereupon  landed.  Aro- 
semena  summoned  troops  from  Colon, 
and,  arriving  the  next  day  under  General 
Gonima,  they  drove  the  rebels  out  of  Pan- 
ama. The  latter,  however,  did  not  retreat 
far  and  pitched  an  encampment  at  Tarfau. 
Arosemena,  having  received  notification  on 
March  24  that  Aizpuru  intended  again  to 
attack  Panama,  placed  his  resignation  in 
the  hands  of  the  superior  court  and  took 
refuge  on  the  Heroine.  As  he  had  been 
the  only  designado  named  by  the  conven- 
tion, there  was  no  one  legally  entitled  to 
take  his  place,  and  accordingly  the  federal 
general,  Gonima,  assumed  to  himself  the 
whole  direction  of  affairs,  civil  as  well  as 
military.  Aizpuru,  true  to  his  word,  de- 
livered his  attack  on  the  3ist,  and  as  Gon- 
ima had  but  a  few  soldiers,  he  surrendered 
after  some  street  fighting,  in  which  about 
twenty-five  persons  were  killed  and  much 
damage  was  done  to  property.  Aizpuru, 
by  proclamation  made  on  April  I,  took 
on  himself  supreme  civil  and  military 
power,  to  which  he  said  he  had  been  sum- 
moned by  the  advocates  of  freedom.  By 
his  request  United  States  marines  were 
landed  on  April  8  from  the  frigate  Shenan- 
doah  to  guard  the  transit. 

In  the  meantime  there  had  been  hot 
work  at  Colon.  Scarcely  had  the  troops, 
in  response  to  Arosemena's  request,  left 
that  town  for  Panama,  on  March  16,  when 
Pedro  Preston,  a  mulatto  from  Cartagena, 


BURNING  OF  COLON 


85 


placed  himself  at  the  head  of  a  gang  of 
desperadoes  and  marauders,  took  possession 
of  the  place,  raided  the  establishments  of 
several  merchants,  and  levied  a  number  of 
forced  loans.  On  March  29  an  American 
mail  ship  with  a  quantity  of  arms  on  board 
arrived  at  Colon  from  New  York,  but  by 
direction  of  the  government  refused  to 
deliver  arms  to  the  insurrectionists.  Pres- 
ton thereupon  arrested  the  American  Con- 
sul, two  officials  of  the  steamship  com- 
pany, and  a  lieutenant  and  cadet  of  the 
United  States  warship  Galena.  He  also  took 
possession  of  the  mail  ship  and  made  a 
search  for  the  arms,  but  failed  to  find  them. 
His  next  proceeding  was  to  send  the  cadet 
to  the  commander  of  the  Galena  with  a 
message  that  he  would  hold  his  prisoners 
until  the  arms  were  given  over  to  him,  and 
that,  if  the  Galena  made  any  move  to  land 
men,  not  only  would  the  boats  be  fired  on, 
but  also  every  American  in  Colon  would  be 
killed.  The  commander's  activity  was  thus 
temporarily  paralyzed.  On  a  threat  from 
Preston  that,  unless  the  arms  were  deliv- 
ered, the  four  remaining  American  prisoners 
would  be  shot  out  of  hand,  the  arms  were, 
by  direction  of  the  American  consul,  sur- 
rendered, and  the  prisoners  were  released. 
Commander  Kane  of  the  Galena,  however, 
recaptured  the  mail  ship  and  sent  a  force  of 
men  and  a  few  pieces  of  artillery  ashore  to 
secure  the  persons  of  the  two  officials  of  the 
steamship  company,  who  had  been  again 
arrested  and  imprisoned.  Just  then,  there 
arrived  from  Panama  a  detachment  of 
Colombian  national  troops,  who  immedi- 
ately engaged  the  rebels,  and,  after  several 
hours'  fighting,  finally  routed  them.  Before 
fleeing  Preston  and  his  men  set  fire  to  the 


town  at  different  points  and,  as  there  was 
a  strong  wind,  the  flames  spread  rapidly, 
and  nearly  the  whole  of  Colon  and  its  con- 
tents were  destroyed.  The  only  buildings 
left  standing  were  the  offices  of  the  railway, 
of  the  Pacific  Mail  Company,  and  of  the 
Canal  Company.  Ten  thousand  persons 
were  rendered  homeless,  eighteen  lives  were 
lost,  and  damage  was  done  to  the  extent  of 
£6,000,000.  Preston  was  afterward  cap- 
tured, brought  back  to  Colon,  tried  by 
court-martial,  and  hanged  on  August  18. 
Two  of  his  principal  accomplices  had 
already  suffered  the  death  penalty  on  May 
6.  The  cavalier  treatment  of  the  federal 
commander,  Gonima,  by  Aizpuru  so  thor- 
oughly incensed  the  federal  government, 
that  from  Buenaventura  they  sent  a  force 
of  850  men  under  General  Rafael  Reyes  to 
drive  out  the  rebel  leader  and  to  place 
M.  Montoya  in  civil  and  military  control  of 
Panama,  until  a  government  could  be  con- 
stitutionally set  up.  Through  the  friendly 
intervention  of  the  foreign  consuls  a  con- 
flict was  avoided,  and  an  arrangement  was 
made  whereby  Aizpuru  covenanted  to  dis- 
miss his  troops,  give  up  his  arms,  and 
abandon  his  political  career.  It  was  alleged, 
whether  truly  or  falsely  does  not  appear, 
that  by  May  2  he  had  not  handed  over  all 
the  rifles  of  his  men,  and  on  that  charge  he 
was  arrested.  He  was  removed  first  to 
Buenaventura  and  subsequently  to  Bogotd, 
where,  on  conviction  by  court-martial  in 
November,  he  was  condemned  to  ten  years' 
exile  with  loss  of  civil  rights  and  a  heavy 
fine.  Correoso,  who  had  been  comman- 
der of  the  state  forces  under  Aizpuru's 
regime,  was  deprived  of  his  new  military 
rank. 


CHAPTER  XIV 


THE  PANAMA  RAILROAD 

TRANS-ISTHMIAN  COMMUNICATION — VARIOUS  SURVEYS  FOR  A  RAILROAD — TREATY  OF 
1846 — OREGON  BOUNDARY  DEFINED — UNITED  STATES  ACQUIRES  CALIFORNIA — 
INACCESSIBILITY  OF  THE  NEW  TERRITORIES — STEAMSHIP  LINES  ESTABLISHED 
— NEW  GRANADA  GRANTS  CONCESSION  FOR  PANAMA  RAILROAD — THE  BUILD- 
ING OF  THE  ROAD — ITS  DIFFICULTIES — CONSTRUCTION  OF  DOCKS  IN  LIMON 
BAY — PASSENGERS  CARRIED  TO  GATUN — CONSEQUENT  IMPROVED  CONDITION 
OF  THE  RAILROAD  COMPANY — FOUNDATION  OF  COLON — WORK  BEGUN  AT 
PANAMA — THE  BRIDGE  AT  BARBACOAS — THE  RAILROAD  COMPLETED — ITS 
GREAT  EARNINGS — THE  EXTENDED  CONCESSION:  ITS  TERMS — DECLINE  OF 
THE  PANAMA  RAILROAD — ITS  PURCHASE  BY  THE  COMPAGNIE  UNIVERSELLE — 
ITS  TRANSFER  TO  THE  NEW  PANAMA  CANAL  COMPANY — ITS  ACQUISITION 
BY  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


COMMUNICATION  across  the  Isth- 
mus was,  as  we  have  seen,  estab- 
lished at  a  very  early  date  in  the 
settlement  of  the  province.  The  paved 
roadway  from  Panama  to  Nombre  de  Dios, 
and  afterwards  from  Panama  to  Porto 
Bello,  which  came  to  be  known  as  the 
Camino  Real  or  King's  Highway,  sup- 
plemented as  it  was  by  river  transportation 
from  Cruces  to  the  Atlantic,  served  its 
purpose  for  more  than  three  centuries,  and 
over  this  route  passed  the  treasure  trains 
and  the  merchandise  which  for  so  long 
made  the  isthmian  cities,  and  especially 
Panama,  such  important  centers  of  com- 
merce and  trade.  But  there  arrived  a  time 
when  a  cheaper  and  more  rapid  mode  of 
transit  and  one  suited  to  handle  a  larger 
traffic  became  necessary,  and  then  a  rail- 
road was  built  from  sea  to  sea. 

However,  before  this  consummation  was 
finally  attained,  there  was  much  prelimi- 
nary work  to  be  done  and  there  were  many 
attempts  and  many  disappointments.  A 
survey  under  the  auspices  of  President 
Bolivar  of  Colombia  was  made  from  1827 
to  1829  by  J.  A.  Lloyd,  a  British  engineer, 
and  Captain  Falmarc,  a  Swede,  and  a 
report  was  submitted  by  them  showing 
that  a  railroad  from  Chagres  to  Panama 
was  practicable;  but  circumstances  at  the 
time  prevented  the  inception  of  such  an 


undertaking.  In  1836,  in  pursuance  of  a 
resolution  introduced  in  the  United  States 
Senate  by  Henry  Clay,  asking  the  executive 
to  negotiate  both  with  the  states  of  Central 
America  and  with  New  Granada  for  the 
drawing  up  of  treaties  to  protect  United 
States  citizens  who  should  try  to  establish 
connection  between  the  two  seas,  President 
Jackson  commissioned  Charles  Biddle  to  go 
to  the  Isthmus,  survey  the  ground,  and 
report  on  the  different  routes  which  had 
been  proposed  for  interoceanic  communica- 
tion. Biddle,  being  greatly  impressed  with 
what  he  saw  of  the  Panama  route,  did  not 
carry  out  the  whole  of  his  instructions,  but 
instead  proceeded  to  Bogota,  where  he 
succeeded  in  securing  a  franchise  for  a  trans- 
Isthmian  railroad.  This  project  might  have 
materialized,  but  it  was  propounded  at  an 
inopportune  moment,  for  the  panic  of  1837 
prevented  it  from  being  properly  financed, 
and  just  then  nothing  further  was,  or  could 
be,  done.  '  In  the  following  year  (1838) 
a  French  company  was  given  a  concession 
for  the  construction  of  highways,  railroads, 
or  a  canal  across  the  isthmus.  Napoleon 
Garella,  an  engineer  sent  out  by  the  French 
government  to  study  and  report  on  the 
whole  situation,  recommended  a  canal  from 
Limon  Bay  to  the  bay  of  Boca  del  Monte, 
twelve  miles  west  of  Panama;  but  want  of 
capital  caused  this  canal  project,  as  well  as 


86 


TRANSIT  ACROSS  THE  ISTHMUS 


the  other  projects  envisaged  by  the  con- 
cession, to  be  abandoned.  W.  B.  Liot  of 
the  British  Navy  proposed  in  1845  the 
construction  either  of  a  macadamized  high- 
way or  of  a  railroad  from  Porto  Bello 
to  Panama. '  It  remained,  however,  for 
United  States  citizens  to  build  the  railroad, 
as  it  afterwards  remained  for  the  United 
States  government  to  complete  the  canal, 
across  the  Isthmus. 

A  treaty  made  between  the  United  States 
and  New  Granada  on  December  12,  1846, 
guaranteed  to  the  first  named  of  the  high 
contracting  parties  the  right  of  way  across 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama  upon  any  modes  of 
communication  that  then  existed  or  that 
might  afterwards  be  constructed.  The 
boundary  dispute  concerning  Oregon  had 
been  definitely  settled  in  the  same  year, 
and  in  1848  Mexico  ceded  by  treaty  the 
whole  of  Upper  California  to  the  United 
States.  All  this  new  territory  awaiting 
settlement  and  development  attracted  uni- 
versal attention,  and  the  nomadic  popula- 
tion of  the  eastern  states  began  to  turn 
their  eyes  westward.  There  were  at  first 
but  two  ways  of  reaching  the  Pacific  Coast. 
One  was  by  ship  around  Cape  Horn,  a 
distance  of  some  12,000  miles,  and  the 
other  by  a  journey  of  3,000  miles  in  prairie 
schooners  or  other  pioneer  contrivances 
from  the  Missouri  River  across  the  plains. 
Either  way  was  fraught  with  grave  danger 
and  required  months  for  the  passage.  At 
sea  tremendous  storms  were  encountered 
both  in  the  Atlantic  and  especially  in  the 
miscalled  Pacific,  and  the  transcontinental 
route  lay  through  a  vast  stretch  of  desert, 
and  soon  every  mile  of  the  way  from  the 
Missouri  to  the  Sacramento  was  marked 
by  the  bleaching  bones  of  unfortunate  emi- 
grants. Under  such  circumstances  Oregon 
and  California  were  well  nigh  inaccessible 
to  the  desired  class  of  settlers,  and  the 
administration  of  the  laws  was  surrounded 
by  a  thousand  difficulties  owing  to  the 
great  distance  from  the  seat  of  authority 
and  the  slowness  of  communication. 

It  was  therefore  under  such  circumstances 
natural  for  the  United  States  government 


to  turn  its  attention  to  finding  a  safer, 
shorter,  and  less  expensive  route,  for  it 
was  to  its  interest  that  its  Pacific  posses- 
sions should  be  peopled  by  its  own  citizens. 
Accordingly  in  1848  Congress,  after  long 
and  anxious  consideration  of  the  whole 
subject,  authorized  the  running  of  two  lines 
of  mail  steamships,  one  from  New  York  to 
Chagres,  and  the  other  from  Oregon  and 
California  to  Panama,  the  connection  be- 
tween them  to  be  made  by  transit  across 
the  Isthmus  as  already  secured  by  the 
treaty  of  1846.  An  essential  part  of  the 
transaction  was  the  appropriation  of  money 
to  pay  for  the  carriage  of  the  United  States 
mails  by  those  ships.  Responsible  bidders 
for  the  contracts  were  long  waited  for  in 
vain.  At  length  two  men  of  great  wealth 
and  judgment,  George  Law  and  William 
H.  Aspinwall,  came  forward  and  took,  the 
former  the  Atlantic,  and  the  latter  the 
Pacific,  contract,  and  soon  the  steamers 
began  to  ply  on  both  sides  of  the  North 
American  continent.  In  the  Atlantic  con- 
tract there  was  a  prospect  of  gain  with  com- 
paratively small  risk,  as  the  line  connected 
with  Savannah  and  New  Orleans  as  well 
as  with  Chagres ;  but,  at  a  time  when  gold 
had  not  yet  been  discovered  in  California, 
men  wondered  greatly  why  Aspinwall 
should  take  the  risk  of  running  a  line  of 
steamships  from  Panama  to  San  Francisco 
and  thence  to  Oregon.  But  it  soon  devel- 
oped that  for  his  future  profit  he  was  not 
looking  to  the  mail  boats  alone,  and  that 
they  were  indeed  only  secondary  to  the 
vast  project  he  had  in  mind. 
-  Up  to  this  time,  as  we  have  seen,  nothing 
had  been  done  to  alter  the  old  mode  of 
transit  across  the  Isthmus,  which  was 
effected  partly  by  dugouts  poled  and  pad- 
dled up  the  Chagres  River  to  Cruces  and 
thence  by  the  old  paved  road,  now  much 
the  worse  for  wear,  to  the  city  of  Panama. 
The  road  was  so  rough  that  even  sure- 
footed mules  could  travel  it  only  with  great 
difficulty,  and  four  or  five  days  were  usually 
required  for  the  journey/  To  remedy  such 
conditions,  and  at  the  same  time  to  make 
a  huge  profit,  Aspinwall  had  conceived  the 


88 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


bold  idea  of  building  a  railroad,  which 
would  not  only  cut  the  travel-time  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  from  four  days  to 
four  hours,  but  would  thereby  also  shorten 
the  distance  from  the  Atlantic  ports  of 
North  America  to  those  on  the  Pacific,  as 
well  as  to  Australia,  China,  and  the  western 
ports  of  South  America,  by  several  thou- 
sand miles.  Accordingly,  Aspinwall  with 
Henry  Chauncey,  a  New  York  capitalist, 
and  John  L.  Stephens,  who  had  traveled 
and  explored  extensively  in  Central  Amer- 
ica, entered  into  a  contract  with  the  govern- 
ment of  New  Granada  and  secured  from  it 
the  exclusive  right  for  the  construction  of 
such  a  road.  The  contract  stipulated  that 
the  railroad  should  be  built  within  eight 
years,  that  it  should  transport  passengers, 
live-stock,  and  merchandise  on  a  fixed 
scale  of  rates,  that  all  public  lands  lying 
along  the  line  of  the  road  were  to  be  used 
gratuitously  by  the  grantees,  that  the  ter- 
mini of  the  road  on  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Pacific  sides  were  to  be  free  ports,  that 
New  Granada  should  receive  three  per 
cent,  of  the  net  profits,  and  that  the  con- 
cession should  be  in  force  for  forty-nine 
years  from  the  completion  of  the  work, 
with  this  reservation,  however,  that,  after 
twenty  years,  the  government  of  New 
Granada  was  to  have  a  right  to  purchase 
the  railroad  for  $5,000,000. 

The  Panama  Railroad  Company  was 
thereupon  incorporated  with  a  charter  ob- 
tained from  the  legislature  of  the  State  of 
New  York.  The  capital  was  fixed  at 
$1,000,000,  and  the  stock  was  quickly  taken 
up,  for,  between  the  obtaining  of  the  con- 
cession from  New  Granada  and  the  charter 
from  New  York,  a  circumstance  had  oc- 
curred which  changed  the  whole  aspect  of 
affairs,  and  led  capitalists  to  believe  that 
there  would  be  a  speedy  and  highly  lucra- 
tive return  on  their  investments.  This 
auspicious  occurrence  was  the  discovery  of 
gold  in  California  in  the  latter  part  of  1848, 
which  at  once  created  a  mad  rush  of  emi- 
grants through  the  Isthmus  to  the  sup- 
posed El  Dorado  of  the  West. 

The  construction  of  the  road  was  at  first 


let  to  two  contractors,  Colonel  George  M. 
Totten  and  John  C.  Trautwine,  but  that 
very  circumstance  which  argued  so  well 
for  the  future  success  of  the  railroad  when 
built  was  the  cause  of  delay  in  starting  to 
build  it.  The  contractors  on  arriving  at 
the  Isthmus  found  that  the  "gold-rush" 
had  made  labor  so  scarce  and  dear,  and  the 
procuring  of  materials  so  uncertain  and 
costly,  that  it  would  ruin  them  to  go  on 
with  the  work.  They  asked,  therefore, 
to  be  released  from  their  contract  and, 
their  request  being  complied  with,  the 
company  itself  undertook  the  building  of 
the  road,  retaining  its  former  contractors 
as  engineers.  A  survey,  carried  out  under 
the  direction  of  J.  L.  Baldwin  and  Colonel 
George  W.  Hughes  of  the  United  States 
Topographical  Corps,  discovered  a  new 
summit  gap,  and  found  it  practicable  in 
consequence  greatly  to  lessen  the  grades 
and  shorten  the  line.  The  Atlantic  ter- 
minus was  located  at  Limon  Bay  and  the 
Pacific  terminus  at  Panama  City,  the  dis- 
tance between  the  two  points  being  some 
fifty  miles. 

In  May,  1850,  the  first  sod  was  turned 
on  Manzanillo  Island  in  Limon  Bay.  It 
was  only  a  short  line,  but  the  difficulties 
surrounding  its  construction  were  enor- 
mous. The  situation  was  near  enough  to 
the  equator  to  make  a  sultry  tropical  heat 
prevail  at  all  seasons.  For  nearly  half  the 
year  the  country  was  deluged  with  rain, 
so  that  the  working  gangs,  in  addition  to 
being  drenched  from  the  clouds,  were 
obliged  to  wade  in  mud  and  water  from  two 
to  four  feet  deep.  For  the  first  few  miles  out 
from  the  Atlantic  terminal  the  route  lay 
through  a  deep  morass  covered  with  a  dense 
jungle,  reeking  with  malaria,  and  abound- 
ing in  noxious  reptiles  and  insects.  Thence 
the  greater  part  of  the  line  was  through  a 
rugged  country  where  chasms,  turbulent 
rivers,  and  mountain  torrents  had  to 
be  crossed.  Materials  of  all  sorts  as 
well  as  laboring  men  had  to  be  brought 
from  long  distances.  The  workers  were 
constantly  attacked  with  fever  and 
malaria,  and,  though  the  whole  work- 


THE  TOWN  OF  ASPINWALL 


ing  party  was  changed  every  week,  it 
was  necessary  to  keep  constantly  importing 
others  to  take  the  places  of  those  who  fell 
sick  or  died.  For  this  purpose  agents  were 
kept  in  Jamaica  and  elsewhere  to  engage 
men,  particularly  negroes,  who  of  all  races 
seemed  best  suited  to  requirements;  but, 
despite  every  effort  and  the  almost  daily 
arrival  of  vessels  bringing  fresh  laborers, 
there  were  times  when  owing  to  universal 
sickness  the  work  was  almost  at  a  stand- 
still. Dogged  perseverance,  however,  suc- 
ceeded in  laying  the  rails  and  running  work- 
trains  as  far  as  Gatun,  seven  miles  out,  by 
October  I,  1851.  Meanwhile  docks  were 
being  constructed  in  Limon  Bay  for  the 
convenience  of  vessels  tying  up  there. 

These  two  factors  soon  gave  rise  to  a  new 
development.  In  November,  1851,  two 
steamships,  crowded  with  men  bound  for 
California,  arrived  in  the  open  roadstead 
of  Chagres.  These  passengers  expected 
to  cross  the  Isthmus  via  the  Chagres  River 
and  the  old  paved  road,  but  the  weather 
was  so  tempestuous  that  several  lives  were 
lost  in  an  effort  to  effect  a  landing  by  cross- 
ing the  bar  of  the  river,  and  the  ships  were 
forced  to  take  refuge  in  Limon  Bay.  It 
was  then  suggested  that  the  passengers, 
eager  to  be  on  their  journey,  should  not 
wait  for  more  settled  weather  to  return  to 
Chagres,  but  should  be  conveyed  over  the 
new  railroad  to  Gatun,  from  which  point 
they  would  be  transported  up  the  river 
in  native  boats  as  usual.  At  the  time 
there  was  not  a  single  passenger  car  on  the 
line,  nor  could  one  be  had  nearer  than 
Philadelphia;  but  the  managers  of  the 
road  decided  to  attempt  the  transfer  on 
flat-cars  or  work-cars,  and  more  than  a 
thousand  emigrants,  glad  of  any  method, 
however  primitive,  of  avoiding  delay,  were 
disembarked  and  safely  transported  to 
Gatun,  where  they  began  their  river  jour- 
ney. This  fortuitous  circumstance  proba- 
bly saved  the  whole  railroad  project  from 
disastrous  failure.  The  company's  stock 
had  fallen  very  low,  for  the  original  million 
dollars  of  capital  had  been  spent  and  the 
road  was  far  indeed  from  completion.  The 


directors  had  in  fact  been  carrying  the  bur- 
den for  some  time,  and  were  keeping  the 
work  moving  at  enormous  expense  on  their 
own  individual  credit;  but  now,  keen  busi- 
ness men  as  they  were,  they  saw  open  to 
them  a  source  of  immediate  revenue,  which 
would  give  new  life  to  the  company,  and 
they  determined  to  work  it  for  all  it  was 
worth.  In  conformity  with  this  resolution 
they  at  once  ordered  passenger  cars,  and 
began  the  regular  carriage  of  emigrants 
and  others  to  Gatun,  and  to  more  distant 
points  as  the  rails  were  laid.  When  one  of 
the  steamers,  whose  passengers  had  been 
transported  by  rail  to  Gatun,  returned  to 
New  York  carrying  the  news  that  gold- 
seekers  and  intending  settlers  en  route  for 
California  had  been  landed  at  Limon  Bay 
instead  of  at  Chagres,  the  friends  of  the 
enterprise  took  heart  afresh,  the  value  of 
the  stock  quickly  advanced,  and  it  was  no 
longer  difficult  to  attract  the  sorely  needed 
new  capital.  Thenceforward  the  mail 
steamers  abandoned  Chagres  and  plied 
regularly  to  Limon  Bay,  and  the  wisdom 
of  the  early  building  of  docks  for  their 
accommodation  was  made  manifest. 

As  the  island  was  cleared  a  settlement 
had  gradually  grown  up  around  the  Atlantic 
terminal.  On  February  2,  1852,  this  set- 
tlement was  formally  inaugurated  as  a  city, 
and  named  Aspinwall  in  honor  of  the  origi- 
nator of  the  road.  This  designation  was 
never  recognized  by  the  authorities  of  New 
Granada,  who  took  up  the  position  that  the 
place  should  be  called  Colon,  the  Spanish 
form  for  Columbus,  the  discoverer  of  Limon 
Bay.  The  two  names  persisted  side  by  side 
for  years,  but  the  question  was  finally  de- 
cided in  favor  of  Colon,  because  the  New 
Granada  government  refused  to  deliver  mail 
addressed  to  Aspinwall.  Thus  Colon  it  be- 
came, and  Colon  it  still  remains. 

The  number  of  laborers  was  now  largely 
increased,  and  every  incoming  steamer 
brought  more  hands,  so  that  the  work  was 
pushed  forward  with  renewed  energy  and 
zeal.  By  March,  1852,  regular  passenger 
trains  were  running  to  a  station  sixteen 
miles  out  from  the  terminus,  and  by  July 


HISTORY   QF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


to  Barbacoas,  twenty-three  miles  out. 
Men  and  material  were  also  shipped  around 
Cape  Horn,  and  work  was  begun  at  the 
Panama  end. 

At  Barbacoas  a  great  bridge  had  to  be 
constructed  over  the  Chagres,ariver  at  that 
point  about  300  feet  wide,  running  through 
a  deep  and  rocky  channel,  and  subject 
to  a  rise  of  forty  feet  of  water  in  a  single 
night.  About  this  time  the  first  president 
of  the  railroad  company,  John  L.  Stephens, 
died,  and  his  successor  let  the  building  of 
the  bridge  and  of  the  remainder  of  the  line 
by  contract.  The  bridge  was  nearly  com- 
pleted when  a  sudden  flood  swept  it  away. 
After  a  whole  year  had  been  wasted  and 
the  contractors  were  on  the  verge  of  bank- 
ruptcy, the  company  released  them,  and, 
under  a  third  president,  set  out  itself  to 
complete,  as  it  had  begun,  the  work.  La- 
borers had  again  become  scarce,  and  again 
operations  had  to  be  temporarily  sus- 
pended for  want  of  them.  Agents  were 
then  sent  in  haste  to  Hindostan,  to  China, 
to  Ireland,  and  to  all  the  countries  of  con- 
tinental Europe,  and  a  force  of  several 
thousand  men  was  gathered  together  and 
taken  to  the  Isthmus.  Of  these  a  thou- 
sand were  Chinese  coolies,  of  whom  great 
things  were  expected,  but  some  few  of 
their  number  having  died  of  fever,  the 
rest  were  seized  with  nostalgic  melan- 
cholia and  developed  a  suicidal  mania,  and 
scores  of  them  took  their  own  lives.  In  the 
end  scarcely  200  Chinese  left  the  Isthmus 
alive.  The  other  workers  also  fell  victims 
to  sickness,  and  many  of  them  had  to  be 
reshipped  to  the  points  whence  they  came. 
Despite  all  difficulties,  however,  a  massive 
timber  bridge  was  eventually  thrown  suc- 
cessfully across  the  river  at  Barbacoas. 

By  January,  1855,  the  crest  of  the  divide 
at  Culebra,  a  distance  of  thirty-seven  miles 
from  Colon,  was  reached.  Here  the  workers 
rested,  and  awaited  the  coming  of  their 
collaborators  from  Panama,  who  were 
pushing  their  eleven-mile  section  up  the 
valley  of  the  Rio  Grande.  On  that  side 
the  engineering  difficulties  had  not  been  so 
great,  the  route  did  not  lie  through  swamps, 


and  the  workmen  were  less  liable  to  fatal 
sicknesses.  At  midnight  on  January  27, 
1855,  in  the  midst  of  a  torrent  of  rain,  the 
last  rail  was  laid,  and  the  two  ends  of  the 
road  were  connected.'  The  next  day  a  loco- 
motive passed  from  sea  to  sea.  It  was  a 
great  engineering  triumph  and  a  great 
testimony  to  the  push,  energy,  and  faith  of 
its  originators.  The  summit  grade  was  258 
feet  above  the  sea-level.  The  entire  length 
of  the  road  was  forty-seven  and  three- 
quarter  miles,  and  it  had  required  the  con- 
struction of  170  bridges  and  culverts,  one 
of  the  bridges  being  more  than  600  feet  in 
length. 

Although  the  railroad  was  open,  the  com- 
pany's work  was  by  no  means  completed. 
For  the  great  traffic  expected,  preparations 
had  to  be  made,  including  additional  tracks 
at  each  terminus,  needed  side-tracks  at 
different  points,  and  passenger  and  freight 
depots.  Owing  to  the  haste  to  get  the  road 
constructed  through  to  Panama,  much  of 
the  work  had  been  temporary  in  character, 
especially  bridges,  culverts,  and  trestles. 
The  trestles  were  converted  into  solid  em- 
bankments; the  wooden  bridges  were  re- 
placed with  iron;  the  ties  of  native  wood, 
which  were  already  rapidly  decaying,  were 
removed  and  replaced  with  ties  of  lignum- 
vitae  brought  from  Cartagena.  This  wood 
was  so  hard  that  it  had  to  be  bored  before 
the  spikes  could  be  driven  in,  and  so  durable 
that,  when  taken  up  in  1910,  because  of 
the  relocation  of  the  line,  the  ties  were 
found  to  be  still  unrotted.  In  addition  to 
all  this  work,  both  of  the  new  and  the 
replacement  order,  additional  engines  and 
cars  had  to  be  provided. 

To  gain  breathing  space  by  checking 
traffic  until  the  company  was  prepared  to 
handle  it  in  full  volume,  the  superintendent 
recommended  the  charging  of  a  prohibitive 
rate.  He  suggested  $25  for  the  one-way 
journey  for  passengers  between  Colon  and 
Panama,  and  more  than  fifty  cents  a  mile 
per  cubic  foot  for  freight.  These  rates  were 
actually  adopted,  and  remained  in  force  for 
more  than  twenty  years,  but  they  did  not 
keep  away  traffic,  and  thus  the  Panama 


UNITED  STATES  ACQUIRES  THE  ROAD 


Railroad  Company  became  one  of  the  great- 
est dividend-earners  in  the  world,  the  stock- 
holders receiving  at  one  time  as  much  as 
twenty-four  per  cent,  per  annum  on  their 
investment.  /The  construction  accounts 
were  closed  in  January,  1859,  and  showed 
that,  instead  of  $1,000,000,  it  had  in  reality 
cost  $8,000,000  to  build  this  railroad  of 
less  than  fifty  miles. ''  But  it  had  already 
earned  $2,000,000  before  the  communica- 
tion was  open  from  sea  to  sea  in  1 855 ;  by 
1859  it  had  earned  more  than  half  enough 
to  pay  the  entire  cost  of  construction ;  and 
by  January,  1865,  its  total  profits  were 
$11,340,000.  These  figures  will  not  be  so 
surprising  when  we  remember  that  the 
rates  were  exceptionally  high,  and  that  the 
company  had  a  monopoly  of  the  Atlantic 
trade  of  the  entire  west  coast  of  North, 
Central,  and  South  America.  It  was  a 
frequent  occurrence  to  transport  over  the 
line  in  a  single  half  day  1,500  passengers, 
all  the  United  States  mail,  and  the  freight 
of  three  steamships. 

The  railroad  was  thus  beyond  question  a 
source  of  wonderful  profit  to  its  fortunate 
owners;  but  the  government  of  New 
Granada  had  by  contract  the  right  to  pur- 
chase, in  1875,  for  $5,000,000,  this  property 
which  it  had  cost  $8,000,000  to  establish, 
and  which  was  paying  twenty-four  per 
cent,  dividend  on  that  amount.  Some  new 
arrangement  was  manifestly  necessary. 
Accordingly  in  1867  Colonel  Totten  went 
to  Bogota,  and,  in  consideration  of  $1,000,- 
ooo  in  gold,  cash  down,  of  $250,000  a  year, 
of  promising  to  carry  the  New  Granadan 
mails  free,  and  of  guaranteeing  to  extend 
the  road  to  certain  islands  in  the  Bay  of 
Panama,  he  obtained  for  the  company  a 
new  franchise  for  ninety-nine  years  with 
additional  large  grants  of  public  lands. 

In  1869,  on  the  completion  of  the  Union 
Pacific  Railroad,  the  Panama  Railroad  lost 
its  Californian  trade,  but  still  retained  its 
trade  with  South  and  Central  America, 
which  was  borne  to  it  almost  exclusively 
by  the  ships  of  the  Pacific  Steam  Naviga- 
tion Company.  This  haulage,  too,  the  rail- 
road subsequently  lost  when,  in  conse- 


quence of  a  dispute,  the  Navigation  Com- 
pany was  obliged  to  give  up  its  shops  and 
dockyards  on  the  Island  of  Taboga,  in  the 
Bay  of  Panama,  and  send  its  ships  by  way 
of  the  straits  of  Magellan  direct  to  Eng- 
land. The  affairs  of  the  railroad  were  for 
some  years  thereafter  in  a  languishing  con- 
dition and  its  stock  was  greatly  depressed, 
until  in  1879  it  sold  out  both  its  stock  and 
its  rights  to  the  Compagnie  Universelle 
du  Canal  Interoc6anique  for  $18,000,000. 
The  railroad  passed  with  the  other  assets 
of  the  Compagnie  Universelle  to  the  New 
Panama  Canal  Company  in  1894,  and  from 
it  to  the  United  States  in  1904,  the  valua- 
tion set  upon  it  in  the  latter  transaction 
being  $7,000,000,  the  par  value  of  out- 
standing stock.  Since  then  the  railroad, 
re-located  and  modernized  at  an  expense 
of  $9,000,000,  has  been  profitably  worked 
by  the  United  States  government. 

Today  the  United  States  owns  at  Panama 
one  of  the  finest  railroads  in  the  tropical 
world.  It  parallels  the  canal,  and  connects 
the  principal  cities  of  the  Republic  of  Pan- 
ama. It  is  a  modern,  single  tracked,  five- 
foot-gauge  road,  built  on  high  ground  in  a 
low  country.  It  has  embankments  as  high 
as  78  feet,  which  settled  from  twenty-five 
to  sixty  feet  on  the  soft  subsoil. 

At  places  the  engineers  had  to  make  the 
foundations  of  the  embankments  twice 
as  wide  as  engineering  practice  demands, 
because  of  the  immense  weight  of  the 
fills.  There  are  167  embankments  in  the 
forty-seven-mile  road,  and  160  cuts.  One 
of  the  embankments  is  three  miles  long. 
The  whole  road  required  about  16,000,000 
cubic  yards  of  material  for  filling,  or 
endugh  to  make  one  fill  all  the  way  across 
the  isthmus  9  feet  high  and  12  feet  wide. 
The  reconstruction  cost  the  United  States 
nearly  $9,000,000,  or  approximately  $170,- 
ooo  a  mile. 

And  yet,  the  road  earned  its  way  in  re- 
turns, to  say  nothing  of  the  powerful  sup- 
port it  gave  to  the  work  of  digging  the 
Panama  Canal.  During  the  years  between 
the  acquisition  of  the  road  and  the  com- 
pletion of  the  canal,  it  brought  into  the 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


coffers  of  the  United  States  a  net  revenue 
of  upward  of  $15,000,000 — enough  to  pay 
for  the  old  road  and  to  build  a  new  one. 

When  the  United  States  bought  the  road 
it  was  worse  even  than  the  proverbial  two 
streaks  of  rust  and  a  right  of  way.  The 
rails  were  the  old  fashioned  hollowed  out 
Belgian  type,  and  the  rolling  stock  was  a 
nightmare  of  rust  and  ruin  to  the  prac- 
ticed railroad  man.  Built  at  a  time  when 
circumstances  demanded  that  it  follow  the 
lines  of  least  resistance,  it  was  a  road  that 
led  through  marshes  and  over  hills  with 
little  attention  to  grading. 

When  the  United  States  took  over  the 
road  and  the  Canal  Zone  there  was  an 
attempt  made  to  maintain  the  canal  work 
and  the  operation  of  the  railroad  as  sepa- 
rate and  distinct  enterprises,  with  the  rail- 
road lending  what  aid  it  could  to  the  work 
of  building  the  canal.  But  it  was  soon 
found  that  this  was  unwise,  as  it  gave  rise 
to  conflict  between  the  railroad  manage- 
ment and  the  canal  commission.  It  took 
a  long  time  and  the  unwinding  of  much 
red  tape  to  get  matters  through;  and  if 
there  was  not  friction  between  the  two  en- 
terprises, there  at  least  was  a  lack  of  the 
spirit  of  "all  things  subsidiary  to  the  build- 
ing of  the  canal." 

How  to  overcome  the  trouble  and  still  to 
preserve  the  separate  corporate  existence  of 
the  Panama  Railroad  Company  was  a  prob- 
lem. Separation  was  necessary  because  of 
the  terms  of  the  concessions  under  which 
the  railroa^  was  operated,  and  because, 
also,  of  ihp  fact  that  a  railroad  could  not 
very  well  be  operated  under  a  law  which 
required  all  of  its  passenger  and  freight  re- 
ceipts to  be  turned  into  the  federal  treas- 
ury instead  of  into  its  own  treasury.  At 
last  the  plan  was  hit  upon  of  making  the 
chairman  and  chief  engineer  of  the  canal 
president  of  the  railroad,  and  the  members 
of  the  commission  its  directors.  This  ar- 
rangement worked  admirably,  since  it  com- 
plied with  all  the  terms  of  the  concession, 
retained  for  the  railroad  the  advantages  of 
a  separate  corporate  existence,  and  yet 
made  it  as  much  a  part  of  the  canal  con- 


struction organization  as  though  it  had  no 
trace  of  a  separate  existence. 

The  situation  of  the  Panama  Railroad 
was  an  anomalous  one.  Here  was  a  trans- 
continental line  owned  by  the  United 
States  Government,  operating  under  a  con- 
cession of  the  Republic  of  Colombia,  con- 
necting the  principal  cities  of  the  Republic 
of  Panama,  and  doing  business  under  a 
charter  of  the  State  of  New  York.  Still 
further  to  add  to  the  peculiarities  of  the 
situation,  the  government  of  Colombia 
claimed  that  when  the  concession  of  the 
railroad  should  expire  its  property  would 
revert  to  Colombia.  If  that  were  so,  then, 
since  the  railroad  owned  the  land  on  which 
the  city  of  Colon  is  built,  Columbia  would 
reacquire  the  property  rights  of  one  of  the 
cities  that  had  thrown  off  the  yoke  of  her 
dominion. 

As  matters  stand  today  the  United 
States  owns  the  railroad  and  will  continue 
to  operate  it.  Its  operation  will  be  more 
fully  a  part  of  the  canal  organization  than 
heretofore.  The  treaty  with  the  Republic 
of  Panama  gives  to  the  United  States  the 
right  to  take  over  the  road  and  expressly 
provides  that  whenever  the  concession 
ceases  from  any  cause  the  United  States 
is  to  enjoy  all  the  rights  that  Colombia 
would  have  enjoyed  had  Panama  not  re- 
volted. Under  this  treaty  the  United  States 
will  be  the  fee  simple  owner  of  the  Panama 
Railroad  when  its  concession  ceases.  This 
will  be  ninety-nine  years  from  the  time  the 
road  was  opened. 

As  noted,  the  operation  of  the  railroad 
during  the  period  of  the  construction  of 
the  canal  was  very  profitable.  During  that 
period  it  carried  some  twenty  million  pas- 
sengers and  many  millions  of  tons  of  freight, 
with  a  new  operating  revenue  of  some  fif- 
teen million  dollars.  In  a  single  year  it 
carried  three  million  passengers  and  over 
a  million  tons  of  freight.  In  addition  to 
this  it  handled  over  its  tracks  about  40,- 
000,000  tons  of  spoil  a  year,  which  served 
to  make  it  the  busiest  line  of  railroad  in 
the  world.  Although  the  road  was  only 
forty-seven  miles  long  it  had  several  hun- 


From  Otis's  "History  of  the  Panama  Railroad,"  1861. 

BUILDING    THE    PANAMA    RAILROAD 


i.  First  train  leaving  Colon  for  Panama. 

3.  Surveying  in  the  jungle. 

4.  The  first  shanty. 


2.  "Stephens 's  tree." 

5.  Col.  George  M.  Totten,  Chief  Engineer 


IMPROVEMENT  OF  THE  RAILROAD 


93 


dred  miles  of  switch  and  other  tracks  to 
accommodate  the  vast  amount  of  business 
handled  over  it. 

The  rates  on  the  Panama  Railroad  fixed 
by  the  canal  authorities  were  high  in  com- 
parison with  those  in  the  United  States, 
first  class  fares  being  at  the  rate  of  five 
cents  a  mile.  But  the  service  was  the  best 
to  be  found  in  any  part  of  the  tropical 
world.  Second  class  fares  were  one-half 
the  first  class  fares,  and  the  second  class 
passengers  nearly  trebled  the  first  class 
passengers.  Especially  was  this  true  after 
each  canal  pay  day.  The  negro  employees 
on  the  isthmus  hugely  enjoyed  riding  on 
the  railroad  trains,  and  they,  with  their 
families,  added  greatly  to  the  traffic. 

The  difference  between  first  and  second 
class  rates  was  sufficient  to  accomplish  a 
separation  of  the  races  in  travelling  through 
the  canal  zone. 

In  addition  to  operating  the  railroad, 
the  Panama  Railroad  Company  operated 
a  line  of  steamships  from  New  York  to 
Cristobal.  This  steamship  line  was  a  con- 
stant drain  upon  the  finances  of  the  rail- 
road company,  and  was  not  able,  during 
the  whole  time  of  its  operation  by  the  gov- 
ernment, to  make  itself  self  sustaining. 
But  at  the  same  time  it  afforded  so  many 
advantages  in  the  prompt  handling  of 
freight,  mail,  and  canal  supplies  that  it 
was  not  thought  wise  to  discontinue  the 
service  during  the  construction  of  the 
canal.  The  steamship  line  made  weekly 
sailings  from  New  York  and  from  Panama. 
Some  years  its  operation  would  show  a 
deficit  of  more  than  a  quarter  million  dol- 
lars, thus  emphasizing  the  inability  of 
American  ships  to  compete  with  those  of 
other  countries  under  our  American  high- 
wage  standards.  While  the  Panama  Rail- 
road Steamship  Line  was  operating  at  a 
loss  in  a  direct  service,  the  United  Fruit 
Line,  with  a  large  number  of  sailings  from 
New  York  and  New  Orleans,  with  numer- 
our  ports  of  call,  was  operating  at  a  fine 
profit. 

When  the  matter  of  a  permanent  policy 
by  the  government  towards  the  Panama 


Railroad  came  up,  Chief  Engineer  Goethals 
recommended  that  the  government  go  out 
of  the  steamship  business,  except  for  the 
carrying  of  its  own  supplies.  He  advised 
further  that  arrangements  be  made  to  sell 
the  steamships  on  hand,  and  to  substi- 
tute for  them  specially  built  coal  carrying 
steamers,  with  which  the  United  States 
could  carry  its  coal  from  Newport  News 
and  Norfolk  to  the  isthmus. 

A  question  of  operation  which  still  re- 
mains to  be  settled  is  whether  the  Panama 
Railroad  shall  continue  to  be  operated  by 
steam  or  whether  it  shall  be  electrified. 
Sufficient  water  power  is  developed  at 
Gatun  Dam  during  ordinary  seasons  to 
furnish  all  of  the  power  necessary  for  the 
operation  of  the  canal  machinery  and  for 
the  Panama  Railroad  in  addition.  But  it 
has  not  been  decided  whether  sufficient 
power  would  be  generated  in  dry  seasons 
to  run  both  the  lock  machinery  and  the 
railroad.  However,  since  there  is  an 
auxiliary  steam  plant  at  Miraflores,  where 
fuel  oil  from  the  California  fields  can  be 
had  at  a  low  rate,  it  is  probable  that  this 
power  could  be  used  to  supply  any  lack 
of  current  that  low  water  might  cause. 
It  is  not  improbable  that  the  course  ulti- 
mately decided  upon  will  be  to  keep  the 
present  equipment  of  the  Panama  Railroad 
in  commission  so  long  as  it  lasts,  and  then 
to  change  over  to  electricity  as  the  regular 
motive  power  of  the  railroad. 

As  soon  as  the  United  States  took  over 
the  canal  property  plans  were  laid  for  im- 
proving the  railroad.  Chief  Engineer  Wal- 
lace wanted  to  make  a  three  or  four 
track  road  across  the  isthmus,  but  it  was 
finally  decided  to  develop  the  road  just  as 
the  work  of  constructing  the  canal  went 
forward.  Under  this  plan  of  development 
the  old  Belgian  rails  were  replaced  by 
the  best  ninety  pound  steel  rails,  while 
a  double  tracked  road  with  curves  straight- 
ened and  grades  lowered  was  substituted 
for  the  old  line.  The  rolling  stock  was 
changed  and  brought  up  to  the  best  Amer- 
ican standard,  and  with  the  engines  and 
cars  bearing  the  letters  "P.  R.  R."  one 


94 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


might  have  thought  himself  in  a  region 
where  there  was  a  tropical  edition  of  the 
Pennsylvania  Railroad.  It  was  necessary 
many  times  to  change  the  location  of  parts 
of  the  road.  When  the  Gatun  Dam  and 
Spillway  reached  the  elevation  that  per- 
mitted the  water  to  be  impounded  in  the 
Chagres  Valley,  more  than  half  of  the 
original  Panama  Railroad  right  of  way  was 
put  under  water.  But  by  that  time  the 
work  of  building  the  New  Panama  Railroad 
had  reached  such  a  stage  as  to  make  pos- 
sible the  abandonment  of  the  old  road 
across  the  bottom  of  what  is  now  Gatun 
Lake.  The  new  road  now  skirts  the  east 
bank  of  the  lake,  here  and  there  crossing 
an  arm  of  that  great  body  of  water.  Where- 
as the  old  road  crossed  the  canal  a  number 
of  times,  the  new  one  keeps  to  the  left  of 
the  big  waterway  the  entire  distance  from 
Colon  to  Panama.  The  first  section  of  the 
new  road  to  be  opened  was  the  part  from 
Gatun  to  Gamboa.  At  the  latter  place 
trains  were  switched  across  the  canal  over 
the  crest  of  the  Gamboa  dike.  From  this 
point  to  Pedro  Miguel  the  old  line  was 
used  until  the  latter  part  of  1913,  because 
all  the  principal  towns  were  on  that  side  of 
the  canal.  From  this  point  to  Paraiso  the 
new  line  was  used.  Here  the  canal  was 
crossed  on  a  trestle  and  the  run  made  into 
Panama  over  the  re-location.  When  the 
time  came  to  blow  up  Gamboa  dike  the 
entire  new  line  was  thrown  open,  and  all 
that  was  left  of  the  old  Panama  Railroad 
was  the  name  and  a  shuttle  service  from 
Pedro  Miguel  to  Bas  Obispo.  A  floating 
trestle  has  been  constructed  above  the 
locks  at  Pedro  Miguel  which  permits  trains 
to  cross  the  canal  and  to  keep  up  communi- 
cation along  the  west  bank  of  the  water- 
way between  Pedro  Miguel  and  Bas 
Obispo,  although  after  the  abandonment 
of  Culebra  there  will  be  very  little  use 
made  of  this  line. 

It  was  the  intention  of  Colonel  Goethals 
to  run  the  new  railroad  through  Culebra 
Cut  on  an  offset  in  the  bank  some  distance 
above  the  water  line,  but  the  slides  made 
this  out  of  the  question.  It  was  then  de- 


decided  to  make  a  detout  from  Paraiso  to 
Gamboa  which  carried  the  railroad  back  of 
Gold  Hill  and  the  other  hills  which  border 
the  east  bank  of  the  canal.  This  change 
in  the  alignment  of  the  New  Panama  Rail- 
road cost  about  a  million  dollars. 

In  addition  to  its  work  of  doing  a  rail- 
road and  steamship  business,  and  of  fur- 
nishing trackage  for  the  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  dirt  trains  which  had  to  move  in 
and  out  of  Culebra  Cut  in  the  disposal  of 
spoil,  the  Panama  Railroad  Company  also 
operated  the  commissary  through  which  the 
employees  of  the  canal  commission  were 
protected  from  the  exactions  of  native 
merchants,  and  through  which  they  could 
buy  at  a  very  small  per  cent,  above  whole- 
sale prices.  This  work  will  be  described 
in  another  chapter  and  needs  only  to  be 
mentioned  here.  Still  another  activity  of 
the  railroad  company  was  the  operation  of 
a  hotel  at  Colon.  For  years  it  operated  the 
old  Washington  House.  This  hostelry  was 
better  than  the  native  hotels  in  Colon,  but 
still  left  much  to  be  desired  both  in  size 
and  in  the  character  of  its  construction, 
especially  in  view  of  the  demands  of  the 
large  tourist  traffic  coming  to  the  canal. 
Realizing  the  need  of  a  really  good  hotel 
President  Taft  ordered  Colonel  Goethals 
to  use  a  part  of  the  surplus  of  the  railroad 
company  for  the  building  of  a  modern 
hotel  at  Colon  fitted  for  the  accommoda- 
tion of  the  tourist  traffic.  Colonel  Goethals 
employed  a  good  architect,  and  between 
them  they  designed  a  hotel  that  is,  beyond 
question,  the  last  word  in  tropical  hotel 
architecture.  Built  of  concrete,  in  a  modi- 
fied Mission  style,  and  fitted  with  every 
modern  hotel  convenience,  it  is  conducted 
on  a  scale  which  puts  it  on  a  par  with  the 
best  hotels  of  the  United  States.  Its  won- 
derful ballroom,  opening  on  three  sides  to  the 
sea,  is  a  thing  of  beauty  and  a  joy  forever. 
This  ballroom  and  the  one  at  the  Tivoli 
Hotel  at  the  other  side  of  the  isthmus 
perhaps  have  more  to  do  with  protecting 
Americans  at  Panama  from  the  ravages  of 
homesickness  than  any  other  condition  on 
the  Canal  Zone. 


AN  AUXILIARY  OF  THE  CANAL 


95 


It  is  probable  that  the  patronage  of  the 
hotel  in  the  future  will  be  such  as  to  make 
profitable  the  establishment  of  golf  links  at 
Gatun.  In  addition  to  this  Gatun  Lake 
will  afford  admirable  fishing  ground,  and 
these  things  may  make  the  isthmus  an 
ideal  tourist  resort,  to  say  nothing  of  their 
attractiveness  to  the  passengers  who  pass 
that  way  on  the  ships  of  the  world,  and 
who  will  welcome  a  change  during  the  day 
or  two  they  must  stay  on  the  isthmus 
while  their  ships  go  through  the  canal,  dis- 
charge cargo  and  take  aboard  supplies. 
The  railroad  will  give  the  passengers  who 
want  a  change,  but  who  are  on  ships  that 
do  not  stop,  an  opportunity  to  see  the 
sights  of  the  isthmus  while  their  vessels 
pass  through  the  canal.  Passengers  may 
take  the  cars  and  go  across  the  isthmus  in 
two  hours,  thus  gaining  from  eight  to  ten 
hours  for  seeing  the  sights  of  the  isthmus. 
The  railroad  will  also  be  operated  in  such 
a  way  as  to  permit  the  commissary  laundry 
to  render  efficient  services  to  passing  ships. 
A  ship  arriving  at  the  Atlantic  entrance 
from  Europe  can  send  its  linen  to  the 
commissary  laundry,  which  will  launder  ii 
and  send  it  to  Panama  in  time  to  be  taken 
aboard  before  the  vessel  leaves  the  Pacific 
end  of  the  canal. 

The  Panama  Railroad  will  be  used  in  the 
future  as  an  auxiliary  in  the  operations 
of  the  big  waterway.  Closely  paralleling 
the  canal,  it  will  move  on  short  notice 
supplies  and  equipment  from  one  point 
to  another  where  they  are  needed.  Built 
on  high  ground  and  in  the  most  thorough 


manner,  its  cost  of  upkeep  will  not  be 
heavy.  When  it  is  electrified  its  cost  of 
operation  will  be  very  low.  Under  these 
conditions  it  will  prove  as  useful  to  the  com- 
pleted canal  as  it  proved  to  the  construction 
forces  in  days  gone  by.  In  the  prompt 
maneuvering  of  troops  in  case  of  hostilities 
the  road  will  be  invaluable  to  the  United 
States. 

Some  writers  have  said  that  the  building 
of  the  old  Panama  Railroad  at  a  cost  of 
$7,400,000  was  a  more  creditable  engineer- 
ing achievement  than  the  building  of  the 
new  road  for  $9,000,000,  in  view  of  the 
advance  in  railroad  engineering  and  the 
improvement  of  railroad  building  machin- 
ery. But  this  conclusion  fails  to  take  into 
consideration  the  tremendous  amount  of 
work  done  on  the  new  road  as  compared 
with  the  old  road.  There  is  more  material 
in  a  single  fill  on  the  new  line  than  there 
was  in  all  of  the  fills  of  the  old  line.  There 
was  as  much  excavation  in  a  single  three 
mile  stretch  of  the  new  road  as  there  was 
on  the  whole  line  of  the  old  road;  there 
is  more  steel  in  the  rails  of  one  mile  of  the 
the  new  road  than  there  was  in  three  miles 
of  the  old  road.  And  so  the  comparison 
might  be  continued.  The  fact  is,  that  the 
new  Panama  Railroad  was  built  under 
those  same  standards  of  efficiency  that 
characterized  the  construction  of  the  canal, 
and  as  it  takes  its  place  alongside  of  the 
canal  as  a  part  of  Uncle  Sam's  great  inter- 
oceanic  highway,  it  will  but  emphasize  the 
wonderful  success  of  the  Americans  at 
Panama. 


CHAPTER  XV 


EARLY  CANAL  PROJECTS 

ANCIENT  BELIEF  IN  THE  EXISTENCE  OF  A  NORTHWEST  PASSAGE — FAILURE  TO  FIND 
IT  TURNS  MEN'S  THOUGHTS  TOWARD  AN  ARTIFICIAL  WATERWAY — SPAIN, 
HOLLAND,  CENTRAL  AMERICA,  GREAT  BRITAIN,  AND  AMERICA  DEVISE  PROJECTS 
ON  VARIOUS  ROUTES — WHY  THEY  FAILED — FAMOUS  NAMES  APPEAR  IN  CON- 
NECTION WITH  CANAL  SCHEMES — UNITED  STATES  INCLINES  TOWARD  NICARAGUA 
ROUTE — FRANCE  TAKES  UP  THE  PANAMA  PROJECT. 


FROM  a  very  early  period  in  the 
exploration  of  the  New  World  at- 
tempts were  made  to  establish  inter- 
oceanic  communication  by  means  of  a 
natural  waterway  connecting  the  Atlantic 
and  the  Pacific.  It  will  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  main  object  of  Columbus's  fourth 
and  last  voyage  in  1502  was  to  discover  a 
strait  through  which  he  could  pass,  as  he 
thought,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Indian 
Ocean,  and  so  sail  around  the  world  and 
get  back  to  Spain  by  way  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  This  connecting  water-pas- 
sage he  supposed  to  exist  somewhere  about 
Veragua  or  Nombre  de  Dios.  He  searched 
for  it  all  the  way  from  Cape  Honduras  to 
the  cove  of  El  Retrete,  but  of  course  he 
failed  to  find  it  for  the  very  good  rea- 
son that  it  did  not  exist;  and  then 
he  turned  back  to  Veragua  to  look  for 
gold. 

The  belief  in  the  existence  of  a  strait  in 
that  locality  or  elsewhere  long  continued 
to  exist.  In  1506  Vicente  Yafiez  Pinzon, 
on  the  second  voyage  which  he  undertook 
on  his  own  account,  and  in  which  he  was 
accompanied  by  Juan  Diaz  de  Solis, 
searched  in  vain  for  the  strait  from  the 
Guanaja  islands  in  the  Gulf  of  Honduras 
to  the  Caria  islands  off  Yucatan.  Again, 
in  1508,  Pinzon  and  Solis,  with  the  cele- 
brated pilot  Pedro  Ledesema  aboard,  went 
forth  to  seek  in  the  south  the  passage  which 
they  had  failed  to  find  in  the  north  and 
west.  Sailing  from  San  Liicar  on  June  29, 
they  reached  .  Cape  St.  Augustine,  and 
thence  steered  in  a  southwesterly  direc- 
tion as  far  as  40  degrees  south  latitude, 


and  there  gave  up  the  quest,  and  returned 
to  Spain  in  October,  1509. 

Far  to  the  south  Magellan  discovered  in 
1520  the  strait  which  bears  his  name,  but 
the  remoteness  of  this  passage  prevented 
it  from  fully  satisfying  expectations.  At 
a  convention  of  the  principal  pilots  and 
cartographers  of  Spain  and  Portugal,  held 
in  1524,  and  usually  spoken  of  as  the  Coun- 
cil of  Badajoz,  much  was  done  to  define 
more  accurately  the  general  shape  of 
America;  but  the  assembly  was  still  ob- 
sessed with  the  belief  in  the  existence  of  a 
waterway  in  a  more  central  part  of  the 
continent.  In  accordance  with  this  theory, 
Estevan  Gomez,  who  had  been  with  Magel- 
lan when  he  made  his  great  discovery  but 
had  left  him  on  entering  the  straits,  was 
despatched  by  the  Spanish  government  in 
1525  to  search  for  a  passage  in  the  north. 
He  attempted  to  find  it  somewhere  between 
Florida  and  Newfoundland,  but  of  course 
he,  like  his  various  forerunners,  was 
doomed  to  disappointment.  After  Cortes 
had  conquered  Mexico  he  was  specifically 
enjoined  by  mandate  from  the  King  of 
Spain  to  use  every  means  at  his  disposal 
to  locate  the  waterway  so  much  desired, 
and  that  was  partly  the  object  of  the 
maritime  expedition  which  he  sent  out 
along  the  Pacific  coast  in  1527.  Gil 
Gonzalez  Davila  and  Andr6s  Nino,  in  their 
expedition  of  1523,  had  also  searched  on 
the  Pacific  side  for  a  strait  through  which 
the  journey  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Moluccas  might  be  conveniently  and  di- 
rectly made. 

At  length  it  was  perforce,  but  grudgingly 


96 


FIRST  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  A  CANAL 


97 


and  unwillingly,  recognized  that  only  in 
the  extreme  south,  where  it  had  been 
already  discovered,  or  in  the  extreme  north, 
where  it  remained  to  be  discovered,  was 
there  a  natural  connection  between  the 
two  oceans.  What  nature  had  failed  to 
provide,  man  then  set  about  to  supply. 
Very  early  in  the  settlement  of  Tierra 
Firme,  we  find  projects  mooted  for  the 
construction  of  a  ship  canal.  The  first  who 
is  said  to  have  conceived  the  idea  was 
Alvaro  de  Saavedra  Ceron,  who  had  been 
one  of  Balboa's  followers  and  subsequently 
became  a  lieutenant  of  Cort6s.  Even  at  a 
time  when  a  natural  strait  was  generally 
believed  to  exist,  Saavedra  is  reported  to 
have  made  different  extensive  surveys,  be- 
tween 1517  and  1529,  as  a  result  of  which 
he  advocated  the  construction  of  a  ship 
canal  on  one  of  four  routes  which  he  speci- 
fied, namely,  I ,  from  the  Gulf  of  San  Miguel 
to  Uraba;  2,  from  Panama  to  Nombre  de 
Dios;  3,  through  Lake  Nicaragua;  and  4, 
across  Tehuantepec.  Saavedra  died  in 
1529,  before  he  was  able  to  submit  his 
report  to  Charles  V.  We  are  also  told  that 
in  1520  two  Flemish  engineers  surveyed 
the  Isthmus  with  a  view  to  the  construc- 
tion of  a  waterway  through  it,  but  reported 
against  such  a  project.  When  Pedrarias 
sent  Martin  Estete  and  Gabriel  de  Rojas 
to  explore  the  San  Juan  River  in  1528,  it  is 
quite  likely  that  his  fertile  brain  had 
already  formed  the  conception  of  linking 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  through  the  pro- 
vince over  which  he  ruled.  On  their 
return  from  their  journey  of  investigation, 
these  two  officers  recommended  a  canal 
around  the  falls  of  the  San  Juan  River, 
passing  through  Lake  Nicaragua,  and  to 
be  completed  thence  by  another  canal  to 
the  Pacific  Coast.  But  Pedrarias's  many 
other  activities  prevented  him  from  putting 
the  project  into  execution;  and  although 
it  engaged  the  attention  both  of  the  home 
government  and  of  the  government  of  the 
colony  for  some  years,  nothing  came  of  it 
in  the  end. 

In  1534  Antonio  de  la  Gama,  governor 
of  Panama,  made  an  important  preliminary 


move  by  causing  the  Chagres  River  to  be 
made  thoroughly  navigable  to  Cruces.  In 
the  same  year  Pascual  de  Andagoya,  in- 
spector general  of  the  Indies,  in  obedience 
to  a  cedula  from  Charles  V,  caused  sundry 
surveys  for  a  canal  to  be  made,  but  eventu- 
ally reported  that  it  was  impossible  to 
build  one  across  Panama  on  account  of 
the  enormous  expense  which  it  would 
entail.  Sixteen  years  later  Antonio  Galvao, 
the  Portuguese  navigator,  came  forward 
in  support  of  the  opinion  that  interoceanic 
communication  could  be  established  along 
any  one  of  four  routes,  namely,  Darien, 
Panama,  Nicaragua,  or  Tehuantepec;  and 
in  1551  Francisco  Lopez  Gomara,  the 
Spanish  historian,  forcibly  urged  on  Charles 
V  the  advisability  of  the  undertaking. 
Gomara  suggested  to  his  royal  master  that 
three  routes  were  feasible — Tehuantepec, 
Nicaragua,  and  Panama.  He  wrote:  "It 
is  true  that  mountains  bar  the  passes,  but 
if  there  are  mountains,  there  are  also  arms; 
take  but  the  resolve,  and  the  means  to  do 
it  will  not  be  lacking;  the  Indies  toward 
which  the  passage  will  be  opened  will 
furnish  them.  To  a  King  of  Spain,  with 
the  riches  of  the  Indies  at  his  doorway, 
when  the  end  to  be  obtained  is  the  com- 
merce in  its  products,  the  barely  possible 
becomes  easy." 

At  one  time  Charles  the  Fifth's  son, 
Philip  II,  seemed  inclined  to  undertake  the 
construction  of  a  canal,  but  Juan  Bautista 
Antonelli,  the  engineer  whom  he  sent  out 
in  1567,  having  submitted  an  unfavorable 
report  regarding  the  Nicaraguan  route,  the 
matter  ended.  Thereafter  Philip  changed 
his  policy  completely,  and,  moved  thereto 
by  the  fear  that  such  a  canal  as  was  con- 
templated would  render  his  American 
possessions  still  more  exposed  than  they 
were  to  the  attacks  of  the  enemies  of  Spain, 
he  absolutely  forbade  the  making  of  any 
move  having  for  object  the  construction  of 
an  interoceanic  waterway. 

The  question  was  reopened  in  1616  by 
Philip  III,  who  directed  Diego  Fernandez 
de  Velasco,  governor  of  Castilla  del  Oro, 
to  make  a  survey  of  the  route  via  the  river 


98 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


Damaquiel,  and  also  of  that  by  the  Gulf  of 
Darien  and  the  Atrato  River  to  the  Gulf 
of  San  Miguel;  but  nothing  resulted,  and 
it  is  not  definitely  known  whether  Velasco 
even  sent  in  a  report.  The  Tehuantepec 
route  was  surveyed  on  behalf  of  Spain  in 
1715  and  again  in  1774,  as  was  that  of 
Nicaragua  in  1779,  but  without  leading  to 
the  undertaking  of  any  work  in  either  case. 

Spain  came  to  the  fore  again  in  1788  with 
a  project  for  a  canal  on  the  Caledonian 
Bay  route,  but  without  accomplishing  any- 
thing except  having  a  survey  made  by 
Manuel  Milla;  and  finally,  apparently  in 
a  very  earnest  way,  in  1814,  with  a  decree 
for  the  construction  of  an  isthmian  canal, 
but  the  movement  for  independence  among 
her  American  possessions  rendered  her  con- 
templated action  then  and  forever  impos- 
sible to  her. 

Not  to  Spain,  therefore,  but  to  some  other 
nation  were  to  fall  the  task  and  the  credit 
of  the  building  of  the  much-talked-of 
artificial  waterway.  The  British  came  into 
the  project  unofficially  towards  the  close 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  for  while 
Paterson  was  at  New  Edinburgh  on  Cale- 
donia Bay,  in  1698-99,  one  of  his  many 
aggrandizement  projects  was  the  construc- 
tion of  a  canal;  but  the  failure  of  his 
Darien  colony  involved  the  failure  of  all 
the  subsidiary  plans.  In  1 780  Great  Britain 
came  forward  herself.  In  that  year  she 
planned  an  attack  on  Nicaragua  with  the 
double  object  of  crippling  Spain  in  her 
American  colonies  and  of  securing  control 
of  the  direct  communication  between  the 
two  oceans  through  Nicaraguan  territory. 
The  expedition,  which  was  under  command 
of  Major  Poison,  and  had  Horatio  Nelson, 
the  future  hero  of  the  Nile  and  Trafalgar, 
among  its  officers,  had  at  first  some  suc- 
cess; but  finally  was  so  weakened  in  num- 
bers and  stamina  by  malaria  and  fevers 
brought  on  by  the  rainy  season  that  it 
had  to  make  an  inglorious  retreat. 

Humboldt's  suggestions  and  proposals 
in  1803-08  had,  from  the  greatness  of 
their  author,  attracted  attention  to  the 
question  anew,  and  not  long  after  their 


emancipation,  the  countries  forming  the 
Central  American  Confederation  invited 
the  cooperation  of  the  United  States  in 
building  a  canal.  An  envoy  deputied  in 
1825  by  Henry  Clay,  then  Secretary  of  State, 
to  investigate  the  practicability  of  con- 
structing a  canal  through  Nicaragua,  re- 
ported that,  owing  to  the  unsettled  condi- 
tions at  that  time  prevalent,  it  would  not 
be  advisable  to  enter  on  the  undertaking. 
In  default  of  the  cooperation  asked  for, 
the  congress  of  the  Confederation,  anxious 
to  have  a  canal  constructed  across  Nica- 
ragua, gave  for  that  purpose  a  concession 
to  one  Beninski,  a  Frenchman,  who,  failing 
to  do  anything  himself,  transferred  his 
rights  to  an  American  syndicate,  known  as 
the  Central  American  and  United  States 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Canal  Company. 
There  were  some  eminent  engineers  and 
capitalists  in  this  combine,  but  for  want  of 
government  support  they  were  not  able  to 
accomplish  anything. 

The  next  competitor  was  New  Granada, 
and  its  objective  point  was  naturally  in 
its  own  territory.  President  Bolivar  hav- 
ing in  1826  given  to  Baron  Thierry,  a 
Frenchman,  a  concession  which  came  to 
nought  for  want  of  capital  to  work  it, 
commissioned  in  the  following  year  Lloyd 
and  Falmark  to  make  that  exploration 
which  resulted  in  the  expression  of  their 
belief,  already  referred  to,  that  at  least  a 
railway,  and  possibly  a  canal,  was  practi- 
cable between  Chagres  and  Panama.  It 
will  be  noticed  that  the  route  they  examined 
and  selected  was  nearly  the  same  as  that 
which  the  Panama  Railroad  Company 
utilized  in  constructing  its  line  across  the 
Isthmus.  The  political  situation  in  New 
Granada  was,  however,  unfavorable  to  the 
inception  of  either  undertaking,  and  accord- 
ingly the  matter  ended  with  Lloyd  and 
Falmark's  report. 

The  King  of  Holland  then  stepped  in,  and 
his  representative,  Gen.  Werweer,  a  Bel- 
gian officer,  having  secured  a  concesson  in 
1829,  there  seemed  a  fair  prospect  that  at 
last  a  canal  would  be  constructed;  but 
the  war  which  separated  Belgium  from 


AMERICAN  AND  FRENCH  PROJECTS 


99 


Holland  soon  afterwards  broke  out  and 
compelled  the  abandonment  of  the  Dutch 
project.  Morazon,  president  of  the  Central 
American  Confederation,  caused  a  survey 
to  be  begun  in  1837,  but  the  work  was 
interrupted  by  Morazon's  fall.  It  was  con- 
tinued without  result  by  Nicaragua  on  its 
own  account. 

In  the  meantime  the  United  States  had 
by  J835  become  very  thoroughly  interested, 
and  the  Senate  adopted  a  resolution  in 
favor  of  a  canal  on  the  Nicaraguan  route. 
Thereupon  President  Jackson  sent  Charles 
Biddle  to  make  a  survey  and  to  negotiate 
for  a  Nicaraguan  concession.  Biddle,  how- 
ever, as  has  been  already  told,  did  not  visit 
Nicaragua  at  all,  but  was  so  favorably 
impressed  by  what  he  saw  of  the  Panama 
route  that  he  hastened  to  Bogota  and 
secured  a  concession  for  a  railroad  across 
the  Isthmus.  This  action  on  his  part  led 
to  Biddle's  being  practically  repudiated  by 
the  United  States  Government,  and  the 
panic  of  1837  also  supervening,  he  was,  as 
we  have  seen,  unable  to  go  forward  with 
his  railroad  project. 

In  1838  Capt.  Edward  Belcher  of  the 
British  Navy  recommended  the  construc- 
tion of  a  canal  having  its  Pacific  outlet  in 
the  Bay  of  Fonseca.  This  suggested  route 
aroused  attention  in  the  United  States, 
and  in  1839  President  Van  Buren  sent 
John  L.  Stephens  on  a  confidential  mission 
to  Central  America.  His  instructions  were 
to  investigate  the  feasibility  of  a  canal  on 
some  one  of  the  suggested  routes,  and,  if 
he  found  conditions  favorable,  to  negotiate 
for  a  concession.  The  conclusion  Stephens 
arrived  at  was  that,  owing  to  the  existing 
disturbances,  it  was  not  then  advisable  to 
attempt  the  construction  of  a  canal.  At 
the  same  time  he  recommended  for  future 
use  the  Lake  Nicaragua  route,  and  esti- 
mated that  the  cost  of  constructing  a  canal 
there  would  be  $25,000,000. 

A  French  company  having  obtained  in 
1838  from  New  Granada  a  concession  for, 
among  other  things,  the  construction  of  a 
trans-isthmian  canal,  and  having  an- 
nounced the  discovery  of  a  pass  through 


the  mountains  only  thirty-seven  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  the  French  minister  for 
foreign  affairs  in  1843  commissioned  Na- 
poleon Garella,  an  engineer,  to  visit  and 
study  the  Isthmus  and  investigate  this 
claim.  Garella  could  not  find  a  pass  at 
any  such  height,  and,  condemning  the 
project  in  hand,  recommended,  as  related 
in  the  previous  chapter,  a  canal  from 
Limon  Bay  to  the  bay  of  Vaca  de  Monte. 
This  canal  would  have  required  a  tunnel 
over  three  miles  long  under  the  Ahogayuega 
ridge.  At  its  summit  it  was  to  be  135  feet 
above  the  sea,  and  the  ascent  and  descent 
were  to  be  secured  by  thirty-five  locks. 
The  total  cost  was  estimated  at  $40,000,- 
ooo.  This  project  failed  to  materialize. 

Then,  in  1844,  Nicaragua  tried  to  interest 
France  in  a  canal  through  its  territory, 
and  sent  Francisco  Castellon  to  put  the 
matter  before  Louis  Philippe;  but  that 
monarch  gave  the  matter  only  scant 
attention.  In  1846  Louis  Napoleon,  hav- 
ing written  in  his  prison  of  Ham  an  essay 
on  the  subject,  continued  his  efforts  to 
secure  from  the  Nicaraguan  government  a 
concession  to  construct  the  "Canal  Napo- 
leon de  Nicaragua,"  and  offered  to  under- 
take the  work,  if  released ;  but,  fearing  the 
consequences,  the  French  government  re- 
fused to  grant  the  necessary  condition. 
When  Napoleon  effected  his  dramatic 
escape  from  the  fortress,  other  interests 
than  distant  Nicaragua  naturally  occupied 
him. 

The  seizure  of  San  Juan  del  Norte  and 
Tiger  Island  by  Great  Britain,  followed  by 
other  British  aggression  in  Central  Ameri- 
ca, aroused  the  United  States  to  offsetting 
action,  and  in  1849  President  Polk  sent 
Elijah  Hise  as  a  special  envoy  to  Nica- 
ragua. With  that  country  Hise  negotiated 
a  treaty,  by  the  terms  of  which  the  United 
States,  or  its  citizens,  were  given  the  exclu- 
sive right  to  construct,  operate  and  control 
a  transit  way  of  what  sort  soever  across 
Nicaragua,  the  consideration  being  that 
the  United  States  should  guarantee  to 
Nicaragua  its  independence.  This  treaty 
ignored  certain  claims  set  up  by  Great 


IOO 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


Britain,  and,  the  British  minister  hav- 
ing entered  a  protest,  the  treaty  was  not 
submitted  to  the  Senate. 

Treaties  negotiated  with  Nicaragua  and 
Honduras  by  Ephraim  George  Squier  on 
behalf  of  the  United  States  were  also 
objected  to  by  Great  Britain  and  failed  of 
ratification.  Further  complications  were 
brought  about  in  the  same  year  (1849) 
when  some  New  York  capitalists  organized 
the  " Compania  de  Transito  de  Nicaragua" 
for  the  construction  of  a  canal  through 
Nicaragua. 

All  the  points  in  dispute  were,  however, 
settled  in  1850  by  the  Clayton-Bulwer 
treaty,  which  provided  that  neither  Great 
Britain  nor  the  United  States  could  occupy, 
fortify,  colonize,  or  exercise  dominion  over 
Nicaragua,  Costa  Rica,  the  Mosquito 
Coast,  or  any  other  portion  of  Central 
American  territory,  except  Belize,  nor  make 
use  of  a  protectorate  in  any  form,  and 
further  perpetually  guaranteed  the  neu- 
trality of  the  canal  or  other  interoceanic 
transit  which  should  thereafter  be  con- 
structed. The  entrepreneurs,  whose  affairs 
had  helped  to  bring  about  this  important 
international  treaty,  failed  to  construct 
the  canal;  but  having  amalgamated  with 
other  capitalists  in  1851  under  the  title  of 
the  "Accessory  Transit  Company,"  they 
placed  steamers  on  both  oceans,  and  utiliz- 
ing the  river  San  Juan  and  Lake  Nicaragua, 
and  establishing  a  coach  route  of  thirteen 
miles  to  connect  the  lake  with  San  Juan 
del  Sur  on  the  Pacific,  they  did  a  brisk 
business,  as  well  as  providing  a  public 
utility,  in  transporting  passengers,  until 
1869,  when  the  company  discontinued  its 
operations. 

Colonel  Orville  Childs,  the  engineer  of 
the  Accessory  Transit  Company,  surveyed 
a  new  route  in  1851,  and  in  the  following 
year  he  presented  to  President  Fillmore  a 
report  in  which  he  recommended  a  canal 
from  the  mouth  of  Lojas  River,  through 
the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande,  to  Port 
Brito.  In  1852,  also,  S.  Bayley  proposed  to 
construct  from  La  Virgen  to  San  Juan  del 
Sur  a  canal  along  a  route  which  followed 


in  part  an  earlier  one  recommended  in  1843 
by  John  Baily.  In  1853  Squier  suggested 
a  revival  of  Belcher's  route,  utilizing  Lakes 
Nicaragua  and  Managua  and  passing 
through  the  Conejo  valley  and  the  Estero 
Real  to  the  Bay  of  Fonseca. 

In  1858  Felix  Belly,  a  Frenchman, 
secured  for  his  firm,  Belly,  Milaud,  et 
Compagnie,  a  contract  from  Nicaragua  for 
a  canal  along  the  Sapoa  River  to  Salinas 
Bay,  a  route  which  had  been  recommended 
to  Costa  Rica  by  Orsted  in  1848.  This 
firm  assigned  its  rights  to  the  International 
Canal  Company,  but,  as  neither  the  original 
grantee  nor  its  successor  did  anything,  the 
Nicaraguan  government  cancelled  the  con- 
tract in  1868  and  transferred  it  to  Michel 
Chevalier,  another  Frenchman,  who  had 
for  some  years  previously  been  prospecting 
in  Central  America  on  behalf  of  the 
Emperor  Napoleon.  Chevalier  insisted, 
as  an  essential  preliminary,  that  the  con- 
tract should  be  ratified  by  the  congress  of 
Costa  Rica,  through  a  portion  of  whose 
territory  the  canal  was  to  run.  This  ratifi- 
cation was  granted,  but  not  until  1869, 
and  before  anything  was  done  to  con- 
struct the  canal,  the  great  Franco-Prussian 
War  of  1870-1871  broke  out,  and  the 
downfall  of  the  empire  and  the  chaos  which 
that  event  engendered  in  France  swamped 
all  Chevalier's  hopes  of  success  in  financing 
his  concession. 

In  1850  Dr.  Edgar  Cullen,  of  Dublin, 
Ireland,  received  a  concession  from  New 
Granada  for  a  canal  along  the  Caledonian 
Bay  route  first  suggested  by  Paterson  in 
1698.  The  glowing,  but,  as  afterwards 
appeared,  unwarranted,  reports  given  out 
by  Cullen,  and  afterwards  by  Lionel  Gis- 
borne,  as  to  the  advantages  of  this  route, 
induced  the  United  States  government  to 
send  Lieutenant  Strain  of  the  United 
States  navy  to  survey  that  section  of  the 
country.  Strain  and  his  party  started  from 
Caledonia  Bay  for  the  Gulf  of  San  Miguel 
in  January,  1854,  but  met  with  such  terrible 
hardships  that  several  of  their  number 
actually  died  of  starvation.  The  survey 
was  made,  however,  and  showed  moun- 


FURTHER  SURVEYS  MADE 


101 


tains  so  high  as  effectually  to  prevent  the 
construction  of  a  canal  without  excessive 
tunnelling. 

In  1857  President  Buchanan  sent  Lieu- 
tenant Nathaniel  Michler  of  the  army 
and  Lieutenant  T.  A.  Craven  of  the  navy 
to  survey  the  Atrato  River  route.  The 
report  submitted  by  Michler  was  favorable, 
and  estimated  the  cost  of  a  canal  at  $134,- 
000,000,  while  on  the  other  hand  Craven's 
report  declared  the  route  to  be  quite 
impracticable. 

In  i86Q_  President  Grant  enunciated  the 
doctrine  of  "an  American  canal  under 
American  control,"  stating  that  he  regarded 
it  of  vast  political  importance  to  the 
United  States  that  no  European  govern- 
ment should  hold  such  a  work.  He  then 
appointed  an  Interoceanic  Canal  Com- 
mission, under  whose  direction  four  surveys 
were  undertaken  and  carried  to  completion. 
The  net  result  of  these  surveys  was  that 
the  Caledonian  Bay  route  and  the  San 
Bias  route  were  condemned  as  impractica- 
ble; that  one  route  in  the  Atrato  River 
valley  was  pronounced  impossible  and 
another,  that  to  Chiri-Chiri  Bay,  was 
highly  recommended;  that  the  Tehuan te- 
pee route  was  found  to  be  practicable,  but 
prohibitive  as  to  cost;  that  the  Childs  route 


through  Nicaragua  with  Brito  as  terminus 
was  recommended;  and  that  a  lock  canal 
from  Limon  Bay  to  Panama  was  declared 
practicable,  but  that  the  Chagres  River 
made  a  sea  level  canal  impossible  on  that 
route.  Further  surveys  over  most  of  those 
routes  were  then  ordered;  and  finally,  in 
1876,  the  Interoceanic  Canal  Commission, 
after  carefully  considering  all  the  rights  of 
the  various  surveying  parties,  made  a 
unanimous  recommendation  in  favor  of  the 
Nicaragua  route  from  Greytown  to  the 
San  Juan  River,  through  Lake  Nicaragua, 
along  the  valleys  of  the  Rio  del  Media 
and  Rio  Grande,  to  Brito  on  the  Pacific 
coast. 

Such,  in  brief,  was  the  record  made  by 
the  nations  in  their  fruitless  efforts  to 
execute  the  work  of  constructing  an  inter- 
oceanic  canal.  Numerous  other  minor 
attempts  were  made  by  individuals,  sup- 
ported often  by  governments,  but  doomed 
to  early  disappointment,  and  hardly  de- 
serving even  passing  mention.  At  this 
juncture,  in  1875,  the  active  and  ambitious 
spirit  of  France  began  to  be  aroused  anew, 
and  the  success  that  had  linked  the  names 
of  de  Lesseps  and  Suez  together  induced 
Frenchmen  to  believe  that  they  could  con- 
quer the  cordilleras  of  the  New  World. 


I'1 


CHAPTER  XVI 
DE  LESSEPS'S  COLOSSAL  FAILURE 

LIEUTENANT  WYSE  SECURES  A  CONCESSION  FROM  COLOMBIA — DE  LESSEPS  BECOMES 
INTERESTED — INTERNATIONAL  SCIENTIFIC  CONGRESS  FOSTERS  PANAMA  ROUTE 
— ORGANIZATION  OF  COMPAGNIE  UNIVERSELLE  DU  CANAL  INTEROCEANIQUE  DE 
PANAMA — SEA-LEVEL  CANAL  BEGUN — BOUNDLESS  ENTHUSIASM  IN  FRANCE — 
THE  FIGHT  WITH  DISEASE — EXTRAVAGANCE  AND  GRAFT — THE  BUBBLE  BURSTS 
— CRIMINAL  PROSECUTIONS — DE  LESSEPS  SENTENCED  TO  PRISON — NEW  PANAMA 
CANAL  COMPANY  ORGANIZED — MARITIME  CANAL  COMPANY  OPERATES  IN  NICA- 
RAGUA— UNITED  STATES  TURNS  TO  THAT  ROUTE — CLAYTON-BULWER  TREATY 
SET  ASIDE — PLANS  FOR  NICARAGUA  CANAL  INITIATED. 


T 


Atlantic-Pacific  canal  question 
was  fully  discussed  in  all  its  bearings 
at  the  Congress  of  Geographical 
Sciences  held  in  Paris  in  1875.  As  a  result, 
a  French  company,  the  Soci6te  Civile 
Internationale  du  Canal  Interoc£anique, 
formed  for  the  purpose  of  making  the 
necessary  explorations,  sent  Lieutenant 
Lucien  Napoleon  Bonaparte  Wyse  and  a 
party  of  assistants  to  decide  on  the  best 
route  and,  having  decided,  to  secure  a 
concession.  The  route  from  Colon  to 
Panama  was  selected,  and  on  May.  18, 
1878,  Wyse  obtained  from  the  Colombian 
government  for  his  company  the  exclusive 
privilege  of  constructing  a  canal,  subject 
only  to  the  existing  rights  of  the  Panama 
Railroad  Company.  The  concession  was 
to  last  for  ninety-nine  years  beginning 
from  the  first  collection  of  tolls  on  vessels 
passing  through  the  canal.  Two  years 
were  allowed  for  the  formation  of  a  com- 
pany, and  twelve  years  for  the  construction 
of  the  canal. 

Thereupon  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps,  who 
had  gained  great  renown  by  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Suez  Canal  in  1859-1869,  con- 
vened at  Paris  the  International  Scientific 
Congress,  which  met  on  May  15,  1879. 
After  debating  the  subject  for  a  fortnight 
and  discussing  seven  separate  schemes,  the 
Congress,  which  was  dominated  by  de 
Lesseps,  decided  that  a  sea-level  canal 
should  be  constructed  from  Colon  to 
Panama  and  estimated  the  cost  at 


$208,000,000.  To  take  over  the  Wyse 
concession,  and  carry  out  the  work,  the 
Compagnie  Universelle  du  Canal  Inter- 
oc6anique  de  Panama  was  formed,  with  a 
capital  of  $60,000,000,  and  was  placed  in 
control  of  de  Lesseps.  On  January  i, 
1880,  the  construction  of  the  canal  was 
formally  inaugurated;  in  February  of  the 
following  year  the  engineers  were  at  the 
work  in  earnest. 

At  the  outset  the  company  was  con- 
fronted with  difficulties  in  connection  with 
the  Panama  Railroad,  which  refused  to 
carry  passengers  and  freight  unless  at  the 
ordinary  rates,  and,  in  addition,  held  such 
rights  as  to  make  the  canal  concession  of 
very  little  value  unless  there  was  cordial 
cooperation  between  the  two  companies. 
Under  such  circumstances  there  was  obvi- 
ously only  one  thing  to  do,  namely,  buy 
out  the  railroad,  rights,  building,  and  equip- 
ment; and  this  was  done  for  a  consideration 
of  some  $25,500,000. 

In  adopting  a  sea-level  instead  of  a  lock 
canal,  de  Lesseps  and  his  associates  had 
run  counter  to  the  deliberate  opinion  of 
many  experienced  engineers,  and  some  of 
those  most  competent  to  judge  thought 
they  saw  danger  ahead.  But  all  warnings 
were  lost  in  the  vortex  of  the  popularity 
of  the  hero  of  Suez.  With  exuberant  con- 
fidence de  Lesseps  waved  every  obstacle 
aside,  and  his  reputation  was  so  great 
and  his  optimism  so  infectious  that  the 
public  gladly  followed  his  lead.  Hundreds 


102 


BANKRUPTCY  OF  THE  CANAL  COMPANY 


103 


of  thousands  of  his  fellow-countrymen 
rushed  to  invest  their  savings  in  the  com- 
pany at  the  head  of  which  was  the  great 
Frenchman.  The  construction  of  the  canal 
was  thus  entered  on  with  great  enthusiasm 
and  high  hopes. 

Several  causes,  however,  conspired  to 
militate  against  its  success.  The  principal 
of  these  may  briefly  be  described  as  lack 
of  foresight,  inability  to  cope  with  disease, 
extravagance,  and  bribery  and  corruption. 
Thousands  of  laborers  were  despatched  to 
the  scene  of  action  without  any  adequate 
preparation  for  their  housing  or  feeding; 
stores,  supplies,  and  implements  were  reck- 
lessly purchased  without  due  attention  to 
actual  needs.  At  that  time  it  had  not  been 
discovered  that  one  kind  of  mosquito  was 
the  disseminator  of  malaria  and  another  of 
yellow  fever,  and,  although  two  splendid 
hospitals  were  built,  the  loss  of  life  from 
those  diseases  was  phenomenal.  In  fact, 
owing  to  a  pardonable  want  of  knowledge 
of  medical  facts  that  were  not  fully  estab- 
lished until  1898  and  1900,  respectively, 
the  hospitals  themselves  became  propaga- 
tors and  disseminators  of  disease. 

The  expenditures  in  salaries,  equipment, 
and  expenses,  especially  for  the  higher 
placed  officials,  were  boundless.  Finally,  as 
investigation  afterwards  brought  out,  there 
was  so  much  money  spent  on  secret  com- 
missions and  in  other  corrupt  ways  that  it 
has  been  said  with  some  show  of  truth 
that  not  more  than  one-third  of  the  total 
amount  expended  was  actually  laid  out  on 
the  canal.  With  all  these  factors  combined 
against  success,  the  wonder  is,  not  that 
the  French  failed,  but  that  they  achieved 
so  much. 

In  1887  it  became  evident  that  a  sea- 
level  canal  could  not  be  built  at  a  reasonable 
cost  nor  within  a  reasonable  time,  and 
accordingly  there  was  substituted  a  plan 
for  a  lock  canal,  estimated  to  cost  $300,- 
000,000.  Work  was  continued  along  the 
latter  line  until  December,  1888,  when  the 
company  suspended  payment  and  became 
bankrupt.  It  was  dissolved  by  a  judgment 
of  the  Tribunal  Civile  de  la  Seine  on  Febru- 


ary 4,  1889,  and  a  receiver  was  appointed 
by  the  court  to  take  charge  of  its  affairs. 
A  sum  of  $262,000,000  had  been  spent, 
and  in  eight  and  a  half  years  less  than  a 
quarter  of  the  canal  had  been  constructed. 
There  was  naturally  a  great  scandal  and 
a  great  outburst  of  popular  indignation  in 
France.  Criminal  charges  were  brought 
against  de  Lesseps,  and  in  1893  he  was  con- 
demned  to  five  years'  imprisonment — a 
sentence  which,  owing  to  his  advanced  age 
and  honorable  record,  was  never  enforced. 
Many  others  were  also  brought  to  trial; 
some  committed  suicide,  others  were  fined 
and  sent  to  prison. 

Investigation  proved  that  between  1881 
and  1887  seven  different  directors  general 
had  been  appointed ;  that  white  mechanics 
had  been  paid  $5  a  day,  skilled  black 
laborers  $2.50  a  day,  and  unskilled  black 
laborers  $1.75  a  day.  Disease  and  death 
scattered  the  working  forces,  and  the 
supervising  heads  lost  interest  in  the  enter- 
prise and  transferred  their  activities  to  the 
pleasures  of  life  in  the  city  of  Panama. 
The  Dutch  company  which  had  contracted 
to  do  the  work  of  excavation  agreed  to 
remove  793,000  cubic  yards  a  month  for 
the  first  eighteen  months  and  429,000 
cubic  yards  a  month  thereafter.  It  was 
never  able  to  handle  more  than  130,000 
cubic  yards  a  month. 

The  trial  in  Paris  disclosed  the  fact  that 
$400,000  had  gone  to  the  genius  who 
proposed  a  lottery  loan  for  the  purpose  of 
keeping  the  canal  company  afloat;  $400,- 
ooo  went  for  "publicity;"  $580,000  was 
charged  to  "banking  expenses;"  and 
$280,000  was  paid  to  politicians,  journal- 
ists, and  members  of  the  chamber  of 
deputies.  The  Minister  of  Public  Works 
had  demanded  $200,000  for  his  services, 
and  was  paid  $75,000.  Baron  Reinach 
was  paid  $1,200,000  to  float  a  loan  of 
$120,000,000,  and  only  half  of  this  loan 
was  subscribed.  M.  Eiffel,  builder  of  the 
famous  Eiffel  tower,  was  drawn  in  as  the 
new  contractor  for  the  lock- type  canal, 
and  a  lottery  loan  was  floated.  But  the 
money  was  soon  gone,  and  the  collapse 


IO4 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


followed.  It  was  shown  that  of  the 
$262,000,000  raised  by  the  French  people, 
less  than  $100,000,000  had  been  expended 
at  Panama.  Salaries  and  office  expenses 
consumed  $80,000,000;  it  cost  $32,000,000 
to  float  the  loans;  and  the  expenses  in 
Paris  were  over  $75,000,000. 

The  receiver  having  finally  suspended 
the  works  in  May,  1889,  applied  his  energies 
to  saving  whatever  was  possible  from  the 
wreck,  and  for  that  purpose  assisted  in  the 
reorganization  of  another  company.  But 
this  was  now  by  no  means  easy  to  do,  and 
it  was  not  until  1894  that  the  new  Panama 
Canal  Company  with  a  capital  of  $10,000,- 
ooo  was  successfully  established.  In  the 
meantime  a  fresh  concession  for  ten  years 
had  been  obtained  from  Colombia  in  1890, 
and  in  1893  a  further  extension  had  been 
granted  on  the  understanding  that  the 
canal  should  be  completed  by  October  31, 
1904.  In  1900  this  term  was  finally  ex- 
tended to  1910  by  the  President,  but  not 
by  the  congress,  of  Colombia — a  fact 
which  at  a  critical  juncture  in  a  later 
period  was  seized  upon  to  make  the  con- 
cession appear  invalid. 

The  New  Panama  Canal  Company  did 
excellent  work,  and  with  a  comparatively 
small  capital  excavated  about  11,400,000 
cubic  yards,  as  well  as  making  engineering 
surveys  which  were  afterwards  found  to  be 
of  the  greatest  value.  It  was,  however, 
hampered  in  many  ways,  principally  for 
want  of  capital,  and  for  some  time  towards 
the  end  it  could  do  little  more  than  the 
minimum  amount  of  work  required  to  save 
appearances  and  keep  its  concession  alive. 

In  the  meantime  the  United  States,  still 
anxious  to  build  an  isthmian  canal,  had 
sent  Lieutenant  Menocal  in  1887  to  survey 
the  Nicaraguan  territory  once  more,  with 
instructions  finally  to  determine  the  best 
route  for  a  canal.  The  route  selected  ran 
from  Greytown  on  the  Atlantic  to  Brito 
on  the  Pacific.  Concessions  were  obtained 
from  both  Nicaragua  in  1887  and  Costa 
Rica  in  1888.  A  bill  introduced  in  Congress 
in  1888,  for  chartering  the  Maritime 
Canal  Company  to  work  those  concessions, 


became  law  in  February,  1889,  at  a  time 
when  the  failure  of  the  first  French  Com- 
pany operating  in  Panama  was  known  to 
be  absolute. 

The  Maritime  Company  was  organized 
as  speedily  as  possible  with  a  capital  of 
$150,000,000  preferred  and  $100,000,000 
common  stock.  It  commenced  operations 
at  Greytown  in  June,  1890,  and  erected 
wharves  and  warehouses,  as  well  as  actually 
constructing  a  temporary  railroad,  a  tele- 
graph line,  and  about  three-quarters  of  a 
mile  of  a  canal.  The  panic  of  1893  then 
supervened,  and  the  company,  involved  in 
financial  difficulties,  was  obliged  to  dis- 
continue its  work. 

In  June,  1897,  a  Canal  Commission  was 
constituted  by  the  United  States  Congress 
and  the  sum  of  $300,000  was  voted  for  its 
expenses.  This  commission  investigated 
the  Nicaraguan  route  again,  and  in  1899 
recommended  its  adoption;  but  Congress 
required  more  information  before  acting, 
and  in  June,  1899,  appointed  another 
Canal  Commission  with  an  appropriation 
of  $1,000,000  to  conduct  investigations 
both  at  Panama  and  Nicaragua.  Its 
report,  submitted  on  December  4,  1900, 
discussed  fully  the  merits  of  both  routes. 
It  recommended  the  Nicaragua  route  and 
estimated  the  cost  of  a  canal  there  at 
$200,540,000.  Its  estimate  for  a  canal 
through  Panama  was  $142,342,579,  but  the 
commission  had  found  no  way  to  complete 
ownership  or  control  thereof  except  at  a 
cost  that  would  make  its  total  expenses 
much  greater  than  the  canal  on  the  Nicara- 
guan route.  This  was  because  the  New 
Panama  Canal  Company  had  placed  a 
selling  value  of  $109,000,000  on  its  prop- 
erty and  rights,  and  at  that  time  refused 
to  accept  less.  Congress  then  proceeded 
to  consider  afresh  the  Nicaraguan  project, 
and  soon  a  convention  was  signed  between 
representatives  of  the  two  governments 
having  in  view  the  construction  of  a  canal 
through  Nicaragua. 

In  the  meantime  Secretary  Hay,  under 
direction  of  President  McKinley,  began 
negotiations  with  Great  Britain  for  the 


UNITED  STATES  FAVORS  NICARAGUA 


105 


modification  or  abrogation  of  the  Clayton- 
Bulwer  treaty  of  1850.  This  treaty  had 
been  a  stumbling-block  in  the  path  of  the 
United  States  almost  from  the  date  of  its 
ratification.  It  had  caused  friction  be- 
tween the  two  nations,  and  had  prevented 
the  United  States  from  acquiring  exclusive 
control  of  any  canal  route.  Now  that  the 
way  had  been  paved  for  a  canal  through 
Nicaragua,  the  United  States  was  ardently 
desirous  of  beginning  the  work,  since  the 
voyage  of  the  Oregon  in  the  Spanish- 
American  War  had  aroused  the  American 
people  to  the  need  of  a  short  passage  from 
one  coast  to  the  other. 

Great  Britain's  foreign  policy  at  that 
time  was  directed  by  Lord  Lansdowne, 
who  made  known  his  willingness  to  come 
to  terms  with  the  United  States.  After 
much  negotiation  a  treaty  was  drawn  up 
and  signed  by  Secretary  Hay  and  Sir  Ju- 
lian Pauncefote,  British  Ambassador  to  the 
United  States.  It  provided,  however,  that 
the  United  States  should  not  fortify  any 
canal  which  it  might  construct,  and  the 
Senate  took  exception  to  this  provision. 
The  treaty  was  amended  by  the  Senate  to 
conform  to  its  opinions,  and  the  British 
government  thereupon  declined  to  ratify 
the  treaty. 


Renewed  negotiations  were  begun  by 
Secretary  Hay,  which  were  continued  after 
the  death  of  President  McKinley  and  the 
incoming  of  President  Roosevelt.  A  new 
treaty,  with  the  same  plenipotentiaries  as 
signers,  was  concluded.  It  met  the  ap- 
proval of  the  Senate,  and  was  duly  ratified 
by  both  governments.  This  treaty  gave 
to  the  United  States  the  exclusive  right  to 
build  and  control  an  isthmian  canal,  and 
to  defend  it,  with  the  proviso  that  the 
general  principle  of  neutralization  con- 
tained in  the  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty  should 
be  maintained — tjiat  is,  that  the  vessels 
of  all  nations  observing  the  rules  laid  down 
by  the  United  States  should  be  permitted 
to  pass  through  the  canal  on  equal  terms; 
that  the  canal  should  not  be  used  for  war- 
like purposes;  and  that  belligerent  vessels 
should  be  passed  through  in  accordance 
with  the  general  rules  of  neutrality. 

With  the  Hay-Pauncefote  treaty  ratified, 
the  way  seemed  to  be  clear  for  the  con- 
struction of  the  Nicaragua  canal.  The 
commission  had  unanimously  favored  it, 
the  diplomatic  obstacles  had  been  removed, 
Congress  was  ready  to  appropriate  money 
for  the  work,  and  the  people  demanded 
it.  Panama  appeared  to  have  been  aban- 
doned forever  by  the  Americans. 


CHAPTER  XVII 


HOW  PANAMA  TRIUMPHED  OVER  NICARAGUA 

A  NEW  FIGURE  APPEARS  IN  CANAL  HISTORY — WILLIAM  NELSON  CROMWELL'S  EFFORTS 
IN  FAVOR  OF  PANAMA — HE  PREVENTS  ADOPTION  OF  NICARAGUA  ROUTE — 
FRENCH  COMPANY'S  EXCESSIVE  DEMAND — DEATH  OF  McKiNLEY — HAY-PAUNCE- 
FOTE  TREATY  CLEARS  THE  WAY  FOR  NICARAGUA — COMPANY  ELECTS  A  NEW 
PRESIDENT  AND  SUBMITS  A  NEW  OFFER — HOUSE  PASSES  NICARAGUA  BILL — 
CANAL  COMMISSION  FAVORS  FRENCH  COMPANY'S  OFFER — SENATOR  HANNA 
SUPPORTS  PANAMA — ATTACK  UPON  VALIDITY  OF  TITLE — COLOMBIA  BLOCKS  THE 
WAY — ITS  OBJECTIONS  REMOVED — SENATOR  SPOONER  INTRODUCES  BILL  FOR 
ALTERNATIVE  CHOICE  OF  ROUTES — IT  is  SUBSTITUTED  FOR  NICARAGUA  BILL. 


this  juncture  there  appeared  prom- 
inently in  canal  history  a  new  fig- 
ure— a  I  man  who  had  been  busily 
at  work  for  four  years  in  behalf  of  the 
Panama  route,  but  whose  work  was  un- 
known to  most  Americans.  Mr.  William 
Nelson  Cromwell,  who  combined  in  his 
makeup  unusual  and  brilliant  qualities  as 
a  lawyer,  diplomat,  and  financier,  had  been 
retained  in  1896  as  American  counsel  by 
the  Compagnie  Nouvelle  du  Canal  de 
Panama  (New  Panama  Canal  Company). 
He  had  thrown  himself  into  a  complex  and 
disheartening  task  with  remarkable  tenac- 
ity of  purpose  and  clearness  of  vision.  His 
task  was  nothing  less  than  that  of  inducing 
the  United  States  to  adopt  the  Panama 
route — to  adopt  it  after  the  very  name  of 
Panama  had  become  a  synonym  for  dis- 
ease, failure  and  disaster. 

During  the  four  years  from  1896  to  1901, 
Mr.  Cromwell  had  accomplished  much.  It 
was  due  to  him  that  the  dangers  of  the 
Clayton-Bulwer  treaty  were  made  clear, 
although,  if  he  had  stopped  there,  the  net 
result  of  his  labors  would  have  been  to 
facilitate  the  construction  of  the  rival  canal 
at  Nicaragua.  He  fought  the  Nicaragua 
project  in  Congress,  in  the  press,  and 
through  diplomatic  channels,  not  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  building  of  a  canal,  but  for  the 
sake  of  obtaining  a  hearing  for  Panama. 
He  succeeded  in  preventing  the  passage  of 
a  bill  by  the  House  of  Representatives — 
already  passed  by  the  Senate — providing 


for  the  Nicaragua  canal.  He  brought 
about  the  appointment  of  a  new  canal 
commission  to  study  the  Panama  route 
and  to  confer  with  the  New  Panama  Canal 
Company.  He  induced  Colombia  to  enter 
a  protest  against  the  construction  of  the 
Nicaragua  route  until  the  international 
interests  involved  at  Panama  could  be 
thoroughly  studied. 

Mr.  Cromwell's  efforts  in  behalf  of  the 
Panama  route  were  nearly  brought  to 
nought  by  the  refusal  of  the  French  com- 
pany to  sell  outright  its  property  and 
rights.  He  was  confronted  with  the  immi- 
nent failure  of  all  his  labors.  He  conceived 
the  plan  of  Americanizing  the  company 
by  obtaining  a  charter  under  the  laws  of  an 
American  state.  This  work  occupied  him 
many  months. 

Public  sentiment  in  the  United  States 
seemed  to  be  overwhelmingly  in  favor  of 
the  Nicaragua  route.  Mr.  Hepburn,  in  the 
House  of  Representatives,  and  Senator 
Morgan,  of  Alabama,  were  champions  of 
Nicaragua.  They  made  every  effort  to 
push  through  an  act  providing  for  the 
Nicaragua  canal,  without  waiting  for  the 
new  commission's  report.  The  House  on 
May  2,  1900,  had  passed  the  Nicaragua 
canal  bill,  and  Senator  Morgan  employed 
all  his  resources  to  bring  it  to  a  vote  in  the 
Senate.  He  was  defeated  by  the  narrow 
margin  of  twenty-eight  to  twenty-one 
votes,  on  May  14,  1900. 

After  the  presidential  election  of  1900 


106 


107 


and  the  reconvening  of  Congress  in  Decem- 
ber of  that  year,  the  canal  controversy  was 
resumed.  The  French  company  had  not 
been  brought  to  make  an  out  and  out  offer 
of  sale;  it  insisted  that  its  concession  pro- 
hibited the  sale  of  the  property  without 
the  consent  of  Colombia;  and  it  suggested 
that,  if  permitted  to  sell,  the  price  should 
be  fixed  by  arbitration  or  valuation.  The 
American  commission  was  not  satisfied 
with  this  proposal;  and  again  it  appeared 
that  the  Panama  route  would  be  aban- 
doned. Mr.  Cromwell  visited  Paris  and 
emphasized  the  fact  that  the  United  States 
would  not  deal  with  the  company  unless  a 
definite  price  were  fixed  for  an  outright 
sale.  He  obtained  from  Colombia  an  ex- 
pression of  willingness  to  enter  into  a 
treaty  with  the  United  States,  authorizing 
the  transfer  of  the  French  company's 
property.  But  the  company  refused  to 
fix  a  definite  price,  and  on  July  I,  1901,  for 
reasons  of  its  own,  it  undertook  to  carry 
on  the  negotiations  with  the  United  States 
without  the  assistance  of  Mr.  Cromwell. 

In  September,  1901,  President  McKinley 
was  assassinated.  The  advent  of  Mr. 
Roosevelt  changed  the  situation  somewhat; 
the  canal  commission  delayed  its  report; 
public  opinion  was  diverted  for  the  time 
being.  In  October  the  president  of  the 
French  company  came  to  the  United  States, 
met  Rear  Admiral  Walker,  chairman  of 
the  Canal  Commission,  and  made  a  con- 
ditional offer  to  sell  the  company's  property 
for  $109,000,000.  This  offer  was  greatly 
in  excess  of  the  commission's  estimate  of 
the  value  of  the  property.  On  November 
16,  1901,  the  commission  unanimously 
reported  against  Panama  and  recommended 
the  Nicaragua  route. 

Congress  met  in  the  following  month, 
and  immediately  the  champions  of  the 
Nicaragua  route  became  active.  Col. 
Hepburn  introduced  a  bill  appropriating 
$180,000,000  for  the  construction  of  the 
Nicaragua  canal.  On  December  10  a 
treaty  between  the  United  States  and 
Nicaragua  was  concluded,  providing  for  the 
construction  of  the  canal.  On  December 


1 6  the  Senate  ratified  the  Hay-Pauncefote 
Treaty,  removing  the  last  obstacle  to  the 
building  of  the  Nicaragua  canal.  On 
December  17  the  House,  by  unanimous 
consent,  fixed  upon  January  7,  1902,  as  the 
date  for  consideration  of  the  Hepburn  bill. 

The  rejection  of  the  French  company's 
offer  by  the  canal  commission  resulted  in 
the  resignation  of  the  president  of  the 
company  upon  his  return  to  Paris.  The 
directors  were  aghast  at  the  condition  of 
affairs.  The  construction  of  the  rival  canal 
by  the  United  States  meant  complete  dis- 
aster to  them.  Their  concession  would 
have  been  worthless;  their  property  at 
Panama  would  have  become  a  junk-heap. 
They  elected  M.  B6  president  of  the  com- 
pany, and  immediately  sought  for  means 
whereby  the  negotiations  with  the  United 
States  could  be  reopened.  On  January  4, 
1902,  three  days  before  the  date  fixed  for 
the  canal  debate  in  the  House,  the  com- 
pany cabled  to  the  canal  commission, 
offering  to  sell  outright  all  its  rights  and 
properties  for  $40,000,000,  the  sum  esti- 
mated by  the  commission  to  be  a  reason- 
able price  for  the  property. 

The  House  of  Representatives,  however, 
was  in  no  mood  to  listen  to  the  French 
company.  It  regarded  the  former  offer 
as  grossly  excessive,  and  it  looked  upon 
the  new  offer  as  a  ruse  to  gain  time.  There- 
upon, on  January  9,  by  the  overwhelming 
vote  of  309  to  2,  it  passed  the  Hepburn  bill. 

Senator  Morgan,  who  was  then  chair- 
man of  the  Committee  on  Interoceanic 
Canals,  prepared  to  push  the  bill  through 
the  Senate.  President  Roosevelt,  however, 
called  the  canal  commission  together  on 
January  16  to  consider  the  new  offer  from 
the  New  Panama  Canal  Company;  the 
commission  two  days  later  reported  that, 
in  view  of  the  reduced  and  more  definite 
terms,  the  Panama  route  would  be  prefera- 
ble; and  on  January  20  the  President  trans- 
mitted this  report  to  Congress. 

Thus  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company 
was  given  a  new  opportunity.  It  immedi- 
ately engaged  Mr.  Cromwell  as  its  American 
counsel,  and  he  took  up  again  the  task  of 


io8 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


bringing  all  the  conflicting  opinions  to- 
gether in  favor  of  Panama.  He  was  con- 
fronted at  the  outset  with  a  most  deter- 
mined opposition,  which  attempted  to 
show  that  the  French  company's  titles 
were  invalid;  that  Colombia  really  owned 
the  rights  offered  by  the  French  company; 
that  the  question  had  been  closed  and  that 
if  the  United  States  was  ever  to  possess  a 
canal,  it  must  go  on  with  the  Nicaraguan 
project.  And  indeed,  public  sentiment  in 
the  United  States  seemed  to  support  this 
contention,  in  spite  of  the  commission's 
report  in  favor  of  Panama. 

Mr.  Cromwell  was  fortunate  in  finding  a 
stalwart  supporter  of  the  Panama  route  in 
Senator  Mark  Hanna.  The  Ohioan  was  a 
member  of  the  Committee  on  Interoceanic 
Canals,  and  he  had  carefully  studied  the 
question  of  building  a  waterway  between 
the  oceans.  His  practical  turn  of  mind 
caused  him  to  support  the  canal  commis- 
sion on  intricate  details  as  to  routes,  since 
he  relied  upon  their  technical  training  and 
personal  knowledge.  He  favored  the 
Panama  route  because  it  was  more  defi- 
nitely known  and  its  cost  more  accurately 
estimated;  because  it  was  shorter  and 
more  secure  from  accident;  and  he  was 
ready  to  fight  valiantly  for  it  if  he  could  be 
convinced  that  the  title  was  perfect. 

The  chairman  of  the  Senate  committee, 
Senator  Morgan,  had  begun  hearings  for 
the  purpose  of  breaking  down  the  weight  of 
the  canal  commission's  recommendation  in 
favor  of  Panama.  He  contrasted  this 
report  with  preceding  ones  in  favor  of 
Nicaragua,  and  insisted  that  one  of  the 
commissioners,  Professor  Haupt,  had  been 
virtually  compelled  to  sign  the  report  in 
favor  of  Panama. 

It  was  vitally  necessary  for  the  cause  of 
Panama  that  time  should  be  gained.  The 
Senate  committee  was  in  favor  of  Nica- 
ragua; Colombia  had  not  formally  agreed 
to  the  transfer  of  the  French  company's 
property,  and  it  was  necessary  to  negotiate 
an  agreement  to  that  effect;  and  a  vote  in 
the  Senate  would  have  been  fatal.  Here 
the  resourcefulness  of  Mr.  Cromwell,  aided 


by  Senator  Hanna,  was  most  effective. 
They  demanded  that  the  hearings  should 
be  widened  to  include  consideration  of  the 
Panama  route  and  the  reason  why  it  was 
preferred  by  the  canal  commission.  Senator 
Morgan  was  compelled  to  prolong  the  hear- 
ings which  he  himself  had  begun,  and  the 
sessions  ran  over  several  weeks.  During 
this  period  Mr.  Cromwell  prepared  an  ex- 
haustive defense  of  the  New  Panama  Canal 
Company's  titles,  initiated  a  movement  for 
the  negotiation  of  a  treaty  with  Colombia, 
and  began  to  formulate  a  plan  for  the  pas- 
sage of  an  act  which  would  permit  the 
President  of  the  United  States  to  purchase 
the  New  Panama  Canal  Company's  prop- 
erty, provided  the  title  was  found  to  be 
perfect  and  its  transfer  agreed  to  by 
Colombia. 

Great  difficulties  began  to  appear.  Sena- 
tors were  doubtful  as  to  the  validity  of  the 
titles;  they  insisted  that  Colombia  should 
bind  herself  to  agree  to  the  transfer;  and 
they  also  insisted  that  the  stockholders  of 
the  French  company  should  ratify  the 
transfer.  Senator  Spooner,  of  Wisconsin, 
who  favored  a  plan  for  empowering  the 
President  to  choose  either  route,  was 
insistent  upon  these  points.  Then  came 
the  announcement  that  Colombia  had 
served  notice  upon  the  French  company 
that  it  must  not  sell  its  property  without 
Colombia's  consent,  to  which  was  coupled 
a  demand  for  an  "indemnity"  of  $20,000,- 
ooo  as  the  price  of  this  consent.  Colombia 
then  sent  a  new  envoy  to  the  United  States, 
whose  mission  it  was  to  block  the  negotia- 
tions unless  Colombia  was  paid  an  indem- 
nity of  from  $10,000,000  to  $20,000,000 
and  $1,000,000  a  year.  The  alternative 
was  a  threat  to  annul  the  French  company's 
concession  on  the  ground  that  its  exten- 
sion had  been  made  by  legislative  decree, 
and  not  by  the  Colombian  congress. 

After  long  conferences  between  Mr. 
Cromwell  and  the  new  Minister,  Mr. 
Concha,  the  latter  made  a  statement  that 
the  notice  served  by  Colombia  upon  the 
French  company  did  not  imply  opposition 
to  the  sale  of  the  property  to  the  United 


PRESIDENTS  UNDER  WHOM   PANAMA  CANAL  WAS  CONSTRUCTED 
i.  William  McKinley.  2.  Theodore  Roosevelt. 


3.  William  H.  Taft. 


4.  Woodrow  Wilson. 


CHIEF  ENGINEERS 

i.  Col.  George  W.  Goethals,  Chief  Engineer,  1907-1914. 
2.  John  F.  Wallace,  Chief  Engineer,  1904-1905.  3-  John  F.  Stevens,  Chief  Engineer,  1905-1907. 


PANAMA  DEFEATS  NICARAGUA 


109 


States,  provided  Colombia's  interests  were 
protected.  This  paved  the  way  to  an  un- 
derstanding between  the  company  and  the 
Colombian  government,  and  then  negotia- 
tions were  opened  between  Secretary  Hay 
and  Minister  Concha,  resulting  in  an 
agreement  under  which  the  United  States 
and  Colombia  signified  their  willingness  to 
enter  into  a  treaty  which  would  provide 
for  the  transfer  of  the  French  company's 
property  to  the  United  States  and  the 
payment  of  a  satisfactory  sum  to  Colombia. 
This  agreement  was  duly  brought  to  the 
attention  of  Congress. 

The  hour  came  for  a  vote  on  the  Hep- 
burn bill  in  the  Senate.  Senator  Spooner 
had  previously  introduced  a  bill  placing 
the  choice  of  routes  in  the  hands  of  the 
President,  and  authorizing  him  to  pay 
$40,000,000  to  the  French  company  after 
satisfying  himself  as  to  the  validity  of  its 


title.  The  question  in  the  Senate  was 
upon  the  adoption  of  the  Spooner  bill  as 
a  substitute  for  the  Hepburn  bill;  and 
after  heartbreaking  complications  and  de- 
lays, the  die  was  cast.  The  vote  was  taken 
on  June  19,  1902,  and  it  stood  forty- two  to 
thirty-four  in  favor  of  the  Spooner  bill. 

The  Senate  and  House  then  locked  horns. 
The  House  rejected  the  Senate  substitute, 
and  a  conference  committee  was  appointed. 
This  committee  labored  for  a  week,  at  the 
end  of  which  time  the  House  conferees 
yielded.  The  House  thereupon  concurred 
in  the  Senate  amendment  substituting  the 
Spooner  bill — and  the  Panama  Canal  was 
brought  into  being.  The  President  signed 
the  bill  on  June  28,  1902,  and  negotiations 
were  immediately  entered  into  with  Colom- 
bia for  the  conclusion  of  a  treaty  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  Hay-Concha  agreement 
and  the  terms  of  the  Spooner  act. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


CONTROVERSY  WITH  COLOMBIA  AND  ACQUISITION   OF   THE 

CANAL  ZONE 

COLOMBIA  DEMANDS  INDEMNITY  FROM  FRENCH  COMPANY — MINISTER  CONCHA  WITH- 
DRAWS— MAKING  OF  THE  HAY-HERRAN  TREATY' — FIGHT  OVER  ITS  RATIFICA- 
TION— COLOMBIA  REFUSES  TO  RATIFY — ATTEMPTS  TO  ANNUL  FRENCH  COM- 
PANY'S CONCESSION — PANAMA  DECLARES  ITS  INDEPENDENCE  AND  is  RECOG- 
NIZED BY  UNITED  STATES — TREATY  WITH  PANAMA  SIGNED  BY  MR.  HAY  AND 
M.  BUNAU-VARILLA — COLOMBIA  OFFERS  NEW  TERMS — SALE  OF  FRENCH  PROP- 
ERTY EFFECTED  AND  UNITED  STATES  TAKES  POSSESSION — INEFFECTUAL  EFFORTS 
TO  COMPOSE  DIFFERENCES  WITH  COLOMBIA. 


WE  have  now  to  deal  with  the  tortuous 
negotiations  between  the  United 
States  and  Colombia,  which  had 
for  their  object  the  making  of  a  treaty 
facilitating  the  construction  of  the  canal 
at  Panama.  The  failure  of  this  treaty,  the 
secession  of  Panama  from  Colombia,  and 
the  making  of  a  treaty  with  the  new  repub- 
lic brought  about  the  construction  of  the 
Panama  Canal.  Colombia's  refusal  to 
ratify  the  Hay-Herran  treaty  was  regarded 
by  the  United  States  as  a  great  blunder, 
with  certain  sinister  aspects  which  gave 
rise  to  acrimonious  exchanges  between  the 
two  governments.  Colombia,  on  the  other 
hand,  felt  that  it  had  been  deprived  of  its 
territory  and  valuable  properties  without 
due  compensation,  and  it  demanded  satis- 
faction. Efforts  were  made  by  four  Ameri- 
can Secretaries  of  State — Messrs.  Hay, 
Knox,  Root,  and  Bryan — to  compose  the 
differences  between  the  two  governments, 
but  their  negotiations  were  and  have  been 
fruitless  up  to  the  present  time. 

Colombia  was  extremely  suspicious  in 
regard  to  the  transactions  between  the 
New  Panama  Canal  Company  and  the 
United  States  government.  When  the 
Spooner  act  was  passed  in  June,  1902,  and 
the  way  was  clear  for  the  conclusion  of  a 
treaty  between  Colombia  and  the  United 
States,  Minister  Concha  received  instruc- 
tions of  a  drastic  nature,  requiring  him  to 
demand  from  the  United  States  a  payment 
of  at  least  $600,000  a  year  in  perpetuity, 


and  to  insist  upon  other  conditions  which 
would  have  made  the  treaty  extremely 
burdensome  upon  the  United  States.  Mr. 
Concha  was  openly  unfriendly  in  his  atti- 
tude, but  through  the  persistent  efforts  of 
Mr.  Cromwell  as  an  intermediary,  he  con- 
sented to  continue  the  negotiations  until 
July,  1902,  when  a  tentative  understanding 
was  reached. 

In  the  meantime  the  United  States, 
through  Mr.  Knox,  who  was  then  Attor- 
ney-General, made  a  thorough  investiga- 
tion of  the  titles  of  the  New  Panama  Canal 
Company.  Mr.  Knox,  Mr.  Cromwell,  and 
their  associates  went  to  Paris  and  spent  two 
months  in  this  work.  The  inquiry  proved 
to  the  satisfaction  of  the  United  States 
that  the  company's  titles  were  valid;  that 
the  stockholders  would  approve  the  trans- 
fer, and  that  the  liquidator  of  the  old 
company,  with  the  permission  of  the  Civil 
Tribunal  of  the  Seine,  would  give  his 
approval;  and  that  nothing  remained  but 
the  conclusion  of  the  treaty  with  Colombia 
in  order  to  take  over  the  property  and  pay 
the  price  agreed  upon. 

Minister  Concha's  attitude,  however, 
became  more  and  more  antagonistic.  He 
had  not  received  instructions  to  sign  the 
tentative  treaty  agreed  upon  in  July,  and 
he  proposed  amendments  from  time  to 
time  which  prolonged  the  negotiations.  In 
October  he  made  it  known  that  he  would 
refuse  to  sign  any  treaty.  Secretary  Hay 
thereupon  notified  the  Colombian  govern- 


MAKING  OF  HAY-HERRAN  TREATY 


in 


ment  that  the  President  would  proceed 
to  close  a  bargain  with  Nicaragua  if  word 
was  not  immediately  received  from  Bogota 
that  Colombia  would  act.  Mr.  Concha 
then  received  instructions  to  discuss  the 
proposed  treaty.  He  proposed  seven 
amendments,  the  chief  of  which  was  a 
provision  that  the  permission  by  Colombia 
to  transfer  the  French  company's  rights 
should  be  governed  by  a  special  agreement 
to  be  entered  into  between  Colombia  and 
the  company.  This  was  a  plain  intimation 
that  Colombia  intended  to  exact  from  the 
company  an  "indemnity"  as  the  price  of 
its  consent  to  the  transfer.  The  United 
States  refused  to  consider  this  and  the 
other  amendments,  and  insisted  upon  the 
signing  of  the  treaty  as  agreed  upon. 

Minister  Concha  then  abruptly  broke  off 
negotiations  and  on  November  29,  1902, 
he  left  Washington,  without  taking  leave 
of  the  State  Department  or  explaining  his 
reasons  for  departure.  The  legation  was 
left  in  charge  of  Tomas  Herran,  charg£ 
d'affaires. 

Congress  was  about  to  convene,  and  the 
friends  of  the  Nicaragua  route  saw  their 
hopes  revive.  They  brought  pressure  to 
bear  upon  the  President  to  close  with 
Nicaragua,  in  view  of  the  failure  to  come 
to  terms  witn  Colombia.  Secretary  Hay 
was  strongly  inclined  to  drop  the  Colom- 
bian negotiations. 

Mr.  Cromwell,  nothing  daunted,  began 
conferences  with  Mr.  Herran,  who  had 
received  instructions  from  his  government 
to  continue  the  negotiations  on  the  basis 
of  the  acceptance  by  the  United  States  of 
the  Concha  amendments,  including  a  pro- 
vision for  the  payment  to  Colombia  of 
$10,000,000  cash  and  an  annuity  of  $600,- 
ooo.  Minister  Hart,  at  Bogota,  advised 
Secretary  Hay  that  Colombia  intended  to 
demand  an  indemnity  from  the  French 
company  before  ratifying  any  treaty. 
Mr.  Hay  then  lost  patience,  and  advised 
Mr.  Cromwell  that  he  would  send  an  ulti- 
matum to  Colombia,  fixing  a  time  for 
breaking  off  all  negotiations.  At  Mr. 
Cromwell's  urgent  solicitation  Mr.  Hay  de- 


ferred sending  in  the  ultimatum  for  a  few 
days  only.  Mr.  Cromwell  then,  after  long 
conferences,  induced  Mr.  Herran  to  aban- 
don the  Concha  amendments,  and  to  agree 
that  the  amount  of  money  to  be  paid  to 
Colombia  should  be  determined  by  arbitra- 
tion. The  United  States,  however,  pre- 
ferred that  a  fixed  sum  should  be  named, 
and  finally  the  negotiators  agreed  to  com- 
promise by  fixing  the  amount  at  $250,000 
a  year.  The  treaty  was  then  drawn  up  as 
quickly  as  possible,  and  on  January  22, 
1903,  at  Secretary  Hay's  residence,  it  was 
signed  by  himself  and  Mr.  Herran.  The 
next  day  the  President  transmitted  it  to 
the  Senate. 

Then  began  a  battle  over  ratification, 
first  in  Washington  and  then  in  Bogota. 

Mr.  Cromwell  always  found  in  Senator 
Morgan  a  foeman  worthy  of  his  steel.  The 
great  Alabamian  was  a  determined  foe  of 
the  Panama  route,  and  he  promptly 
attacked  the  Hay-Herran  treaty.  He 
questioned  the  power  of  Vice-President 
Marroquin  of  Colombia  to  conclude  any 
treaty.  He  questioned  Mr.  Herran's  pow- 
ers. He  offered  sixty  different  amendments 
to  the  treaty.  He  delivered  many  speeches, 
and  for  nearly  three  months  the  debate 
continued.  The  Democratic  caucus  agreed 
to  support  the  Morgan  amendments.  On 
March  17,  1903,  the  treaty  was  finally 
ratified  exactly  as  it  had  been  signed. 

The  option  given  by  the  French  company 
was  to  expire  on  March  3,  but  before  that 
date,  during  the  pendency  of  the  treaty  in 
the  Senate,  an  agreement  was  reached 
whereby  the  United  States  accepted  the 
company's  offer,  conditioned  upon  the 
ratification  of  the  treaty.  Official  notifica- 
tion to  this  effect  was  given  on  February 
!7»  I9°3»  by  Attorney-General  Knox  to 
M.  B6,  president  of  the  company. 

Instead  of  proceeding  to  the  ratification 
of  the  treaty,  Colombia  then  turned  upon 
the  French  company  and  demanded  an 
indemnity  of  50,000,000  francs  as  the 
price  of  its  consent  to  the  transfer.  Secre- 
tary Hay  was  informed  by  cable  on  June  2 
from  the  American  charg6  d'affaires  at 


112 


Bogota  that  "Colombia  intends  to  force 
the  company  to  make  a  heavy  payment; 
without  which  no  ratification." 

The  debate  over  the  Hay-Herran  treaty 
in  the  Colombian  Senate  ran  from  June  to 
August,  1903.  A  powerful  faction  de- 
manded the  repudiation  of  the  company's 
extended  concession  and  the  forfeiture  of 
the  concession  in  1906,  the  date  upon  which 
it  would  have  terminated  if  no  extension 
had  been  made.  The  plan  was  to  regain 
possession  of  the  property  and  then  negoti- 
ate a  new  treaty  with  the  United  States, 
thus  giving  Colombia  the  money  belonging 
to  the  French  company.  Proposals  were 
made  to  the  United  States  to  agree  to 
modifications  of  the  treaty,  but  they  were 
rejected.  The  Colombian  congress  ad- 
journed on  August  12  without  ratifying 
the  treaty. 

Members  of  the  congress  representing 
Panama  had  told  their  colleagues  plainly 
that  Panama  would  rebel  if  the  treaty  were 
not  ratified.  They  reviewed  the  long 
negotiations,  the  deferred  hopes  of  Pana- 
ma, the  throwing  away  of  the  opportunity 
to  secure  the  construction  of  the  canal  by 
the  United  States,  and  warned  Colombia 
that  the  outcome  would  be  secession.  The 
United  States  government  also  insisted 
that  Colombia  should  ratify  the  treaty 
according  to  its  agreement. 

The  Colombian  congress  met  again  in 
October,  1903,  and  discussed  the  treaty  for 
a  month.  Its  committees  recommended 
the  repudiation  of  the  company's  extension. 
Finally  the  treaty  was  referred  to  the 
President  of  Colombia  with  power  to  nego- 
tiate for  modifications;  and  on  November 
2  the  congress  adjourned. 

The  next  day,  November  3,  1903,  the 
threatened  revolution  at  Panama  occurred. 
A  provisional  government  was  organized 
and  the  independence  of  the  isthmian 
republic  was  proclaimed.  Colombia  sent 
troops  to  put  down  the  uprising,  but  the 
United  States  gunboat  Nashville  warned 
the  Colombians  that  they  would  not  be 
permitted  to  land.  The  United  States 
took  the  position  that  the  treaty  of  1846 


required  the  American  government  to 
keep  open  the  transit  across  the  isthmus, 
and  that  the  landing  of  Colombian  troops 
would  interfere  with  this  transit.  Thus 
Colombia's  efforts  to  put  down  the  revolu- 
tion were  thwarted,  and  the  republic  of 
Panama  came  into  existence  without  blood- 
shed. 

•  The  United  States  immediately  recog- 
nized the  new  government,  and  received 
its  minister,  M.  Philippe  Bunau-Varilla, 
who  carried  powers  for  the  negotiation  of 
a  treaty  providing  for  the  construction 
of  a  canal  across  the  isthmus.  The  French 
company  cabled  to  Washington  that  it 
was  willing  to  carry  out  its  bargain  under 
the  new  conditions. 

Negotiations  were  immediately  begun  by 
Secretary  Hay  and  Minister  Bunau-Varilla, 
resulting  in  the  conclusion  of  a  treaty  on 
November  18,  1903.  The  treaty  provide**- 
that  the  United  States  should  guarantee 
the  independence  of  the  Republic  of  Pana- 
ma, and  set  forth  the  terms  under  which 
the  United  States  was  given  exclusive 
jurisdiction  over  the  Canal  Zone  and  the 
conditions  under  which  the  canal  should 
be  constructed. 

Naturally,  the  secession  of  Panama 
made  a  mighty  uproar,  whose  echoes  were 
heard  throughout  the  Americas  and  in 
France.  Colombia  threatened  war,  ?nd 
sent  Gen.  Rafael  Reyes  to  Washington  to 
negotiate  a  new  treaty.  The  friends  of 
the  Nicaragua  route  raised  an  outcry. 
Colombia's  charge  that  the  United  States 
government  had  incited  the  revolution  was 
reiterated  by  many  Americans.  Mr.  Crom- 
well was  charged  with  being  the  head  devil 
of  the  plot,  although  he  had  been  in  Paris 
during  that  period.  M.  Bunau-Varilla 
came  in  for  a  scoring.  President  Roosevelt 
was  especially  denounced  both  in  Colombia 
and  the  United  States.  He  vigorously 
replied,  as  usual,  without  mincing  words, 
and  has  ever  since  maintained  that  the 
United  States  was  innocent  of  all  implica- 
tion in  the  Panama  affair,  and  that  Colom- 
bia had  been  rightly  defeated  in  an  attempt 
to  extort  excessive  sums  from  the  United 


THE  CANAL  ZONE  ACQUIRED 


States.  Mr.  Roosevelt's  version  of  this 
portion  of  canal  history  is  set  forth  by 
himself  in  another  chapter. 

Again  the  Senate  took  up  the  canal  con- 
troversy in  considering  the  Hay-Bunau- 
Varilla  treaty.  The  debate  continued 
from  November,  1903,  until  February,  1904, 
when  the  treaty  was  approved.  Panama 
promptly  ratified  the  convention,  and 
ratifications  were  exchanged  on  February 
26,  1904.  On  April  28,  1904,  Congress 
appropriated  the  $10,000,000  payable  to 
Panama  under  the  terms  of  the  treaty. 

Failing  to  negotiate  a  treaty  with  the 
United  States,  Gen.  Reyes  sailed  for  Paris, 
and  a  suit  to  enjoin  the  French  company 
from  transferring  its  property  to  the  United 
States  was  instituted  by  Colombia.  This 
was  met  by  energetic  action  by  the  com- 
pany in  hastening  the  sale.  On  March  2, 
1904,  Attorney-General  Knox  notified  the 
company  that  the  United  States  was 
ready  to  carry  out  its  contract  of  purchase. 
Representatives  of  the  United  States  were 
sent  to  Paris,  where  all  legal  preliminaries 
were  disposed  of.  The  banking  house  of 
J.  P.  Morgan  &  Co.  was  made  financial 
agent  in  the  transaction.  The  signing  of 
the  deeds  of  transfer  of  the  Panama  Canal 
and  the  Panama  Railroad  was  effected  in 
the  American  Embassy,  in  Paris,  on  April 
16,  1904,  in  the  presence  of  Ambassador 
Porter. 

On  May  4,  the  delivery  of  the  Panama 
Canal,  the  Panama  Railroad,  and  all  other 
property  on  the  isthmus  belonging  to 
the  company  was  formally  made  to 
Lieut.  Mark  Brooke,  U.  S.  A.,  representing 
the  United  States.  On  May  6  all  the  plans 
and  archives  of  the  company  in  Paris 
were  delivered  to  the  representatives  of 
the  Attorney-General.  On  May  7  the 
shares  of  the  Panama  Railroad  were  deliv- 
ered. The  government  thereupon  handed 
to  J.  P.  Morgan  &  Co.  a  Treasury  order 
for  $40,000,000,  which  was  paid  in  gold 
coin,  transferred  to  Paris,  and  paid  to  the 
representatives  of  the  French  company. 

The  suits  brought  by  Colombia  against 


the  French  company  came  to  nought. 
Several  succeeding  ministers  of  Colombia 
made  strong  representations  to  the  United 
States,  demanding  a  settlement  of  Co- 
lombia's claims.  Accordingly  efforts  were 
made,  first  by  Secretary  Hay  and  later  by 
Secretary  Root,  to  come  to  terms.  Gen. 
Reyes  had  been  elected  President  of 
Colombia,  and  under  his  enlightened  policy 
good  progress  was  made.  Secretary  Root 
was  able  to  bring  about  a  tripartite  arrange- 
ment between  Colombia  and  Panama, 
Colombia  and  the  United  States,  and 
Panama  and  the  United  States,  settling  all 
differences.  Treaties  were  accordingly 
signed  in  Washington  on  January  9,  1909, 
by  Secretary  Root,  Minister  Cortes  of 
Colombia,  and  Minister  Arosemena  of 
Panama.  The  two  treaties  to  which  the 
United  States  was  a  party  were  ratified  by 
the  Senate  on  March  3,  1909,  but  Colombia 
failed  to  ratify  them,  and  they  were 
abandoned. 

When  Mr.  Knox  became  Secretary  of 
State  he  resumed  negotiations  with  Colom- 
bia through  Minister  Du  Bois,  at  Bogota, 
but  Colombia's  demands  were  still  regarded 
by  the  United  States  as  excessive,  and  the 
two  governments  failed  to  agree. 

Thaddeus  A.  Thomson  was  sent  to 
Bogota  as  United  States  Minister  in  the 
summer  of  1913.  He  reopened  negotia- 
tions with  Colombia,  under  instructions 
from  Mr.  Bryan,  Secretary  of  State,  and 
on  April  6,  1914,  a  treaty  was  concluded 
between  the  two  governments  providing 
for  the  payment  of  $25,000,000  to  Colom- 
bia. The  convention  contained  an  expres- 
sion of  regret  on  the  part  of  the  United 
States  for  the  occurrences  at  Panama,  which 
was  construed  by  opponents  of  the  treaty 
to  be  equivalent  to  an  admission  of  wrong- 
doing on  the  part  of  this  government. 
The  treaty  was  bitterly  assailed  in  the 
Senate  and  by  former  President  Roosevelt. 
It  was  still  pending  when  Congress  ad- 
journed on  March  4,  1915. 

Copies  of  the  treaties  herein  mentioned 
are  to  be  found  in  the  Appendix. 


CHAPTER  XIX 


THE   COMPLETED   CANAL 

THE  PANAMA  CANAL  COMPLETE — THE  GREATEST  LIBERTY  MAN  EVER  TOOK  WITH 
NATURE — 232,000,000  CUBIC  YARDS  TAKEN  OUT  AND  30,000,000  CUBIC  YARDS 
PUT  IN  TO  COMPLETE  THE  CANAL — THE  LOCK  CANAL  A  SURPRISE  TO  SEA-LEVEL 
ADVOCATES  AND  TO  THOSE  WHO  DECLARED  IT  COULD  NOT  BE  BUILT — CON- 
GRESS NEVER  TURNED  AWAY  FROM  PROJECT  AFTER  SENATOR  HANNA  POINTED 
OUT  DANGERS  AT  NICARAGUA  AND  APPEALED  FOR  A  CANAL  AT  PANAMA — 
FIRST  ESTIMATES  OF  EXCAVATING  REQUIRED,  FAR  Too  SMALL — AMOUNT  OF 
WORK  DONE,  FAR  IN  EXCESS  OF  ESTIMATES  MADE — A  TRIP  THROUGH  THE 
CANAL — THE  ATLANTIC  APPROACH — THE  BREAKWATERS,  TERMINUS  AND 
FORTIFICATIONS — THE  SEA-LEVEL  DITCH — GATUN  LOCKS — A  GLORIFIED  HY- 
DRAULIC ELEVATOR — CARE  OF  THE  LOCKS — A  GREAT  FRESH-WATER  LAKE — 
DESTROYER  OF  BARNACLES — THE  CULEBRA  CUT — THE  FIRST  STEP  DOWN- 
WARD— PEDRO  MIGUEL — MIRAFLORES  LAKE — END  OF  THE  JOURNEY — 
THE  PACIFIC  TERMINUS — THE  AMERICAN  TOWN — REPAIR  FACILITIES — 
DEFENSES  OF  NAOS  AND  HER  SISTER  ISLANDS  —  A  RETROSPECTIVE  VIEW 
OF  THE  WATERWAY — ENLARGEMENTS  MADE  IN  LOCKS — CULEBRA  CUT 
DIFFERENT  FROM  WHAT  IT  WAS  INTENDED — CHANGES  AT  PEDRO  MIGUEL — 
SOSA  HILL  UNSATISFACTORY  FOR  A  DAM  SITE  OR  FOR  LOCKS — CONCESSIONS 
TO  SAFETY — AN  ACCIDENT  PROOF,  NATURE  PROOF  CANAL — WELFARE  OF 
THE  CANAL  ARMY — DEVOTION  TO  ITS  LEADER — THE  ART  OF  REDUCING 
COST  OF  LIVING. 


THE  Panama  Canal  stands  today  a 
completed  waterway.  Faith  in 
American  genius  has  removed  moun- 
tains, built  an  inland  sea  and  made  the 
waters  of  the  land  a  connecting  link  unit- 
ing the  waters  of  the  oceans.  The  valley 
has  been  exalted  and  the  mountain  has 
been  made  low;  the  river  has  gone  up  to 
meet  the  mountain  and  the  mountain  has 
been  brought  down  to  meet  the  river;  the 
meeting  point  is  now  the  highway  between 
the  oceans. 

Never  before  has  man  essayed  such  a 
task.  The  building  of  the  pyramids,  for 
five  thousand  years  or  more  the  wonder  of 
the  world,  was  play  in  comparison,  and 
the  digging  of  the  Suez  Canal  appears  but 
a  small  enterprise.  The  "Soo"  Canal, 
busiest  of  the  world's  great  artificial  high- 
ways, sinks  into  insignificance  when  meas- 
ured by  Panama.  We  fought  tropical 
disease  and  won  a  great  victory.  We  fought 
a  rampant  river  and  converted  it  from  a 


bitter  foe  into  a  firm  friend.  We  attacked 
a  mountain;  were  forced  to  settle  down 
into  a  life  and  death  struggle  with  it;  but 
out  of  this  we  emerged  thrice  a  victor.  We 
brought  the  Atlantic  Ocean  inland  to 
Gatun,  and  the  Pacific  inland  to  Mira- 
flores,  led  rivers  to  do  our  will,  made  penin- 
sulas out  of  islands  and  lakes  out  of  rivers, 
justifying  in  very  truth  the  statement  of 
that  citizen  of  the  world,  Lord  Bryce,  to 
the  effect  that  the  Panama  Canal  is  the 
result  of  the  greatest  liberty  man  ever 
took  with  Nature. 

The  total  amount  of  material  handled  in 
the  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal 
ranged  somewhere  around  260,000,000 
yards.  If  this  were  used  to  build  a  wall 
around  the  District  of  Columbia,  it  would 
be  enough  to  make  that  wall  sixty  feet 
thick  and  as  high  as  the  Washington 
monument.  If  it  were  piled  around  the 
earth  at  the  equator,  separating  the 
northern  hemisphere  from  the  southern, 


114 


UNFORESEEN  DIFFICULTIES 


it  would  make  a  solid  wall  nine  feet 
high  and  six  feet  thick.  If  it  were  loaded 
on  Lidgerwood  dirt  trains  such  as  were 
used  at  Panama,  it  would  require  13,000,000 
cars,  made  up  into  619,000  trains,  to  move 
it,  which  would  make  a  belt  of  four  dirt 
trains  around  the  earth.  The  string  of 
engines  required  to  move  such  a  load, 
assuming  an  engine  and  tender  with  an 
over-all  length  of  fifty  feet,  would  be  up- 
ward of  6,000  miles  long — about  enough  to 
fill  a  four  track  road  solidly  from  New 
York  to  Chicago. 

We  think  of  the  Pyramid  of  Cheops  as 
one  of  the  wonders  of  the  past  and  as 
the  one  hand-reared  structure  that  has 
defied  the  wreck  and  ruin  "of  time's  re- 
morseless doom"  through  upward  of  half 
a  hundred  centuries;  but  the  material 
handled  at  Panama  would  make  a  row  of 
pyramids  like  Cheops,  with  base  touching 
base,  nearly  eleven  miles  long. 

Yet  all  the  wonder  is  not  in  the  magni- 
tude of  the  task;  much  of  it  lies  in  the 
superb  audacity  of  American  engineers 
in  facing  that  task  and  in  overcoming  the 
difficulties  it  involved.  When  we  started 
to  build  the  canal  there  was  one  class  of 
people  who  said  it  would  be  so  easy  that 
we  might  as  well  go  down  to  sea-level,  and 
another  class  who  said  it  would  be  such  a 
gigantic  task  that  we  were  foolish  to  un- 
dertake it  at  all.  As  we  look  back  over 
the  years  gone  by  since  the  work  began, 
we  see  both  prophecies  unfulfilled  and 
are  grateful  that  neither  of  them  affected 
the  purpose  of  the  United  States  to 
build  a  waterway  there.  The  32,000,000 
cubic  yards  of  slides  that  went  into  the 
canal  and  delayed  the  completion  of  Culebra 
Cut  for  two  years,  fought  so  relentlessly 
against  the  United  States  that  they  left 
no  doubt  in  the  minds  of  those  who  strug- 
gled with  and  conquered  them,  that  if  we 
had  decided  to  go  eighty-five  feet  deeper, 
they  and  not  ourselves  might  at  last  have 
been  the  victors.  As  will  be  seen  in  coming 
chapters,  each  foot  of  depth  multiplied 
the  difficulties  caused  by  the  slides.  The 
men  who  said  a  sea-level  canal  would  not 


be  difficult  to  build  were  no  worse  con- 
founded than  the  men  who  said  no  canal 
could  be  built.  Some  of  them  saw  one 
specter  and  some  another. 

But  all  the  criticisms  and  fears  and 
prophecies  never  turned  Congress  away 
from  the  project,  from  the  day  when 
Senator  Hanna  pointed  out  the  dangers  at 
Nicaragua  and  appealed  to  both  houses  of 
Congress  to  face  about  and  to  authorize 
a  canal  at  Panama. 

It  is  interesting  to  view  these  things  in 
retrospect  and  to  see  how  wide  many  proph- 
ecies went  of  the  mark.  When  the  Board 
of  Consulting  Engineers  made  their  esti- 
mates, they  said  that  103,000,000  cubic 
yards  of  material  would  have  to  be  re- 
moved to  make  a  completed  waterway, 
and  while  they  disagreed  as  to  the  type  of 
canal,  they  all  agreed  that  if  a  lock  canal 
were  built  it  would  take  nine  years  to  com- 
plete it.  Some  of  those  who  advocated  a 
sea-level  canal  said  that  it  would  take 
longer  to  build  the  locks  of  a  lock  canal 
than  it  would  require  to  excavate  a  sea- 
level  Culebra  Cut.  How  far  from  the 
truth  this  statement  was  is  revealed  by  the 
fact  that  the  locks  were  ready  for  use 
a  year  in  advance  of  the  completion  of 
the  Culebra  Cut  down  to  the  eighty- 
five  foot  level.  And  the  locks  that  were 
thus  completed  ahead  of  the  Culebra  Cut 
were  larger  by  ten  per  cent,  than  the  ones 
about  which  the  statement  was  made. 

To  construct  a  canal  in  nine  years 
requiring  the  excavating  of  103,000,000 
cubic  yards  of  material,  contemplated  the 
removal  of  about  a  million  yards  a  month. 
With  232,000,000  yards  to  excavate,  the 
actual  time  consumed  was  seven  and  a 
half  years,  or  the  removal  of  an  average  of 
approximately  2,600,000  cubic  yards  a 
month.  Had  we  taken  out  an  average  of 
only  a  million  cubic  yards  of  material  a 
month,  as  was  provided  for  in  the  estimates, 
we  would  have  taken  over  nineteen  years, 
instead  of  seven  and  a  half  years,  in 
building  the  canal.  It  would  have  been 
ready  in  1925  instead  of  1915. 

Let  us  take  a  trip  in  fancy  through  this 


116 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


great  waterway  and  see  it  as  it  is  today 
before  we  go  into  the  chapters  that  tell 
how  it  became  what  it  is. 

We  come  down  to  the  isthmus  on  an 
almost  due  south  course.  As  our  steamer 
approaches  the  canal  we  first  encounter 
two  great  breakwaters.  The  one  juts  out 
two  miles  from  Toro  Point  and  is  extended 
to  keep  the  Atlantic  terminus  protected 
from  the  violent  northers  that  sweep  down 
over  the  Caribbean  Sea.  On  our  port  side 
is  the  second  breakwater,  which  has  no 
land  connection.  It  was  built  to  keep  the 
ocean  currents  from  filling  up  the  Atlantic 
end  of  the  canal  with  silt.  At  the  land 
end  of  the  first  breakwater,  the  fortifica- 
tions of  Toro  Point — harmless  looking  little 
mounds  they  appear  to  us — stand  guard 
with  guns  that  can  hurl  a  ton  of  steel  pro- 
pelled by  a  quarter-ton  charge  of  smokeless 
powder,  a  distance  of  fifteen  miles  or  more. 

On  the  other  side  of  us  are  the  fortifica- 
tions of  Margarita  Island.  The  hostile 
fleet  that  would  essay  to  run  through  the 
narrow  entrance  between  the  two  break- 
waters, even  if  there  were  no  torpedoes  to 
escape  after  it  got  through,  would  be  going 
to  certain  destruction.  For  the  first  few 
miles,  the  canal  has  its  banks  under  water, 
and  we  begin  to  see  something  of  it  only 
when  we  get  in  to  the  shore  here,  only  two 
or  three  miles  from  Gatun.  Once  inside 
the  breakwater,  we  go  up  to  the  terminal 
works,  built  at  a  cost  of  many  million 
dollars.  Here  is  where  Uncle  Sam  pro- 
poses to  make  things  attractive  to  the 
ships  of  the  world;  he  wants  to  supply 
every  need  they  may  have  and  to  supply 
them  more  cheaply  than  they  can  be  sup- 
plied on  any  other  trade  route  of  the  world. 
There  are  coal  storage  basins,  where  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  tons  of  coal  are 
stored;  machine  shops,  where  all  sorts  of 
repairs  may  be  made  and  all  kinds  of  spare 
parts  and  equipment  supplied.  There  is 
a  bakery,  an  ice  plant,  and  docks  and  piers, 
where  cargoes  may  be  unloaded  or  taken 
on.  Secondary  breakwaters  are  to  be 
found  here,  which  make  the  anchorage  off 
the  line  of  the  canal  as  still  as  a  mill  pond. 


After  all  matters  have  been  attended  to 
here,  from  putting  off  the  ship's  laundry 
and  taking  on  its  coal;  from  paying  the 
toll  to  taking  on  a  pilot,  we  steer  our 
course  inland  toward  Gatun.  First  we 
pass  through  a  swampy  country,  where  the 
banks  of  the  canal  are  but  little  above  the 
water;  then  we  come  to  the  Mindi  Hills 
region,  where  the  canal  begins  to  resemble 
a  Culebra  Cut  in  miniature.  From  this 
section  we  pass  through  a  short  level  stretch 
which  literally  as  well  as  figuratively  brings 
us  to  the  Gates  of  Gatun.  Here  we  find 
ourselves  at  the  end  of  the  sea-level  chan- 
nel. Above  us,  eighty-five  feet,  there  is  a 
fresh  water  lake,  and  we  must  get  up  into 
that.  Here  the  locks  come  into  play — a 
glorified  hydraulic  elevator  that  will  lift 
us  up.  Across  our  path,  however,  there 
stretches  a  great  chain,  and  our  ship  must 
come  to  a  standstill  before  it  reaches  this 
chain. 

We  draw  up  alongside  a  great  pier  that 
juts  out  into  the  canal  channel  and  await 
our  turn  to  go  through  the  locks.  Presently 
there  come  four  electric  locomotives  down 
the  walls  of  the  locks.  They  make  fast 
to  our  ship,  two  at  the  stem  and  two  at 
the  stern.  Held  thus  in  leash,  the  ship 
cannot  go  too  fast,  nor  swing  too  much 
from  one  side  of  the  lock  to  the  other. 
While  the  lines  from  the  towing  locomo- 
tives are  being  made  fast,  the  big  chain 
that  stretched  across  our  path  is  being 
let  down,  the  gates  of  the  lower  lock  are 
being  swung  open  and  everything  is  made 
ready  for  our  entrance.  Meanwhile,  an 
official  of  the  canal  has  come  aboard.  He 
locks  every  lever  in  our  engine  room  so 
that  under  no  circumstances  can  one  of 
them  be  moved  while  we  are  in  the  locks. 
By  this  time,  the  towing  locomotives  have 
been  made  fast;  they  begin  to  hum  and 
slowly  move  us  into  the  first  lock.  Once 
in  this  place,  the  big  gates  swing  shut  after 
us  and  up  out  of  the  bottom  of  the  lock 
comes  a  flood  of  water.  This  water  gradu- 
ally raises  us  a  distance  of  twenty-eight  and 
one- third  feet.  While  we  have  been  lifted 
the  locomotives  which  pulled  us  forward 


I.  John  Hay. 

3.  Philander  C.  Knox. 


SECRETARIES  OF  STATE 


2.  Elihu  Root. 

4.  William  J.  Bryan. 


SECRETARIES  OF  WAR 


I.  Luke  E.  Wright. 
3.  Henry  L.  Stimson. 


2.  J.  M.  Dickinson. 

4.  Lindley  M.  Garrison. 


THROUGH  GATUN  LAKE 


117 


to  this  position  have  run  up  an  incline  to 
the  next  level  and  are  ready  to  pull  us  up 
to  the  place  of  the  next  lift.  Other  gates 
ahead  of  us  are  now  opened  and  we  are 
towed  into  the  second  lock.  Again  the 
gates  are  closed  behind  us,  the  water  is 
allowed  to  come  in  through  the  bottom 
of  the  lock  and  we  slowly  rise  again  a  dis- 
tance of  twenty-eight  and  one-third  feet.  A 
third  lift  of  twenty-eight  and  one-third  feet 
is  accomplished  in  the  same  manner,  and 
we  have  reached  the  level  of  the  lake, 
eighty-five  feet  higher  than  the  sea-channel 
through  which  we  entered.  The  gates 
ahead  of  us  are  opened,  we  are  towed  out 
to  the  great  center  guide  wall,  the  towing 
locomotives  are  turned  loose,  the  locks  are 
taken  off  the  levers  in  our  engine  room,  and 
we  are  told  to  proceed. 

Directed  by  a  pilot  we  take  our  course 
through  the  beautiful  Gatun  Lake.  The 
lake  is  so  spacious  that  the  ships  of  the 
world  might  congregate  there  and  ride  in 
safety.  It  is  the  largest  artificial  lake  in  the 
world.  As  we  sail  through  it,  the  barnacles 
that  have  adhered  to  our  ship's  bottom, 
carried  out  of  their  native  salt  water,  begin 
to  sicken  in  their  new  element  and  one  by 
one  to  drop  off.  By  the  time  we  have 
completed  our  journey  of  thirty-odd  miles 
through  Gatun  Lake  and  Culebra  Cut,  the 
bottom  of  our  ship,  however  foul  it  may 
have  become,  is  as  clean  as  if  it  had  just 
come  from  a  dry  dock. 

Our  journey  through  the  lake  continues 
for  twenty-three  miles.  Near  the  latter 
stages,  the  lake  narrows  gradually  until 
it  takes  on  the  semblance  of  a  canal.  The 
great  Culebra  Cut  is  before  us.  It  is  a 
huge  gorge  with  towering  banks,  cut 
through  the  mountain  by  human  hands. 
Nine  miles  in  length,  mighty  in  proportions, 
it  demands  a  toll  from  every  traveler,  no 
matter  how  blase — a  heart  toll  of  admira- 
tion for  the  great  digging  army  that  created 
it.  It  is  here,  more  than  at  any  other  place 
in  the  canal,  that  one  can  appreciate  best 
the  terrific  battle  waged  by  man  against 
Nature.  We  can  see  signs  of  the  struggle 
in  the  sloping  sides  of  the  gorge.  We  pass 


through  this  canon  and  come  to  the  second 
set  of  locks,  Pedro  Miguel. 

At  this  point  we  take  our  first  step  down- 
ward toward  the  sea.  As  at  the  first  lock 
at  the  entrance  to  the  canal,  a  giant  fender 
chain  stretches  across  our  path.  Towing 
locomotives  appear  on  the  extended  walls 
of  the  locks  and  are  attached  to  the  stem 
and  the  stern  of  our  ship.  An  official  of 
the  canal  appears  also  as  before,  boards  the 
ship,  locks  every  lever  in  our  engine  rooms 
and  orders  the  towing  operations  to  pro- 
ceed. Meanwhile,  the  fender  chain  has 
been  lowered  and  the  upper  gates  thrown 
open.  We  are  towed  into  the  lock,  the 
gates  are  closed  behind  us  and  the  water 
begins  to  pass  out  through  the  floor  of  the 
lock.  Down  we  go,  but  slowly,  until  we 
find  ourselves  at  the  level  of  the  water 
below  the  lock,  thirty  feet  lower  than  the 
level  of  Gatun  Lake.  The  gates  ahead 
are  opened,  and  we  are  towed  out  into 
Miraflores 


This  body  of  water  is  something  more 
than  a  square  mile  in  area.  Across  this,  a 
short  sail,  we  come  to  the  gates  of  the 
Miraflores  locks.  There  are  two  locks  here, 
and  we  are  passed  through  them  and  find 
ourselves  on  the  level  of  the  Pacific.  We 
are  towed  out  into  the  sea-level  channel 
and  are  ready  to  commence  our  eight  mile 
journey  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

We  sail  out  through  a  low-lying,  swampy 
country,  the  hills  of  Agua  Dulce  on  our 
right,  and  come  presently  to  a  point  off 
Ancon  Hill,  where  the  capital  of  the  Canal 
Zone  is  located.  At  Ancon  Hill  is  a  modern 
office  building,  built  of  steel  and  concrete, 
in  which  are  located  the  administrative 
offices  of  the  waterway.  Here  is  the  new 
American  town,  where  the  white  employees 
of  the  canal  all  live.  A  little  farther  along 
is  Balboa,  the  Pacific  terminal,  with 
its  great  machine  shops,  its  big  coaling 
plant  and  its  modern  dry  docks.  Here  are 
all  the  facilities  for  ship  repairing  that  are 
to  be  found  in  any  shipyard  in  the  country. 
According  to  the  scheme  of  organization 
at  the  canal,  the  Atlantic  terminal  will 
furnish  the  supplies  for  the  shipping  world 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


and  the  Pacific  terminal  will  provide  the 
facilities  for  repairs.  Any  ship  that  can 
pass  through  the  canal  can  be  dry  docked 
and  repaired  at  the  Balboa  terminal. 

From  this  point,  passing  the  cargo  han- 
dling plant  with  its  docks  on  our  left,  we 
steam  out  toward  the  ocean.  We  pass  the 
500  acre  plot  of  land  reclaimed  from  the 
Pacific  Ocean  and  on  which  are  the  perma- 
nent quarters  for  the  Pacific  Coast  Artil- 
lery. These  quarters  do  not  include,  how- 
ever, those  of  the  companies  stationed  on 
Naos  and  her  sister  islands.  Connecting 
Naos  with  the  mainland  is  a  great  embank- 
ment that  rises  out  of  the  sea  and  whose 
crest  is  wide  enough  for  a  railway  and  a 
roadway.  This  was  built  of  material 
hauled  down  from  Culebra  Cut  and  dumped 
into  the  shallow  bay. 

The  defenses  on  Naos  and  her  sister 
islands  are  the  last  word  in  American 
armament.  Even  if  there  were  no  mines 
to  encounter  within  the  point,  no  hostile 
ship  would  venture  within  the  blank  range 
of  these  guns.  Here  is  planted  the  great 
sixteen-inch  gun  built  at  Watervliet,  N. 
Y.,  which  carries  a  projectile  weighing 
more  than  a  ton,  hurling  it  for  a  distance 
of  twenty  miles. 

The  embankment  connecting  the  main- 
land with  the  fortified  islands,  which  are 
themselves  connected  by  stone  causeways, 
serves  the  double  purpose  of  giving  the 
military  forces  dry-land  connection  be- 
tween the  islands  and  the  mainland  and 
of  keeping  the  cross  currents  of  Panama 
Bay  from  sweeping  millions  of  cubic  yards 
of  silt  into  the  canal. 

Having  passed  through  the  big  waterway, 
let  us  take  a  retrospective  view  of  its  con- 
struction history.  To  begin  with,  the  canal 
that  is  now  a  completed  waterway  is  not 
the  canal  that  we  started  out  to  build. 
We  never  planned  to  build  locks  with  a 
usable  length  of  1,000  feet  and  a  width  of 
no  feet.  What  we  did  plan  were  locks 
with  a  usable  length  of  900  feet  and  a  width 
of  96  feet.  Then  the  Olympic  and  the 
Titanic  were  designed,  and  President 
Roosevelt  concluded  that  the  locks  should 


be  made  larger.  Congress  had  authorized 
him  to  provide  a  canal  with  dimensions 
sufficient  to  take  care  of  the  largest  ships 
then  constructed  and  in  prospect. 

The  Culebra  Cut,  also,  is  different  from 
what  was  intended.  It  is  300  feet  wide  at 
the  bottom,  while  the  original  plans  called 
for  a  cut  200  feet  wide  at  that  point.  Here 
again,  it  was  the  word  of  Roosevelt  that 
made  the  change.  He  was  moved  to  order 
it  enlarged  from  the  same  considerations 
that  led  to  an  increase  in  the  size  of  the 
locks.  These  orders  applied  only  to  the 
increase  in  the  bottom  width  of  Culebra 
Cut;  the  vast  increase  in  the  top  width 
was  not  ordered  by  any  one.  Nature  spoke 
the  word  that  changed  this.  At  places 
where  the  original  cut  was  planned  to  have 
a  top  width  of  670  feet,  it  now  has  a  width 
of  more  than  a  third  of  a  mile.  All  this 
meant  doubling  the  task  of  digging  the 
cut.  The  great  army  employed  in  this 
work  never  flinched,  however.  It  showed 
the  world  that  it  could  dig  two  Culebra  Cuts 
in  less  time  and  with  half  as  many  steam 
shovels  as  was  thought  would  be  required. 
Even  with  such  a  wonderful  showing  as  this 
to  inspire  them,  however,  the  canal  diggers 
were  heartily  glad  they  were  not  asked  to 
sink  Culebra  Cut  to  sea  level. 

At  Pedro  Miguel,  another  change  was 
made.  It  was  early  decided  that  ships 
going  through  Culebra  Cut  from  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  might  need  to  wait 
for  lockage  at  Pedro  Miguel ;  so  a  basin  was 
constructed  at  the  upper  end  of  Pedro 
Miguel  for  this  purpose. 

Below  Pedro  Miguel,  it  was  planned 
originally  to  build  the  other  Pacific  locks 
at  Sosa  Hill.  It  was  intended  to  throw 
dams  across  the  saddles  between  the  several 
hills  at  the  Pacific  end  of  the  canal  and 
thus  make  a  miniature  duplicate  of  Gatun 
Lake  at  the  Pacific  end.  Two  conditions 
changed  these  plans.  Upon  more  mature 
examination,  it  was  found  that  Sosa  Hill 
was  a  very  poor  site  for  a  duplicate  flight 
of  locks  and  an  equally  poor  one  for  a  dam. 
The  dam  site  formed  the  habit  of  swallow- 
ing up  the  dam  as  fast  as  it  was  put  into 


EXTRA  MARGIN  OF  SAFETY 


119 


place,  and  the  site  was  abandoned.  From 
an  engineering  standpoint,  also,  the  lock 
site  was  not  satisfactory. 

But  if  Sosa  Hill  was  unsatisfactory  as  a 
dam  site  and  as  a  lock  site  from  the  engi- 
neering standpoint,  it  was  much  more  un- 
satisfactory from  a  military  standpoint. 
The  place  stood  out  close  to  the  open  sea, 
and  consequently  exposed  to  bombardment. 
When  this  phase  of  the  situation  was  dis- 
cussed, all  the  strategists  of  the  Army  and 
the  Navy  were  unanimous  in  favor  of  mov- 
ing the  locks  and  dams  farther  inland.  For- 
tunately Miraflores  offered  a  fine  position 
for  both  the  locks  and  the  dam,  so  that 
to-day,  instead  of  a  large  Pacific-side  lake, 
extending  from  Pedro  Miguel  to  Sosa  Hill, 
there  is  a  sea-level  channel  from  Miraflores 
to  the  sea  with  a  small  lake  between  Pedro 
Miguel  and  Miraflores. 

No  other  great  engineering  undertaking 
ever  witnessed  so  many  concessions  to 
safety  as  the  Panama  Canal.  That  it  was 
built  for  the  Government  and  therefore  that 
he  must  avoid  every  chance  of  failure  was 
kept  constantly  in  mind  by  the  Chief 
Engineer.  No  plan  for  any  part  of  it  ever 
was  approved  by  the  chief  official  until  the 
engineers  under  him  could  demonstrate  to 
him  that  there  was  no  such  word  as  fail  in 
the  lexicon  of  engineering  in  connection 
with  it.  Gatun  Dam  may  have  been  built 
much  more  strongly  than  was  needed  to 
make  it  safe,  but  it  was  considered  better 
to  put  in  five  million  cubic  yards  of  material 
too  much  than  ten  cubic  yards  too  little. 
The  gates  of  the  locks  may  have  been  con- 
structed in  a  far  more  substantial  manner 
than  seemed  to  be  necessary,  but  it  was 
preferable  to  go  far  beyond  the  safety 
point  than  to  come  just  below  it.  The 
facilities  for  controlling  the  Chagres  River 
might  be  great  enough  to  control  two 
rivers  instead  of  one,  but  it  was  advisa- 
ble to  provide  for  the  discharge  of  a  hun- 
dred million  cubic  feet  a  second  more  than 
was  needed  rather  than  to  leave  any  ele- 
ment of  doubt.  /  (y\^ 

The  completed  canal  is  a  waterway  that 
is  as  safe  as  human  hands  can  make  any- 


thing, and  its  successful  operation  as  sure 
as  anything  in  the  future  may  be.  The 
American  people  may  have  had  fears  in  the 
past,  but  if  they  had  known  anything  of 
the  determination  of  the  Chief  Engineer 
to  eliminate  the  millionth  chance,  they 
would  have  resigned  their  fears  years  ago. 
It  was  being  constructed  for  a  hundred 
million  people  and  for  generations  yet  un- 
born, and  "safety"  was  the  pole-star  by 
which  the  builders  shaped  their  course. 
The  result  is  that  the  completed  Panama 
Canal  stands  to-day  as  the  world's  most 
carefully  constructed  piece  of  engineering. 
There  is  a  margin  of  safety  everywhere 
that  is  surprisingly  large,  but  it  permits 
the  American  people  to  feel  that  they  have 
a  canal  that  partakes  of  the  permanence  of 
Nature  itself. 

Not  only  is  the  Panama  Canal  a  stupen- 
dous work  viewed  from  an  engineering 
standpoint,  but  it  is  unique  in  the  methods 
of  its  execution.  Never  in  the  history  of 
man  was  there  a  greater  combination  of 
paternalism  and  despotism  than  at  Panama. 
There  was  paternalism,  because  the  United 
States  did  everything  for  the  people;  from 
giving  them  free  rent,  free  light,  free  medi- 
cine and  free  amusements,  to  providing 
them  with  government  without  taxation. 
There  was  despotism,  because  the  power  of 
the  Chief  Engineer,  Colonel  Goethals,  was 
all  sufficient  and  autocratic.  In  some 
respects  the  Czar  of  Russia  had  no  more 
power  than  this  man.  The  Chairman  and 
Chief  Engineer  might  not  have  had  the 
power  of  life  or  death  over  his  force,  but  he 
did  have  the  power  of  deportation,  and  he 
knew  how  and  when  to  use  it.  His  word 
was  law  and  there  was  neither  appeal  nor 
repeal. 

In  building  the  Panama  Canal,  the 
United  States  wrote  a  chapter  in  the  art 
of  preventive  medicine.  It  transformed  a 
pest-hole  into  a  healthy  community;  and 
while  it  never  went  as  far  as  did  Great 
Britain,  which  completely  exterminated  the 
malarial  mosquitoes  at  Ismailia,  it  did 
prove  that  with  proper  sanitation  and 
proper  medical  attention,  the  tropics  may 


120 


HISTORY   OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


be  made  as  fit  an  abode  for  white  men  as 
the  temperate  zones. 

A  new  chapter  in  the  art  of  reducing  the 
cost  of  living  was  also  written  at  Panama. 
Through  the  Government  commissary,  the 
best  western  dressed  beef  was  sold  to  the 
householder  at  Panama  at  prices  lower  than 
those  in  American  cities. 

What  was  true  of  meat  prices  was  true 
in  other  lines.  With  rents,  fuel,  lights, 
medicine  and  medical  attention  free;  with 
everything  the  people  had  to  buy  marked 
down  to  prices  which  had  not  been  known 
in  the  United  States  in  twenty  years;  and 
with  salaries  and  wages  about  fifty  per 
cent,  higher  than  United  States  standards, 
the  cost  of  living  was  never  an  issue  at 
Panama,  except  as  it  was  made  an  issue 
by  those  who  were  unrelenting  in  their 
efforts  to  drive  it  down  still  lower. 

In  view  of  the  triumphant  completion 
of  the  canal,  it  is  a  matter  of  interest  to 
recall  one  at  least  of  the  many  ancient 
predictions  that  the  wrath  of  God  would 
follow  any  attempt  to  unite  the  two  oceans 
by  an  artificial  waterway.  Among  the 
early  travelers  through  South  and  Central 
America  after  the  voyages  of  Columbus 
and  Ojeda,  was  Josephus  Acosta,  a  learned 
Jesuit,  of  Spain.  He  wrote  much  of  what 
he  saw  and  heard,  and  in  the  third  volume  of 
"  Purchas  His  Pilgrimes,"  published  in  1625, 
appear  the  first  four  "bookes"  of  Acosta's 
"Natural  and  Moral  History  of  the  Indies." 
Among  the  venerable  traveler's  observations 
is  the  following  in  regard  to  the  proposal  to 
cut  a  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama : 


"They  say,  that  he  that  first  discovered 
this  Sea,  was  called  Blascowunes  of  Bilbo, 
the  which  he  did  by  that  part  which  we 
now  call  Maine  Land,  where  it  growes  nar- 
row and  the  two  Seas  approach  so  neere 
the  one  to  the  other,  that  there  is  but  seven 
leagues  of  distance.  .  .  .  Some  have  dis- 
coursed and  propounded  to   cut   through 
this  passage  of  seven  leagues,  and  to  joyne 
one  Sea  to  the  other,  to  make  the  passage 
from  Peru  more  commodious  and  easie,  for 
that  these  eighteen  leagues  of  land  betwixt 
N ombre  de  Dios  and  Panama,  is  more  paine- 
full    and    chargeable    then    2300  by   Sea, 
whereupon    some    would    say,    it    were  a 
meanes  to  drowne  the  Land,  one  Sea  being 
lower  then  another.     As  in  times  past  we 
find  it  written,  that  for  the  same  considera- 
tion, they  gave  over  the  enterprise  to  winne 
the  red  Sea  into  Nile,  in  the  time  of  King 
Sesostris,  and  since  in  the  Empire  of  the 
Othomans.     But  for  my  part,  I  hold  such 
discourses  and  propositions  for  vaine,  al- 
though this  inconvenience  should  not  hap- 
pen, the  which  I  will  not  hold  for  assured. 
I  believe  there  is  no  humaine  power  able 
to  beate  and  breake  downe  those  strong 
and  impenetrable  Mountains,  which  God 
hath  placed  betwixt  the  two  Seas,  and  hath 
made  them  most  hard  Rockes,  to  withstand 
the  f  urie  of  two  Seas.   And  although  it  were 
possible  to  men,  yet  in  my  opinion  they 
should  fear  punishment  from  heaven,  in 
seeking  to  correct  the  workes,  which  the 
Creator  by  his  great  providence  hath  or- 
dained and  disposed  in  the  framing  of  this 
universall  world." 


CHAPTER  XX 


THE  SANITARY   DEPARTMENT 

PANAMA'S  LESSON  TO  THE  WORLD — A  DEATH-RATE  SPLIT  IN  Two — LIBERALITY  OP 
EXPENDITURES — THIS  LIBERALITY  JUSTIFIED — SUCCESS  IN  PORTO  Rico  AND 
ELSEWHERE — DR.  GORGAS  APPOINTED — His  EXPERIENCES  IN  CUBA — HANDI- 
CAPPED AT  FIRST — THE  MOSQUITO  GETS  His  CASE  REOPENED — MAGOON  TO 
GORGAS'S  RESCUE — SLEUTHING  FOR  MOSQUITOES — GOETHALS  AND  GORGAS — 
GETTING  RID  OF  YELLOW  FEVER  AND  MALARIA — OIL  ON  MOSQUITO-TROUBLED 
WATERS — THE  ISTHMIAN  QUARANTINE — VACCINATING  INCOMING  PASSENGERS 
— FREE  HOSPITALS — THE  TABOGA  SANITARIUM — THE  SPIRITUAL  HEALTH  OF 
THE  PEOPLE — WORTH  MANY  TIMES  ITS  COST — ARMY  SURGEONS  SUCCESSFUL 
EVERYWHERE. 


THE  story  of  the  sanitation  of  the 
Canal  Zone  constitutes  one  of  the 
most  dramatic  examples  that  the 
world  affords  of  what  medical  science  can 
accomplish  when  properly  backed  by  a 
government.  With  the  eyes  of  the  world 
focused  upon  the  big  undertaking,  there 
was  that  degree  of  the  spectacular  in  the 
work  that  is  required  to  command  univer- 
sal attention,  and  so  it  has  come  to  pass 
that  one  of  the  greatest  benefits  that  the 
Panama  Canal  will  bring  to  the  people  of 
the  earth  is  the  splendid  lesson  it  has 
taught  humanity — the  lesson  that  con- 
tagious or  infectious  disease  may  be  con- 
trolled and  held  in  check. 

To  any  one  who  has  visited  the  Canal 
Zone,  no  statistics  are  necessary  to  show 
what  has  been,  and  what  may  be,  accom- 
plished by  sanitation.  His  own  eyes  tell 
him  of  the  wonderful  transformation  that 
has  taken  place,  as  he  travels  across  the 
isthmus  and  sees  where  thousands  of  mos- 
quito paradises  have  been  transformed  into 
disease-free  spots.  He  looks  from  the 
vantage  point  of  an  observation  car  at  the 
fifty-mile  parkway  across  the  isthmus.  But 
to  others,  it  need  only  be  said  that  the 
death  rate  for  the  population  of  Panama, 
Colon  and  in  the  Canal  Zone  has  been  cut 
down  from  the  forty-two  per  thousand 
that  obtained  when  the  Americans  went  to 
Panama  to  the  twenty-two  per  thousand 
that  existed  when  the  canal  became  a 


completed  waterway.  Apply  that  wonder- 
ful decline  to  our  own  country  and  see 
what  results:  If  our  growth  as  a  nation 
has  been  normal  since  1910,  our  present 
population  must  approximate  a  hundred 
million  souls.  A  saving  of  twenty  lives 
per  thousand  would  mean  to  us  the  sav- 
ing of  2,000,000  lives  a  year,  and  a  saving 
of  at  least  5,000,000  cases  of  sickness. 
There  is  the  measure  of  what  has  been 
accomplished  at  Panama. 

The  wonderful  liberality  with  which  the 
United  States  provided  for  health  purposes 
on  the  isthmus  is  revealed  by  the  fact  that 
nearly  $20,000,000  was  appropriated  for 
carrying  forward  that  work  during  the  ten 
years  of  the  construction  period — which 
appropriations  covered  the  hospitals,  medi- 
cal attendance,  sanitation  and  other  activ- 
ities. Of  this  about  $4,000,000  went  to 
sanitation  proper.  Now,  when  we  remem- 
ber that  the  population  of  the  Canal  Zone 
was  only  62,000  and  that  the  area  of  that 
part  of  the  Zone  under  active  sanitary 
control  amounts  to  only  1,200  acres,  it 
will  be  understood  that  there  was  no  lack 
of  funds  with  which  to  prosecute  the  work. 
It  is  not  to  be  presumed,  however,  that 
the  entire  Canal  Zone  has  been  cleaned 
up  and  converted  from  an  untamed  jungle 
into  a  place  fit  for  the  residence  of  men; 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  except  for  the  1,200 
acres  in  the  settlements  along  the  canal  and 
the  few  little  clearings  made  by  negroes  for 


121 


122 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


their  tiny  yam  patches,  all  of  the  278,000 
acres  of  the  Canal  Zone's  area  lie  outside 
of  the  sanitary  district. 

When  we  come  to  look  elsewhere  we  find 
that  equally  brilliant  results  were  accom- 
plished with  the  expenditure  of  very  much 
less  money.  That  is  true  of  Porto  Rico. 
When  the  Americans  took  possession  of  that 
island  the  death  rate  was  practically  the 
same  as  the  death  rate  at  Panama  when 
we  took  over  the  canal  strip.  To-day  the 
death  rate  in  Porto  Rico  is  just  as  low  as  it 
is  at  Panama,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
Porto  Rico  is  the  most  densely  populated 
island  on  earth.  The  same  density  per 
square  mile,  if  applied  to  the  United  States, 
would  give  us  a  population  of  nearly  a 
billion.  Dr.  Bailey  K.  Ashford,  who 
cleaned  up  Porto  Rico,  had  only  a  small 
percentage  of  the  funds  per  capita  or  per 
acre  at  his  disposal  that  Colonel  Gorgas 
had  at  Panama.  But  in  Porto  Rico  they 
could  afford  to  count  the  cost.  There  was 
not  a  great  international  project  at  stake, 
nor  would  the  world  have  suffered  from 
failure  in  that  country  as  it  would  have 
suffered  from  disaster  at  Panama. 

When  the  United  States  started  in  to 
build  the  Panama  Canal,  all  eyes  turned  to 
Dr.  William  Crawford  Gorgas,  then  a  sur- 
geon in  the  United  States  Army  with  the 
rank  of  major,  as  the  man  of  all  men  best 
fitted  to  take  charge  of  the  work  of  sanita- 
tion. He  was  fresh  from  his  successes  in 
Cuba,  where  he  had,  under  General  Leon- 
ard Wood,  applied  the  lessons  of  sanitation 
that  had  been  learned  by  Dr.  Walter  Reed 
and  his  associates  in  their  remarkable  series 
of  experiments  with  yellow  fever.  Al- 
though he  had  gone  into  the  work  of  ridding 
Havana  of  yellow  fever  with  a  skepticism 
that  he  afterward  admitted,  he  had  carried 
it  to  a  highly  successful  conclusion.  As 
late  as  1902  he  stated  that  he  had  doubted 
the  conclusion  of  Reed  that  yellow  fever 
was  caused  only  by  mosquitoes,  adding  that 
he  had  not  believed  it  was  even  the  ordi- 
nary, much  less  the  only  cause. 

But  his  own  work  proved  a  cure  for  his 
skepticism,  and  from  that  day  to  this  he 


has  stood  out  as  the  world's  most  famous 
master  of  tropical  sanitation.  He  went  to 
Panama  with  the  first  forces  that  steered 
their  course  that  way  after  the  American 
occupation.  He  laid  out  his  sanitary  cam- 
paign in  the  utmost  detail,  in  which  he  was 
assisted  by  a  number  of  experienced  sur- 
geons, as  well  as  by  Major  Roland  Ross,  the 
man  who  had  proven  the  mosquito  theory 
of  the  causation  of  malaria,  and  upon 
whose  work  Reed  and  his  associates  builded 
in  making  out  their  case  against  the  yellow 
fever  mosquito. 

Dr.  Gorgas  returned  to  the  States  for  a 
few  months,  and  then  went  back  to  his 
work  of  cleaning  up  the  isthmus.  From 
the  first  he  was  handicapped.  A  commis- 
sion of  seven  men  of  equal  authority  never 
was  known  to  do  things  promptly  under  any 
circumstances;  and  when  it  came  to  a  com- 
mission, a  part  of  whose  members  were  in 
Washington  and  another  part  in  Panama, 
it  was  worse  than  ever — so  that  more 
money  came  to  be  spent  on  telegraph  and 
cable  tolls  than  was  spent  on  sanitation. 
But  Colonel  Gorgas  was  a  patient  man ;  and 
though  Major  General  George  W.  Davis, 
then  Governor  of  the  Zone,  and  managing 
commissioner,  was  somewhat  out  of  sym- 
pathy with  him,  he  did  the  best  he  could 
and  hoped  the  day  would  come  when  he 
could  do  better.  Finally  General  Davis 
was  relieved,  and  Gorgas  was  made  acting 
governor  and  given  temporary  free  rein. 

Chief  Engineer  Wallace  was  somewhat 
distrustful  of  Gorgas's  ability  to  control 
yellow  fever,  and  at  one  time  Mr.  Taft 
seemed  to  hold  the  same  opinion.  But 
when  Charles  E.  Magoon  became  Gov- 
ernor of  the  Canal  Zone,  he  told  Colonel 
Gorgas  that  he  wanted  him  to  understand 
that  all  the  resources  of  the  Canal  Com- 
mission were  behind  him.  With  this  in- 
spiriting assurance,  Colonel  Gorgas  set  out 
to  undo  the  damage  that  had  been  done. 
Stegomyia  had  been  tried  and  convicted  in 
Cuba,  but  had  moved  for  a  new  trial  in 
Panama  and  had  obtained  it.  With  the  out- 
break of  the  epidemic  of  1904-5  some  of  the 
people  settled  down  to  the  conviction  that 


THE  WAR  ON  MOSQUITOES 


123 


the  mosquito  was  not  responsible  for  the 
yellow  fever;  many  of  them  went  so  far  as 
to  tear  the  screens  off  their  windows  as  a 
protest  against  the  theory.  Every  ship  that 
left  the  isthmus  carried  a  full  passenger 
list,  and  those  who  had  to  remain  behind 
were  under  daily  fear  of  contagion. 

But  Governor  Magoon  changed  things. 
The  chiefs  of  divisions  were  held  respon- 
sible for  the  keeping  of  the  doors  and  win- 
dows of  the  rooms  of  their  employees  prop- 
erly screened.  Guards  were  stationed 
around  to  see  that  screening  orders  were 
obeyed  and  office  doors  kept  closed.  Wher- 
ever there  was  a  case  of  yellow  fever  the 
antecedents  of  the  patient  were  investigated 
with  extreme  care.  Here  was  a  man  who 
was  registered  at  a  Panama  Hotel.  He  was 
sick  and  some  one  feared  he  had  yellow 
fever.  When  the  authorities  came  to  look 
him  up,  he  had  disappeared.  The  next  day 
he  was  found  in  the  streets  intoxicated  and 
suffering  from  yellow  fever.  He  was  taken 
to  the  hospital,  where  he  died.  Then  they 
looked  for  his  associates.  Nobody  seemed 
to  know  him.  Finally  it  was  heard  that 
some  of  his  countrymen  frequented  a  cer- 
tain bar  room.  Here  again  no  one  knew 
him,  but  several  of  them  had  heard  him 
talking  with  an  Italian.  The  Italians  of  the 
entire  City  of  Panama  were  canvassed,  and 
at  last  the  man  who  had  talked  with  him 
was  found,  but  the  man  knew  him  only 
slightly.  However,  he  did  know  that  the 
man  was  acquainted  with  the  watchman  at 
a  certain  little  theater.  This  watchman 
was  hunted  down  and  was  found  to  be  ill 
with  yellow  fever  himself.  Then  a  little 
girl  who  frequented  the  theater  was  found 
to  have  taken  the  disease.  Every  case 
was  thus  rigidly  investigated  and  all 
sources  of  infection  run  down.  The  result 
was  that  the  last  case  of  yellow  fever 
was  stamped  out  in  the  early  part  of  1906, 
and  a  second  and  final  decision  was  ren- 
dered against  the  mosquito,  this  time  in  the 
court  of  last  resort — a  decision  which  the 
world  owes  to  the  energetic  measures  of 
Colonel  Gorgas,  and  the  support  of  Gov. 
Magoon. 


From  that  day  forward  Colonel  Gorgas 
enjoyed  the  confidence  of  the  world  and  of 
the  canal  engineers  alike.  In  more  recent 
years  there  was  up  some  feeling  between 
the  partisans  of  Colonel  Goethals  and 
those  of  Colonel  Gorgas.  Acting  upon  the 
order  of  President  Taft  that  the  actual 
work  of  digging  ditches,  cutting  grass,  and 
the  like,  should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of 
the  Quartermaster's  Department,  under  the 
supervision  of  the  Sanitary  Department, 
Colonel  Goethals  directed  that  this  course 
be  pursued.  It  resulted  in  no  loss  of  sani- 
tary efficiency,  and  in  a  considerable  saving 
of  money.  But  the  friends  of  Colonel 
Gorgas  always  felt  that  Colonel  Goethals 
was  responsible  for  the  order,  whereas  it 
was  issued  at  the  direction  of  the  President 
himself  and  in  spite  of  Colonel  Goethals's 
views  in  the  matter.  Colonel  Goethals 
never  has  failed  to  commend  the  excellence 
of  the  sanitary  work  at  Panama,  upon  all 
proper  occasions. 

The  first  work  of  protecting  the  health  of 
the  people  of  the  Canal  Zone  always  had 
been  that  of  holding  the  mosquito  in  check, 
for  malaria  and  yellow  fever  had  to  be  con- 
trolled— the  one  kept  down  and  the  other 
kept  out,  if  the  sanitary  work  was  to  be 
successful.  There  are  upward  of  a  hundred 
species  of  mosquitoes  on  the  isthmus,  but 
only  the  anopheles  and  the  stegomyia  fami- 
lies have  evil  reputations. 

The  habits  of  the  mosquitoes  lend  them- 
selves easily  to  the  needs  of  man  in  his  war 
of  extermination  against  them.  They  lay 
their  eggs  in  the  water,  and  when  their 
larvae  hatch  out,  they  must  come  to  the 
surface  for  a  breath  of  air.  By  spreading 
oil  upon  the  surface  of  standing  water  the 
larvee  are  destroyed. 

Numerous  methods  of  "pouring  oil  on 
the  troubled  waters"  have  been  in  use  at 
Panama.  One  of  the  favorite  methods  is  to 
put  a  wick  in  a  piece  of  pipe  soldered  into  a 
large  ash  can.  The  can  is  filled  with  oil  and 
set  on  a  board  that  spans  the  little  stream- 
let it  is  meant  to  protect.  Drop  by  drop  the 
oil  in  the  can  passes  down  and  along  with 
the  waters,  and  when  they  reach  quiet 


I24 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


levels  there  is  a  scum  of  oil  over  the  placid 
surface  of  the  water  from  bank  to  bank. 
Another  method  of  applying  the  oil  is  to 
strap  a  spraying  tank  filled  with  it  upon  the 
back  of  a  husky  negro  and  then  send  him 
forth  to  "nose  out"  all  little  pools  of  stag- 
nant water  in  the  neighborhood  and  to 
cover  them  with  a  film  of  oil.  In  these 
ways  about  700,000  gallons  of  oil  and 
124,000  gallons  of  larvicide  were  used 
annually. 

But  with  all  that,  there  were  still  breed- 
ing places  that  could  not  be  found,  so  it  was 
necessary  to  keep  down  the  grass  and  brush, 
to  the  extent  of  about  twenty  million 
square  yards  of  the  former  and  about  half 
as  much  of  the  latter  every  year.  And  then 
some  two  million  feet  of  ditches  had  to  be 
kept  clean  and  about  a  quarter  of  a  million 
feet  of  new  ones  dug  for  drainage  purposes. 

Yet  with  all  of  this  war  against  the  mos- 
quitoes, a  few  of  them  still  managed  to 
perpetuate  their  species,  and  this  required 
the  expenditure  of  about  a  million  dollars 
for  screens  for  shutting  them  out  of  the 
houses.  Even  then  some  few  would  manage 
to  get  inside,  and  these  were  either  caught 
in  traps  or  killed.  About  a  quarter  of  a 
million  malarial  adult  mosquitoes  were  so 
destroyed. 

While  the  quarantine  on  the  Canal  Zone 
was  a  very  rigid  one,  it  did  not  include 
malaria  in  the  list  of  diseases  to  be  ex- 
cluded. But  for  those  diseases  which  were 
banned  it  was  as  unrelenting  as  fate. 

Shortly  after  the  United  States  began 
operations  on  the  Canal  Zone  a  ship  load 
of  deck  passengers  from  Martinique  was 
brought  over.  When  it  was  announced  that 
they  had  to  be  vaccinated,  one  of  their 
number,  a  voodoo  doctor,  led  a  mutiny 
against  inoculation,  in  which  a  hundred  and 
fifty  took  part.  He  pronounced  it  an  at- 
tempt to  put  "the  inextinguishable  mark" 
upon  them,  so  that  they  could  never  escape 
from  the  isthmus.  They  declared  they 
would  rather  suffer  martyrdom  aboard  than 
to  be  held  captive  ashore,  and  it  was  only 
after  three  days  of  unsuccessful  parleying 
that  the  mutiny  was  broken  up  by  their 


being  driven  ashore  by  the  police.  Still 
protesting,  they  were  rounded  up,  in 
spite  of  their  efforts  to  escape,  vaccinated, 
and  the  next  day  sent  to  work. 

A  quarantine  station  was  maintained  at 
each  end  of  the  canal,  and  will  be  con- 
tinued under  the  permanent  organization. 
Every  ship  arriving  was  boarded,  and  if  a 
clean  bill  of  health  could  be  presented, 
nothing  remained  to  be  done  except  for 
every  passenger  and  member  of  the  crew  to 
be  examined  for  quarantinable  disease. 
But  if  the  ship  had  come  from  an  infected 
port  there  was  trouble — all  passengers  went 
to  the  quarantine  station  until  it  was  safe 
to  pass  them  through  the  lines. 

The  government  furnished  all  of  its  em- 
ployees with  free  medicines,  free  medical 
attendance,  and  free  hospital  and  burial 
services.  It  dispensed  about  a  ton  of  qui- 
nine a  year,  provided  camps  where  the 
laborers  who  were  not  ill  enough  to  go  to 
the  hospital  could  rest  and  be  treated,  and 
ran  one  or  two  hospital  cars  on  every  pas- 
senger train  that  crossed  the  isthmus. 

The  hospitals  maintained  were  by  far 
the  best  to  be  found  anywhere  in  the 
tropics.  The  one  at  Ancon  is  very  large, 
perfectly  appointed,  and  situated  in  at- 
tractive grounds.  It  is  a  monument 
to  the  Catholic  sisters  who  conducted 
the  institution  and  beautified  the  grounds 
under  the  French  regime.  The  hospitals 
had  an  average  of  about  600  whites  and 
1,200  negroes  as  patients,  and  during  each 
year  there  were  admitted  and  discharged 
some  18,000  whites  and  14,000  negroes. 
About  5,000  whites  and  n,ooo  negroes 
were  treated  annually  in  the  sick  camps. 
The  total  number  sick  in  hospitals,  camps, 
and  quarters  in  1913  was  48,000.  Applica- 
tions to  the  dispensaries  for  treatment 
amounted  to  311,000  among  the  whites  in 
1912  and  322,000  among  the  colored  em- 
ployees. 

A  modern  sanitarium  was  maintained 
at  Taboga,  where  the  white  employees  who 
had  passed  through  the  hospitals  were  sent 
to  recuperate.  The  number  of  white  em- 
ployees on  the  sick  list  ranged  around  forty 


1.  Gorgona  as  it  was  during  construction  days  ;  today  its  site  is  under  water. 

2.  View  from  grounds  of  Taboga  Island  Sanitarium,  where  American  invalids  were  sent  to  recuperate. 


I.  Maj.  Gen.  Wm.  C.  Gorgas 
4.  Rear  Admiral  H.  H.  Rousseau 


GOETHALS'S  CHIEF  AIDS 
3.  Brig.  Gen.  Wm.  L.  Sibert 


2.  Brig.  Gen.  Harry  F.  Hodges 
5.  Lt.  Col.  D.  D.  Gaillard 


A  TRIUMPH  IN  SANITATION 


125 


per  thousand,  while  the  number  of  colored 
employees  averaged  around  seventeen  per 
thousand,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  death 
rate  among  the  colored  people  was  higher. 
The  cost  of  operating  all  the  hospitals,  sick 
camps,  and  dispensaries  of  the  Sanitary 
Department  amounted  to  $739,000  in  1912, 
at  an  average  cost  of  $1.22  per  day  in  the 
hospitals  and  forty-seven  cents  in  the  sick 
camps. 

The  Sanitary  Department  not  only 
looked  after  the  physical  health  of  the 
people,  but  after  their  spiritual  health  as 
well.  The  churches  were  under  its  jurisdic- 
tion and  it  carried  some  fifteen  ministers  of 
the  gospel  on  its  pay  rolls.  It  also  took 
care  of  the  cemeteries  and  conducted  the 
undertaking  and  embalming  business  re- 
quired for  the  canal  army. 

Looking  over  the  history  of  sanitation  on 
the  Canal  Zone,  it  must  be  pronounced 
a  wonderful  record.  Any  careful  analysis 
of  the  figures  of  expenditures  of  the 
Sanitary  Department  must  show  that 
the  work  was  expensive,  that  it  cost 
perhaps  more,  result  for  result,  than  sani- 
tation anywhere  else  in  the  world.  But 
that  does  not  detract  from  the  fact  that  it 


was  successful,  and  that  it  was  worth  far 
more  to  the  United  States  than  its  cost. 
Carrying  with  it  that  degree  of  publicity 
that  enabled  it  to  arrest  the  attention  of  the 
world,  it  ever  will  stand  out  as  the  creating 
force  of  a  world-wide  movement  in  the 
direction  of  better  sanitation.  And  in  that 
way  it  has  done  more  for  the  health  move- 
ment that  is  sweeping  over  the  world  than 
any  other  single  agency  in  the  history  of 
man. 

The  success  of  the  American  army  sur- 
geon has  been  universal,  whether  his  work 
is  at  Panama,  in  Porto  Rico,  in  the 
Philippines,  or  at  home.  There  is  glory 
enough  for  them  all,  and  if  the  successful 
work  at  Panama  serves  to  awaken  the 
American  people  to  a  knowledge  of  the 
fact  that  they  have  medical  triumphs  to  be 
proud  of  wherever  the  American  army  sur- 
geon has  gone,  its  benefits  will  extend  far 
beyond  the  limits  of  the  Canal  Zone. 

The  experience  in  sanitation  at  Panama 
in  its  application  to  the  quarantine  of  the 
world's  trade  routes  is  graphically  pre- 
sented in  a  later  chapter  in  this  volume  by 
Dr.  Rupert  Blue,  Surgeon-General  of  the 
United  States  Public  Health  Service. 


CHAPTER  XXI 


THE   CANAL   UNDER  WALLACE 
THE  NEGLECTED  BEGINNING — TAKING  OVER  THE  FRENCH  PROPERTY — "UNSCRAMBLING" 

THE  CHAOS  OF  THE  HOUR EXCELLENCE  OF  THE  FRENCH  EQUIPMENT VALUE 

OF  THE  FRENCH  PROPERTY — THE  FIRST  CANAL  COMMISSION — ITS  TRIP  TO  THE 
ISTHMUS — MORE  INFORMATION  NEEDED — SETTING  UP  THE  CANAL  ZONE 
GOVERNMENT — WALLACE  APPOINTED  CHIEF  ENGINEER — "MAKING  THE  DIRT 
FLY" — AT  CROSS  PURPOSES — ANNOYING  RED  TAPE — UNSATISFACTORY  CON- 
DITIONS— GETTING  RID  OF  THE  COMMISSION — THE  NEW  BOARD — WALLACE 
SEEMINGLY  SATISFIED — His  RETIREMENT,  AND  THE  REASONS  THEREFOR — 

GOETHALS'    JUST   AND    GENEROUS    VERDICT. 


WHEN  one  conies  to  write  the  story 
of  a  great  project  successfully  car- 
ried to  completion  there  is. tempta- 
tion to  pass  by  that  era  of  unsightly  chaos 
which  marks  the  laying  of  the  foundations 
and  to  begin  with  the  completed  undertak- 
ing and  the  days  when  it  began  to  take 
shape. 

And  so  it  has  been  with  every  historian 
of  the  Panama  Canal.  The  administration 
of  John  F.  Wallace  is  passed  over  lightly, 
and  that  of  John  F.  Stevens  is  given  but 
little  more  attention.  And  yet  the  work 
that  was  done  by  these  men  was  so  essential 
to  the  ultimate  success  of  the  canal,  and 
the  steps  then  taken  so  illuminative  of 
what  was  required  for  the  triumph  of  the 
American  canal  diggers,  that  he  who 
would  know  and  appreciate  the  full  story 
of  the  construction  of  the  big  waterway 
must  go  back  further  than  the  Goethals 
administration. 

It  was  on  the  morning  of  the  4th  of 
May,  1904,  that,  the  formalities  of  the  sale 
of  the  French  property  to  the  United  States 
having  been  perfected,  Lieutenant  Mark 
Brooke,  of  the  United  States  Army,  took 
possession  of  this  property.  There  was 
comparatively  little  ceremony  about  it, 
but  the  keys  were  delivered,  and  imme- 
diately the  work  of  getting  under  way  was 
begun.  The  first  step  was  to  reengage  all 
the  employees  of  the  New  Panama  Canal 
Company  and  continue  the  work  just  as 
it  had  been  going  on.  This  did  not  mean 


a  great  deal,  for  the  French  company  was 
merely  keeping  enough  men  at  work  to 
justify  its  title  to  the  concession. 

The  next  step  was  to  begin  the  work  of 
"unscrambling"  the  chaotic  pile  of  French 
property  that  had  been  acquired.  From 
one  side  of  the  isthmus  to  the  other  there 
was  an  almost  unbroken  row  of  houses  and 
machinery,  material  and  junk,  and  to  ex- 
tricate all  this  and  classify  it  was  a  task 
whose  proportions  were  enhanced  by  the 
wreck  and  ruin  and  tropic  growth  of  some 
fifteen  years.  The  railroad  was  a  mere 
spectre  of  rust  and  decay,  running  through 
a  fifty-mile  canon  of  tropical  jungle.  The 
rolling  stock  had  degenerated,  and  even 
the  steamship  line  had  become  a  byword 
up  and  down  the  Spanish  Main. 

There  were  2,148  French  buildings  ac- 
quired, many  of  them  standing  out  in  the 
jungle  and  infested  by  all  sorts  of  tropical 
pests.  The  force  that  was  to  prepare  the 
isthmus  for  the  canal  diggers  had  to  occupy 
these  houses  until  new  ones  could  be  built, 
and  it  was  nearly  impossible  to  make  many 
of  them  habitable. 

The  best  machinery  and  supplies  had 
been  gathered  into  several  great  parks  and 
storehouses,  and  the  rolling  stock  in  the 
main  had  been  kept  well  painted,  the  same 
being  true  of  the  floating  equipment.  It 
took  many  weeks  to  card-index  the  French 
equipment  so  that  it  could  be  found  when 
needed,  but  the  results  amply  justified  the 
trouble.  For  whatever  the  French  did  on 


126 


FRENCH  CANAL  PROPERTY 


127 


the  isthmus  was  done  well.  Tiny  Belgian 
locomotives  bustled  over  the  works  as  if 
they  were  fresh  from  the  factory  instead 
of  rehabilitated  mechanical  waifs  which 
had  been  exposed  to  the  rust  and  ruin  of 
iifteen  rainy  seasons.  With  a  new  cab  to 
replace  one  that  had  rotted  away,  with  a 
new  pipe  here  and  a  new  piece  of  brass 
there,  they  hustled  around,  handling  con- 
crete trains  as  proudly  as  though  they  were 
strong  Baldwins  drawing  the  huge  dirt 
trains  to  the  dumps. 

What  was  found  to  be  true  of  the  engines 
was  equally  true  of  the  dredges  and  other 
floating  equipment.  When  we  compare 
it  with  our  canal-digging  equipment  of  a 
quarter  of  a  century  ago,  it  becomes  evi- 
dent that  the  very  latest  word  in  excavating 
machinery  that  had  been  spoken  at  that 
time  was  incorporated  in  the  French 
equipment  at  Panama. 

Much  was  said  at  the  time  of  the  acquisi- 
tion of  the  property  of  the  New  Panama 
Canal  Company  to  the  effect  that  the 
United  States  had  paid  too  much  for  it. 
This  statement  has  been  amply  disproven 
by  experience  and  by  more  recent  in- 
ventories of  what  actually  was  acquired. 
To  begin  with,  the  profits  of  the  Panama 
Railroad  operations  have  been  large  enough 
to  amortize  the  entire  outlay  made  on  its 
account.  The  usable  excavations  of  the 
French  were  worth  $25,000,000;  maps, 
drawings,  and  records,  $2,000,000;  lands, 
Pacific  ship  channel,  and  roads,  $1,750,- 
ooo;  and  the  Panama  Railroad,  upward 
of  $9,500,000.  According  to  a  careful 
estimate  in  1911,  the  total  value  of  the 
property  amounted  to  nearly  $43,000,- 
ooo. 

The  first  Isthmian  Canal  Commission 
appointed  for  the  building  of  the  canal,  in 
accordance  with  the  terms  of  the  Spooner 
law,  under  which  the  waterway  has  been 
built,  was  composed  of  Rear  Admiral  John 
G.  Walker,  Major  General  George  W. 
Davis,  William  Barclay  Parsons,  William 
H.  Burr,  Benjamin  M.  Harrod,  Carl  E. 
Grunsky  and  Frank  J.  Hecker.  In  ap- 
pointing them  President  Roosevelt  declared 


that  "What  this  nation  will  insist  upon  is 
that  results  be  achieved." 

The  commission  arrived  on  the  isthmus 
on  April  5,  1904,  and  after  three  weeks  of 
study  of  the  problems  to  be  met,  decided 
that  they  needed  more  information  than  the 
French  records  disclosed.  So  they  returned 
to  the  States  and  began  to  organize  survey- 
ing parties.  Meanwhile  Major  William  C. 
Gorgas,  fresh  from  his  sanitation  successes 
in  Cuba,  after  accompanying  the  Commis- 
sion to  the  isthmus,  at  the  direction  of 
President  Roosevelt,  was  engaged  in  draft- 
ing the  plans  of  the  sanitary  campaign  that 
was  to  clean  up  the  isthmus  and  make  it 
habitable  for  the  canal-digging  army  soon 
to  invade  that  territory. 

When  the  surveying  parties  returned  to 
the  isthmus  they  had  to  go  out  into  the 
jungle,  and  supplies  were  so  scarce  that  they 
were  compelled  to  live  almost  like  aborig- 
ines. The  only  way  they  could  get  fresh 
meat  was  to  kill  monkeys,  and  some  of 
them  declared  that  the  outlines  of  a 
skinned  monkey  so  closely  resembled  those 
of  a  baby  that  monkey  meat  did  not  make 
a  very  delectable  dish. 

Major  General  Davis  and  Colonel  Gorgas 
returned  to  the  isthmus  with  the  surveying 
parties,  and  the  former  set  out  to  organize 
the  civil  government  of  the  Canal  Zone. 
He  first  issued  a  proclamation  announcing 
his  assumption  of  the  Governorship  of  the 
Canal  Zone,  and  then  negotiated  an  agree- 
ment with  the  Panaman  Government  con- 
cerning the  relations  that  would  have  to 
exist  between  them.  He  then  created  the 
Sanitary  Department  and  set  Colonel 
Gorgas  to  work  carrying  out  his  plans. 

John  Findley  Wallace  was  elected  chief 
engineer  of  the  canal,  May  6,  and  as- 
sumed the  duties  of  the  office  June  i,  1904. 
He  arrived  on  the  isthmus  the  last  of 
that  month.  His  first  undertaking  was  to 
get  the  equipment  already  on  the  isthmus 
into  shape.  The  insistent  demand  that 
the  chief  engineer  "make  the  dirt  fly"  was 
heard  by  him  and  heeded,  and  by  equipping 
the  machine  shops  he  was  able  to  repair 
about  five  or  six  of  the  French  locomotives 


128 


HISTORY   OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


a  month  and  about  a  hundred  French 
dump  cars,  sending  them  to  Culebra  Cut 
at  once.  It  was  his  intention  also  to 
install  a  new  American  steam  shovel,  with 
its  equipment  of  three  locomotives  and  a 
hundred  big  cars,  every  week. 

But  it  was  not  long  until  Mr.  Wallace 
was  at  cross  purposes  with  his  commission. 
With  an  auditing  system  in  Washington 
that  made  it  next  to  impossible  to  get  ac- 
tion, he  found  himself  so  handicapped  that 
it  was  but  natural  that  he  should  have 
become  impatient.  Up  to  August  I,  1904, 
Major  General  Davis  was  the  managing 
representative  of  the  Commission  on  the 
isthmus,  and  Mr.  Wallace  was  under  his 
immediate  direction.  At  that  date  General 
Davis  was  relieved  of  the  duties  of  man- 
aging director,  and  the  chief  engineer  was 
directed  to  report  to  and  receive  orders 
from  the  Chairman  of  the  Commission. 
Something  of  the  feeling  that  existed  be- 
tween Wallace  and  the  Commission  crops 
out  in  the  annual  report  of  the  Com- 
mission for  1904,  in  which  it  was  some- 
what sarcastically  stated  that  "while  the 
orders  give  the  chief  engineer  entire  inde- 
pendence as  respecting  the  resident  member 
of  the  Commission,  he  is  required  to  furnish 
the  said  member  with  copies  of  his  reports 
to  the  chairman.  Up  to  the  present  time, 
October  I,  no  such  reports  have  been  re- 
ceived, but  this  circumstance  is  perhaps  due 
to  the  fact  that  Mr.  Wallace  has  been 
absent  from  the  isthmus  since  Sept.  I4th." 

Under  the  cumbersome  administrative 
machinery  then  provided,  coupled  with  the 
internal  dissensions  of  the  Commission,  Mr. 
Wallace  and  Colonel  Gorgas  were  in  the 
plight  of  the  little  girl  who  obtained  her 
mother's  consent  to  go  in  to  swim,  but  who 
was,  in  the  same  breath,  forbidden  to  go 
near  the  water.  They  were  authorized  to 
clean  up  the  Canal  Zone  and  Panama  and 
Colon,  and  to  construct  the  necessary 
waterworks  and  sewers  in  the  terminal 
cities,  but  delay  and  red  tape  met  them  at 
every  turn.  They  might  have  had  the 
water  turned  on  in  Panama  six  months 
sooner  if  they  had  been  given  proper 


support.  Colonel  Gorgas  begged  for  screen 
wire  to  shut  out  the  mosquitoes,  but  he 
might  as  well  have  kept  silent.  In  disgust 
Wallace  declared  that  red  tape  was  "sys- 
tem gone  to  seed."  He  said  a  child  could 
break  a  single  hemp  fiber,  but  that  many 
strands  woven  together  would  hold  in 
leash  the  biggest  ship  that  floats ;  and  that 
by  the  same  token  enough  red  tape  could 
prevent  the  building  of  the  Panama  Canal. 
He  concluded  that  it  would  take  infinitely 
longer  to  build  a  lock  canal  under  such 
a  system  than  to  build  a  sea-level  canal 
under  contract. 

Under  these  conditions,  the  situation  on 
the  isthmus  was  most  unsatisfactory  during 
the  latter  part  of  1904.  There  were  no 
acceptable  quarters,  no  suitable  food  sup- 
plies, and  no  attempt  to  make  conditions 
attractive.  But  for  the  high  wages  the 
white  employees  would  have  left. 

At  this  juncture  Mr.  Wallace  visited 
Washington.  The  result  of  his  visit  was 
that  the  Commission  was  asked  to  resign 
and  a  new  one  was  appointed.  President 
Roosevelt  called  the  attention  of  Congress 
to  the  fact  that  building  a  canal  with  a 
seven-member  commission  was  a  failure 
and  asked  that  it  be  reduced  to  five,  or, 
preferably,  to  three.  The  House  granted 
his  request,  but  the  Senate  ignored  it. 

The  result  was  that  Mr.  Roosevelt  de- 
cided to  take  one  of  his  famous  short  cuts 
around  a  legislative  obstacle.  He  created 
an  executive  committee  of  three  members 
of  the  second  commission,  with  powers 
almost  coextensive  with  those  of  the  entire 
body — the  other  members  having  few  other 
duties  than  to  agree  to  what  the  executive 
committee  did.  The  Commission  consisted 
of  Theodore  P.  Shonts,  chairman;  Charles 
E.  Magoon,  governor  of  the  Canal  Zone; 
John  F.  Wallace,  chief  engineer;  Mordecai 
T.  Endicott,  Peter  C.  Hains,  Oswald  H. 
Ernst,  and  Benjamin  M.  Harrod.  At  the 
same  time  the  Panama  Railroad  was  re- 
organized, and  placed  under  the  virtual 
control  of  the  chief  engineer.  Under 
the  new  arrangement  Mr.  Wallace  seemed 
to  have  obtained  all  the  authority  he 


MR.  WALLACE'S  RETIREMENT 


129 


needed.  He  returned  to  the  isthmus, 
content  with  the  revised  organization, 
arriving  there  June  2.  An  epidemic  of 
yellow  fever  was  raging,  and  the  wife  of 
his  secretary  had  died.  Six  days  later  he 
cabled  for  permission  to  return  to  the 
States.  Governor  Magoon,  it  is  said, 
privately  cabled  to  Secretary  Taft  that 
Mr.  Wallace  thought  he  had  a  slight 
attack  of  yellow  fever,  and  that  this, 
coupled  with  the  prospect  of  a  better 
salary,  was  responsible  for  his  desire  to 
return  home.  Secretary  Taft  granted  his 
request.  Mr.  Wallace  prepared  to  leave, 
and  when  the  canal  force  learned  what  was 
transpiring  a  rush  for  shipboard  followed. 
It  looked  as  if  nothing  could  prevent  a 
yellow  fever  panic. 

When  Mr.  Wallace  told  Secretary  Taft 
of  his  disgust  with  red  tape,  of  his  promise 
to  his  family  to  consider  well  before  accept- 
ing a  permanent  residence  on  the  isthmus, 
and  of  his  prospective  employment  in  a 
better-paying  position,  Mr.  Taft  was  furi- 
ous. He  ordered  Mr.  Wallace  to  present 
his  resignation  at  once,  and  it  was  imme- 
diately accepted.  In  a  later  chapter  of 
this  work  the  reader  will  find  Mr.  Wallace's 
own  story  of  his  experience  on  the  canal. 

It  seems,  at  this  distance,  and  with 
Mr.  Wallace's  statement  to  a  congressional 
committee  before  us,  that  the  conditions 
that  led  up  to  his  resignation  were  cumu- 
lative. That  he  was  afraid  of  yellow 
fever,  as  was  his  family,  he  himself  ad- 
mitted. That  he  was  disgusted  with  red 
tape  hindrances  he  frequently  declared, 
both  before  and  after  his  resignation;  that 
he  found  a  better  engagement  in  New  York 
an  attraction  under  these  conditions  needs 
only  to  be  stated  to  be  believed.  But  it  is 
probable  that  greater  than  all  these  reasons 


was  his  conclusion  that  service-  under 
Chairman  Shonts,  to  whom  the  President 
had  promised  a  "free  rein,"  would  not  be 
conducive  to  success. 

The  retirement  of  Mr.  Wallace  was  a 
blow  to  the  work,  undeniably.  It  came  at  a 
critical  time  in  the  history  of  the  canal; 
and  it  came  in  a  way  that  demoralized  the 
force  on  the  isthmus  and  shook  public 
confidence  at  home.  But  it  was,  under  the 
circumstances,  the  natural  result  of  trying 
to  execute  a  complex  undertaking  under  a 
mistaken  plan  of  divided  authority. 

It  may  be  best  to  take  the  estimate  of 
the  situation  that  confronted  both  Wallace 
and  Stevens,  as  expressed  by  their  suc- 
cessor, Colonel  Goethals.  "I  think," 
said  he,  "that  either  of  these  engineers 
might  have  built  the  canal  had  he  been 
given  a  free  rein.  They  had  been  engaged 
in  a  field  where  all  that  was  asked  of  them 
was  results.  They  laid  out  their  plans, 
submitted  them  to  their  boards  of  direc- 
tors, with  the  accompanying  estimates  of 
cost,  and  then  were  told  to  go  ahead.  They 
went  ahead,  responsible  only  for  the  final 
result,  and  that  result  was  satisfactory. 
They  never  knew  anything  of  the  irksome- 
ness  of  red  tape,  had  no  patience  with  inter- 
ference by  the  Commission  and  by  the 
Government.  They  were  men  whose  whole 
training  had  fitted  them  for  exercising  a 
'free  rein'  and  had  unfitted  them  for  the 
hampering  restrictions  of  red  tape. 

"Army  men  are  familiar  from  their 
youth  with  other  conditions.  They  know 
that  it  is  their  duty  to  adjust  themselves 
to  the  doing  of  things  in  the  way  their 
Government  directs,  and  it  is  their  acqui- 
escence that  makes  possible  successful 
work  by  them.  That  is  why  the  army 
succeeded." 


CHAPTER  XXII 


THE  STEVENS   REGIME 

JNO.  F.  STEVENS  APPOINTED  CHIEF  ENGINEER — AROUSING  CONFIDENCE  IN  THE  DIS- 
COURAGED FORCE — YELLOW  FEVER,  MALARIA,  AND  COLD  FEET — A  COLLI- 
SION HAS  ITS  MERITS — STEVENS  AND  His  HEAD  CARPENTER — PICKING  His 
ENGINEERS — CLEANING  UP  PANAMA  AND  COLON — BUILDING  QUARTERS  AND 
PROVIDING  CLUB  HOUSES — RECRUITING  THE  CANAL  ARMY — THE  INDIFFERENT 
WEST  INDIAN  NEGRO — THE  CHIEF  ENGINEER'S  HANDICAPS — ARRANGING 
PLACES  FOR  DUMPING  SOIL — BOARD  OF  CONSULTING  ENGINEERS — THE 
MARKELL  FEEDING  CONTRACT — THE  EIGHT-HOUR  LAW  AND  CIVIL  SERVICE — 
STEVENS  AND  SHONTS  AT  ODDS — THE  RESIGNATION  OF  MR.  STEVENS — THE 
PROPOSAL  TO  BUILD  THE  CANAL  UNDER  CONTRACT — DIFFICULTIES  IMPOSED 
BY  THE  RAINY  SEASON — GOETHALS  CARRIES  FORWARD  THE  PLANS  OF  His 
PREDECESSOR. 


THE  selection  of  Jno.  F.  Stevens  to 
succeed  John  F.  Wallace  as  chief 
engineer  of  the  Isthmian  Canal 
Commission  was  announced  within  a  day 
or  two  after  Mr.  Wallace  resigned.  Mr. 
Stevens  was  to  be  paid  $30,000  a  year. 
He  was  on  the  eve  of  accepting  a  contract 
to  go  to  the  Philippines  to  build  the 
Government  railroads  there.  His  deter- 
mination to  accept  the  isthmian  berth 
instead  of  going  to  the  Philippines  was 
reached  at  the  personal  solicitation  of 
President  Roosevelt. 

When  Mr.  Stevens  arrived  on  the  isth- 
mus, July  26,  1905,  he  asked  the  Canal 
Commission  to  permit  him  to  suspend 
work  on  the  excavations  in  Culebra  Cut 
in  order  that  he  might  perfect  the  tran- 
portation  facilities  needed  there.  His  first 
effort  was  to  infuse  confidence  into  the 
dispirited  canal  army.  He  had  a  knack  of 
saying  and  doing  things  that  pleased  the 
canal  employees.  He  promptly  told  the 
people  that  there  were  three  diseases  on 
the  isthmus — yellow  fever,  malaria,  and 
"cold  feet,"  and  that  the  greatest  of  these 
was  "cold  feet." 

In  reporting  on  conditions  as  he  found 
them  on  the  Panama  Railroad,  he  said  that 
the  world  had  moved  and  that  the  Panama 
Railroad  had  not,  in  personnel,  equipment, 
methods,  or  otherwise.  All  efforts  prac- 


tically had  ceased  to  remedy  the  congestion 
of  freight.  "About  the  only  claim  for  good 
work,"  said  Mr.  Stevens,  "that  I  have 
heard  made,  was  that  there  had  been  no 
collision  for  some  time.  But  even  a 
collision  has  its  good  points  as  well  as  bad 
points — it  indicates  that  there  is  something 
moving  on  the  railroad." 

On  one  occasion  the  chief  engineer  sent 
his  head  carpenter  to  Gorgona  to  build 
certain  sheds  on  the  site  subsequently  occu- 
pied by  the  machine  shops.  The  carpenter 
found  the  proposed  site  covered  with  old 
burnt  equipment.  He  wrote  to  Mr.  Stevens 
for  instructions  as  to  how  to  proceed  under 
these  conditions,  and  received  this  prompt 
reply:  "Wait  until  I  have  a  free  Sunday, 
and  I  will  come  down  and  move  the  ma- 
terial for  you." 

Mr.  Stevens  was  a  ubiquitous  man  on 
the  isthmus  during  those  days.  He  went 
out  over  the  line  in  overalls  every  day, 
and  at  no  time  did  he  allow  any  of  the 
work  to  escape  his  attention.  It  was  not 
long  before  he  had  secured  a  strong  force 
of  engineers,  a  large  number  of  whom 
stayed  with  the  work  until  it  was  com- 
pleted. 

There  were  many  things  to  be  done  in 
reducing  the  chaos  that  existed  on  the 
isthmus,  and  in  preparing  for  the  great 
work  that  was  ahead.  Comparatively 


130 


little  had  been  done  in  the  direction  of 
cleaning  up  Panama  and  Colon.  Under 
the  treaty  with  the  Republic  of  Panama, 
the  United  States  was  to  build  modern 
water  and  sewerage  systems  for  the  cities 
of  Panama  and  Colon,  and  was  to  be  reim- 
bursed for  this  work  by  collections  from 
the  sale  of  water.  In  this  way  about  two 
and  a  half  million  dollars  was  Spent,  and 
this  debt  is  being  gradually  amortized  by 
the  water  rent  collections.  These  cities 
had  been  pest  holes  of  disease,  with  a  supply 
of  drinking  water  brought  in  barrels  from 
springs  of  questionable  character,  and  with 
no  sewerage  facilities  whatever.  Under 
the  ministrations  of  the  United  States 
Government  they  were  abundantly  sup- 
plied with  hydrant  water,  sewerage  sys- 
tems were  provided,  and  their  streets, 
though  still  narrow,  were  well  paved.  The 
transformation  was  such  as  to  be  almost 
beyond  belief.  The  story  can  be  told  in 
no  other  way  so  graphically  as  by  con- 
trasting pictures  of  Panama  streets  before 
and  after  the  sanitary  campaign. 

Another  problem  facing  the  chief  engineer 
was  that  of  providing  suitable  quarters  for 
the  men  who  were  to  dig  the  canal.  The 
buildings  which  had  been  acquired  with 
the  French  purchase  were  all  remodeled, 
and  hundreds  of  others  were  built.  In 
addition  to  this  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  club 
houses  had  to  be  completed,  and  many 
other  important  structures  planned  and 
equipped.  During  the  first  year  and  a  half 
of  his  administration,  Mr.  Stevens  spent 
$30,000,000.  Of  this,  $5,000,000  was  for 
governing  and  sanitation,  $7,000,000  for 
quarters,  and  $12,000,000  for  supplies. 

Mr.  Stevens  then  undertook  the  task 
of  recruiting  an  adequate  force  for  the 
building  of  the  canal.  This  was  perhaps 
the  hardest  task  of  all.  Panama  had  made 
a  highly  unsavory  reputation  in  the  labor 
markets  of  the  world.  Recruiting  agents 
were  sent  to  the  West  Indies,  to  Italy,  and 
to  Spain.  It  was  not  long  before  these 
agents  were  sending  a  steady  stream  of 
West  Indian  laborers  to  the  canal.  By 
making  certain  concessions  in  the  way  of 


guarantees,  the  consent  of  the  Spanish 
Government  was  obtained  for  the  de- 
parture of  its  laborers  for  Panama. 

When  the  work  got  under  way  it  was 
found  that  the  West  Indian  laborer  was  a 
rather  lazy,  indifferent  individual.  Mr. 
Stevens  once  likened  him  to  a  Japanese 
flagman  he  had  employed  on  the  Great 
Northern  Railroad.  This  flagman  was  sent 
back  to  stop  oncoming  trains,  but  per- 
mitted an  engine  to  run  by  him  without 
flagging  it,  thus  precipitating  one  of  the 
most  serious  wrecks  in  the  history  of  the 
road.  When  asked  why  he  had  not  flagged 
the  engine,  he  replied  that  his  orders  were 
to  flag  trains.  So  it  was  with  the  West 
Indian  laborer:  he  carried  out  orders 
literally,  and  very  slowly.  The  chief 
engineer  found  that  one  white  man  was 
worth  three  negroes  in  the  digging  of  the 
Panama  Canal.  When  Mr.  Stevens  estab- 
lished the  wage  scale  that  continued  to  the 
day  of  the  completion  of  the  canal,  he 
granted  twenty  cents  an  hour  for  un- 
skilled white  labor,  and  ten  cents  an  hour 
for  negro  labor.  The  negro  laborer  was 
inclined  to  resent  this  seeming  discrim- 
ination against  him,  but  he  continued  to 
improve  to  the  end,  and  finally  was  able  to 
render  good  service  for  the  money  paid  him. 

The  red  tape  which  had  bound  the  hands 
of  Chief  Engineer  Wallace  was  almost  as 
vexing  to  Chief  Engineer  Stevens.  He 
found  a  tendency  everywhere  to  postpone 
action,  and  sometimes  he  went  forward  on 
his  own  responsibility.  This  policy  soon 
began  to  show  results.  He  laid  new  rail- 
road tracks  through  the  Culebra  Cut. 
Where  there  were  little  old  French  dump 
cars  in  use,  no  two  of  which  had  trucks  of 
the  same  gauge,  and  some  of  which  even 
had  trucks  of  different  gauge,  the  dirt  trains 
were  now  made  up  of  up-to-date  Lidger- 
wood  and  Western  dump  cars.  Where 
drilling  for  blasting  had  been  done  with  in- 
dividual plants,  and  by  the  old  and  expen- 
sive method  of  hand  drilling,  a  compressed 
air  system  was  installed,  and  the  efficiency 
of  the  drilling  force  immensely  increased. 

Indifferent  judgment   had   been   shown 


I32 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA  CANAL 


in  the  selection  of  sites  for  dumping  ma- 
terial, and  in  laying  them  out.  It  became 
necessary  to  select  new  dumps,  and  to 
lay  out  those  already  established  in  such 
a  way  that  trains  could  be  unloaded  in  the 
shortest  possible  time.  By  the  time  Mr. 
Stevens  had  been  on  the  ground  a  year 
he  had  perfected  a  system  of  transporta- 
tion and  spoil  disposal  which  was  good 
enough  and  broad  enough  to  last  to  the 
end  of  the  construction  period,  with  only 
the  extensions  that  the  operations  called 
for.  When  it  is  remembered  that  over 
100,000,000  cubic  yards  of  material  had 
to  be  disposed  of  on  these  dumps,  it  will 
be  seen  how  necessary  it  was  that  they 
should  be  properly  laid  out. 

While  Chief  Engineer  Stevens  was  at 
work  on  the  plans  for  the  successful  attack 
against  the  isthmian  barriers,  he  was  also 
engaged  in  gathering  data  upon  which 
could  be  predicated  a  judgment  as  to  the 
type  of  the  canal  that  should  be  con- 
structed, and  as  to  the  probable  unit  costs 
which  its  construction  would  involve. 
President  Roosevelt,  in  the  latter  part  of 
1905,  sent  a  board  of  consulting  engineers 
to  the  isthmus  with  instructions  to  con- 
sider the  question  of  the  relative  merits  of 
a  lock  canal  and  a  sea-level  canal,  the  cost 
of  the  two  projects  to  be  taken  into 
account,  as  well  as  the  time  within  which 
either  could  be  completed. 

This  commission  voted  eight  to  five  in 
favor  of  a  sea-level  canal.  Chief  Engineer 
Stevens  did  not  agree  with  its  conclusions, 
nor  did  any  of  the  members  of  the  Isthmian 
Canal  Commission,  except  Rear-Admiral 
Endicott.  When  President  Roosevelt  read 
the  statement  of  Chief  Engineer  Stevens, 
in  which  he  favored  a  lock  canal,  the 
President  became  a  convert  from  the  sea- 
level  type,  and  ordered  work  on  the  isth- 
mus to  move  forward  with  a  view  to 
constructing  a  lock  canal.  This  decision 
afterward  was  ratified  by  the  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives,  and  as  soon  as 
the  chief  engineer  had  completed  the  pre- 
liminaries, he  was  free  to  begin  the  actual 
excavation  work. 


Mr.  Wallace  had  planned  to  have  the 
canal  forces  fed  under  contract  with  J.  E. 
Markell,  of  Omaha,  Nebraska.  Markell 
had  made  a  reputation  in  the  conduct  of 
"eating  houses"  in  the  West,  and  Mr. 
Wallace  felt  that  he  would  be  able  to 
purvey  for  the  forces  on  the  isthmus  better 
than  the  commission  could.  When  Chief 
Engineer  Stevens  came  to  look  into  this 
matter,  he  concluded  that  the  canal  com- 
mission could  operate  its  own  eating  houses 
and  hotels  more  cheaply  than  any  con- 
tractor could  operate  them,  and  the 
Markell  contract  was  canceled  by  mutual 
consent. 

One  thing  in  the  condition  of  affairs  on 
the  isthmus  that  was  a  thorn  in  the  flesh  of 
Chief  Engineer  Stevens  was  the  eight- 
hour-day  law,  which  was  forced  upon  him 
by  Congress.  Another  law  which  handi- 
capped him  in  the  prosecution  of  his  work 
was  the  civil  service  law,  which  had  been 
extended  to  the  isthmus,  and  which  had 
interfered  with  the  plans  of  Mr.  Wallace. 

The  eight-hour  law  applied  to  the  com- 
mon laborer  was  a  hardship  on  the  govern- 
ment, and  forced  unit  costs  higher  than  any 
one  had  intended  they  should  go.  The 
civil  service  law  was  a  handicap  in  the 
selection  of  the  force.  The  application  of 
these  two  pieces  of  legislation  led  him  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  best  way  to  build 
the  canal  was  by  contract.  In  this  con- 
clusion he  was  supported  by  Chairman 
Shonts,  and  President  Roosevelt  at  one 
time  accepted  the  same  view  of  the  matter. 

But  as  Mr.  Stevens  proceeded  further 
with  his  work  of  organization  he  was 
finally  convinced  that  the  canal  should  be 
constructed  by  the  government  itself.  He 
found  ways  to  make  the  civil  service  law 
his  servant,  rather  than  his  master,  and 
the  eight-hour  day  was  robbed  of  some  of 
its  disadvantages  under  the  plans  he  worked 
out. 

Mr.  Shonts,  however,  adhered  to  the 
belief  that  the  canal  should  be  built  by 
contract,  and  urged  that  view  upon  the 
President  so  strongly  that  Mr.  Roosevelt 
decided  to  ask  for  bids  providing  for  its 


The  Cristobal  commissary  neighborhood  before  and  after  the  sanitary  work  of  1906-1907. 


Eighth  and  Front  Streets  in  Colon,  before  and  after  the  Americans  cleaned    up  the  city  and  furnished  it  with  water, 
sewers  and  paved  streets. 


CONTRACT  PLAN  ABANDONED 


133 


construction  under  private  contract.  It 
was  not  long  before  Messrs.  Stevens  and 
Shonts  were  at  odds  over  this  and  other 
questions.  When  President  Roosevelt  fin- 
ally decided  to  support  the  recommenda- 
tions of  Mr.  Stevens,  Mr.  Shonts  concluded 
that  his  usefulness  in  the  canal  project  was 
at  an  end,  and  he  resigned.  Upon  the 
retirement  of  Chairman  Shonts,  President 
Roosevelt  appointed  Mr.  Stevens  to  head 
the  commission.  About  the  same  time  he 
decided  to  put  army  engineers  in  direct 
charge  of  the  work,  a  decision  which  was 
most  unwelcome  to  Mr.  Stevens. 

When  Mr.  Roosevelt,  in  February,  1907, 
designated  Major  George  W.  Goethals 
as  chief  engineer  under  the  direction  of 
Mr.  Stevens,  the  latter  protested  for  fear 
that  civilian  engineers  and  army  engineers 
could  not  work  together.  The  upshot  of 
the  whole  matter  was  that  Mr.  Stevens 
grew  impatient  with  the  situation  as  it 
then  appeared  to  him,  and  wrote  a  letter 
of  protest.  He  is  said  to  have  shown  this 
letter  to  a  friend,  who  asked  Mr.  Stevens 
to  withhold  it,  as  it  appeared  to  be  equiva- 
lent to  a  resignation.  Whether  Mr. 
Stevens  really  intended  to  resign  or  not, 
President  Roosevelt  construed  the  letter 
as  a  tender  of  resignation,  and  he  cabled 
his  acceptance. 

In  justice  to  Mr.  Stevens  it  must  be  said 
that  he  never  issued  any  statement  indi- 
cating his  reasons  for  resigning,  and  that 
after  he  did  resign  he  was  always  loyal  to 
his  successor,  and  heartily  aided  the  efforts 
he  put  forth  in  the  building  of  the  canal. 

The  proposition  of  building  the  canal  by 
contract  went  as  far  as  the  consideration 
of  bids  by  the  Secretary  of  War.  These 
bids  were  opened  in  January,  1907.  It  was 
stated  that  none  of  them  met  the  terms 
imposed,  and  they  were  all  rejected.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  owing  to  the  progress  that 


Mr.  Stevens  had  made  in  the  recruiting 
of  a  canal-digging  army,  the  administra- 
tion had  undergone  a  change  of  heart,  and 
had  decided  that  the  canal  should  not  be 
built  by  contract.  The  terms  under  which 
it  had  been  proposed  to  build  the  water- 
way by  contract  were  such  that  the  con- 
tractors would  have  been  little  more  than 
superintendents  of  construction,  receiving 
a  definite  percentage  of  the  total  cost  of 
the  work. 

The  decision  of  Mr.  Stevens  to  leave 
the  government  service  was  due  in  part  to 
the  inherent  weakness  of  the  plan  of 
organization.  It  was  this  that  led  Presi- 
dent Roosevelt  to  decide  that  the  next 
commission  should  be  made  up  mainly  of 
army  men. 

The  retirement  of  Mr.  Stevens  threw  the 
canal  army  into  some  confusion,  but  he 
had  builded  so  well  that  it  could  withstand 
even  the  shaking  up  following  a  change  of 
administration  and  a  change  of  leadership 
without  any  serious  interruption  of  the 
work.  When  Colonel  Goethals  reached 
the  isthmus  he  soon  indicated  that  he 
intended  to  proceed  along  the  lines  that 
had  been  laid  out  by  Mr.  Stevens.  He 
went  there  determined  to  accept  every- 
thing that  was  good  as  a  heritage  from  the 
Stevens  administration,  and  he  found  so 
much  that  was  good  that  all  the  changes 
made  thereafter  were  by  evolution,  rather 
than  by  revolution. 

There  can  be  no  question  that  Mr. 
Stevens  proved  himself  a  competent  official 
while  on  the  isthmus,  and  the  evidences 
of  this  are  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that 
many  of  the  elements  of  the  organization 
under  which  the  canal  work  was  carried 
to  a  successful  conclusion  were  effected 
by  Mr.  Stevens.  His  own  story  of  his 
regime  at  Panama  is  presented  in  this 
volume. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 


THE  COMING  OF  GOETHALS 

SECRETARY  TAFT  VISITS  THE  ISTHMUS  WITH  MAJOR  GOETHALS — GOETHALS  RECOM- 
MENDED TO  THE  PRESIDENT — WANTED  COL.  HARRY  F.  HODGES  TO  ASSIST 
HIM — THE  COMMISSION  AS  CREATED — No  MILITARY  REGIME  FOR  GOETHALS 
—"SIMPLY  Do  YOUR  DUTY" — GOETHALS'  WILLINGNESS  TO  GIVE  DUE  CREDIT 
TO  OTHERS — READY  TO  ASSUME  RESPONSIBILITY — INVESTIGATING  FROM  BED 
ROCK  UP — MAKING  THE  DIRT  FLY — RAISING  THE  LIMIT — REDUCING  UNIT- 
COSTS — CAUTIOUS  IN  PREDICTION — A  BENEVOLENT  DESPOTISM — GOING  OVER 
THE  WORKS — CHECKING  UP  AT  MIRAFLORES — A  DANIEL  COME  TO  JUDG- 
MENT— DECISIONS  CHEERFULLY  ACQUIESCED  IN — WILLING  TO  FOREGO  His 
SUNDAY  MORNING  REST — A  MAN  WHO  KNOWS  NOTHING  OF  THE  SUBTLE 
ARTS  OF  POLITICS. 


AFTER  two  engineers  from  civil  life 
had  demonstrated  that  the  system 
of  canal  organization  was  a  failure, 
President  Roosevelt  decided  that  the  only 
way  to  carry  forward  the  great  project  was 
to  put  at  the  head  of  the  organization  a 
man  who  would  be  compelled,  under  the 
rigor  of  military  law,  to  remain  at  his  post 
of  duty.  The  army  officer  selected  for  this 
task  was  George  Washington  Goethals, 
then  a  major  in  the  Engineer  Corps. 

In  1905,  Major  Goethals  had  gone  to  the 
isthmus  with  Mr.  Taft,  as  a  member  of 
the  general  staff,  to  consider  the  question 
of  the  fortification  of  the  canal.  Later 
when  the  board  of  consulting  engineers 
made  its  report  upon  the  type  of  canal, 
Secretary  Taft  asked  the  aid  of  Major 
Goethals  in  drafting  the  report  to  the 
President  recommending  a  lock  canal.  In 
this  way  he  was  brought  under  the  favora- 
ble notice  of  Mr.  Taft.  Later,  General 
Alexander  Mackenzie,  then  chief  of  en- 
gineers of  the  United  States  Army,  was 
called  to  the  White  House  by  the  President, 
where  they  held  a  conference  concerning 
the  selection  of  a  successor  to  Mr.  Stevens. 
After  this  conference,  in  which  Secretary 
Taft  also  took  part,  Major  Goethals  was 
called  to  the  White  House  and  told  that 
the  army  would  build  the  canal,  and  that 
he  had  been  selected  as  the  man  to  direct 
its  operations.  President  Roosevelt  re- 


quested him  to  keep  his  appointment  secret, 
and  to  prepare  to  take  the  first  ship  for  the 
isthmus,  which  sailed  three  days  there- 
after. But  Mr.  Roosevelt  could  not  keep 
the  secret,  and  the  next  day  the  world 
knew  that  Major  George  W.  Goethals  had 
been  selected  for  this  post. 

Major  Goethals  was  asked  by  the 
President  to  suggest  the  names  of  his 
chief  assistants.  His  first  request  was 
that  Lieutenant  Colonel  Harry  F.  Hodges 
be  made  one  of  his  associates.  He  stated 
that  Colonel  Hodges'  record  as  the  de- 
signer of  the  Soo  Locks  preeminently  fitted 
him  for  this  position.  When  President 
Roosevelt  discussed  the  appointment  of 
Colonel  Hodges  with  General  Mackenzie, 
that  officer  opposed  the  suggestion,  saying 
that  Hodges  was  his  chief  assistant  in  the 
river  and  harbor  improvement  work  of  the 
country  and  that  he  could  not  afford  to 
lose  him  at  that  juncture.  So  the  appoint- 
ment was  not  made. 

On  the  third  Isthmian  Canal  Commis- 
sion were  Major  D.  D.  Gaillard  and  Major 
William  L.  Sibert  of  the  United  States 
Engineer  Corps,  both  of  whom  had  been 
engaged  for  years  in  river  and  harbor 
improvement  work;  Civil  Engineer  H. 
H.  Rousseau,  who  had  entered  the  navy 
through  the  civil  service  and  had  proved 
himself  to  be  the  ablest  civil  engineer 
in  the  naval  establishment;  Colonel  Wm. 


134 


THE  STEVENS  ORGANIZATION  EFFECTIVE 


135 


C.  Gorgas,  who  had  been  the  chief  sanitary 
officer  under  the  preceding  two  commis- 
sions; former  Senator  J.  C.  S.  Blackburn 
of  Kentucky,  who  was  to  be  the  head  of 
the  department  of  civil  administration; 
and  Jackson  H.  Smith,  who  had  proved 
his  ability  in  the  recruiting  of  the  labor 
forces  on  the  Isthmus. 

When  Colonel  Goethals  arrived  at  Colon 
there  was  a  feeling  in  many  quarters  that 
his  appointment  would  mark  the  rise  of  a 
strictly  military  regime.  He  soon  disa- 
bused the  minds  of  the  canal  army  on  the 
subject,  declaring  in  a  speech  that  he  pro- 
posed to  be  the  commander  of  the  army, 
while  the  heads  of  the  various  departments 
would  be  the  colonels,  the  foremen  the 
captains,  and  the  laborers  the  privates.  He 
added  that  the  organization  would  be  no 
more  military  than  in  the  past,  except  in 
the  precision  of  its  work,  and  that  no  man 
who  did  his  duty,  whatever  his  rank  or 
his  station,  need  have  any  fear  of  the  in- 
coming administration.  "I  am  no  longer 
a  commander  in  the  United  States  Army," 
said  he.  "I  am  commanding  the  Army  of 
Panama;  the  enemy  is  Culebra  Cut  and 
the  locks  and  the  dams." 

In  discussing  on  one  occasion  the  need  of 
a  continuous  policy  for  the  permanent 
organization  on  the  isthmus,  Colonel 
Goethals  remarked  that  there  always  was 
a  disposition  upon  the  part  of  a  new 
administration  to  undo  what  had  been 
done  by  previous  administrations,  if  for 
no  other  reason  than  a  desire  to  make  a 
showing.  He  believed  that  there  ought 
to  be  a  continuous  policy,  which  would 
be  made  possible  by  the  appointment  of 
a  vice  governor  who  would  be  the  chief 
assistant  of  the  governor,  and  who  would 
become  governor  in  turn.  In  that  way  he 
believed  abrupt  changes  of  policy,  usually 
harmful,  could  be  averted.  When  we 
survey  his  administration  at  Panama  we 
find  that  he  put  into  effect  the  ideas  he  has 
since  advocated  in  connection  with  the 
permanent  organization  of  the  canal.  While 
some  men  have  professed  to  see  in  him  a 
tendency  to  take  unto  himself  all  credit 


for  the  success  of  the  work  at  Panama,  we 
may  read  in  his  very  first  report  his  readi- 
ness to  commend  whatever  was  good 
that  had  been  done  by  those  who  preceded 
him,  and  to  make  the  most  out  of  the 
things  which  had  been  done  by  them.  In 
that  report  he  quotes  from  the  previous 
administration  on  the  isthmus  as  follows: 
"  During  the  year  the  first  stage  of  canal 
work,  that  of  preparation,  has  virtually 
been  passed  and  the  commission  finds  itself 
in  position  to  enter  upon  the  second  stage, 
that  of  the  actual  construction  of  a  lock 
canal."  Commenting  upon  this  state- 
ment Col.  Goethals  says:  "This  statement 
is  peculiarly  applicable  to  the  Culebra 
division,  on  which  work  had  been  con- 
centrated, for,  irrespective  of  the  type  of 
canal  to  be  constructed,  the  excavation 
in  this  section  of  the  territory  had  to  be 
done.  Moreover,  for  the  time  being  it  was 
the  most  important  part  of  the  work." 
That  the  preparation  was  efficiently  made, 
and  the  organization  effective,  is  best 
attested  by  the  results  accomplished  and 
the  relatively  small  decrease  of  the  output 
during  the  wet  months. 

Although  Colonel  Goethals  thus  early  in 
his  career  was  ready  to  praise  the  effective 
work  of  his  predecessors,  at  the  same  time 
he  was  not  afraid  to  make  such  changes 
as  good  business  judgment  dictated.  He 
found,  for  instance,  that  general  super- 
vision of  the  entire  ten  miles  of  Culebra 
Cut  by  one  man  was  not  productive  of  the 
best  results  in  fixing  responsibility  for 
possible  delay.  He  therefore  subdivided 
the  cut  into  five  construction  districts,  each 
under  the  charge  of  a  superintendent  of 
construction,  who  was  held  responsible  for 
the  work  in  his  district.  Better  results  and 
less  friction  promptly  followed. 

One  of  the  first  things  to  which  Colonel 
Goethals  committed  himself  after  arriving 
on  the  isthmus  was  that  of  checking  up 
every  bit  of  available  data  gathered  for  the 
determination  of  the  type  of  canal.  There 
had  been  assertions  that  the  foundations  on 
which  the  locks  were  to  rest  were  not 
solid  enough.  In  order  to  determine 


136 


HISTORY   OF  THE   PANAMA  CANAL 


this  question  beyond  the  peradventure 
of  a  doubt  he  had  five  test  pits  sunk  to  solid 
rock  in  which  he  could  study  the  actual 
conditions  that  would  be  encountered.  If 
there  ever  was  a  project  investigated  from 
bed  rock  up,  the  project  of  building  a  lock 
canal  at  Panama  was  investigated  by 
Colonel  Goethals;  and  no  engineer  who 
visited  the  canal  during  his  administration 
failed  to  come  away  with  a  tribute  upon 
his  tongue  for  the  scrupulous  attention  to 
detail  that  had  characterized  the  investi- 
gations of  Colonel  Goethals. 

When  the  new  chief  engineer  began  to 
get  his  bearings  after  arriving  on  the 
isthmus,  he  promptly  decided  that  his 
first  great  duty  was  to  "make  the  dirt  fly." 
The  people  at  home  had  grown  weary  of 
the  era  of  preparation — they  could  not 
understand  how  necessary  to  the  success 
of  the  work  these  days  of  preparation  were. 
Their  incessant  demand  now  was  that  the 
canal  army  make  the  dirt  fly.  Colonel 
Goethals  was  alive  to  the  importance  of 
meeting  that  demand,  for  he  realized  that 
after  all  public  sentiment  was  the  force 
behind  the  canal.  Every  colonel,  every 
captain,  and  every  private  in  the  canal 
army  was  asked  to  get  down  to  work  and 
make  the  showing  which  the  people  of  the 
United  States  demanded.  The  result  of 
this  call  to  the  shovels  was  most  gratifying. 
By  August  of  1907  a  rainy  season  record 
of  1,000,000  cubic  yards  a  month  was 
established,  and  President  Roosevelt  sent 
to  Colonel  Goethals  and  his  army  a  re- 
sounding cablegram  congratulating  them 
in  behalf  of  the  American  people  for  their 
notable  performance.  Thus  inspired  they 
redoubled  their  efforts,  and  in  a  little  while 
they  were  removing  2,000,000  cubic  yards 
a  month.  Still  further  up  the  heights  of 
achievement  the  valiant  leader  guided  his 
men,  and  soon  3,000,000  cubic  yards  a 
month  was  the  record.  Colonel  Goethals 
then  determined  that  this  record  should 
be  maintained.  The  army  was  equal  to 
the  demands  made  upon  it,  removing 
73,000,000  cubic  yards  of  material  in  two 
years.  Never  in  the  history  of  engineering 


had  such  a  high  state  of  efficiency  been 
reached,  and  never  in  the  history  of  con- 
struction work  had  half  as  much  material 
been  removed  in  that  length  of  time. 

The  demand  of  the  people  that  the  dirt 
be  made  to  fly  had  now  been  met,  and 
Colonel  Goethals  was  ready  to  turn  to  the 
problem  of  reducing  the  cost  of  making  it 
fly.  His  resolute  purpose  to  do  the  work  as 
cheaply  as  conditions  would  permit  resulted 
in  the  hammering  down  of  unit  costs  in  a 
way  that  is  well  worthy  of  being  told  in  a 
separate  chapter. 

Colonel  Goethals  was  always  cautious 
in  prediction  and  generous  in  fulfillment. 
In  1908  he  stated  that  the  high-water 
mark  in  the  excavation  of  Culebra  Cut 
probably  had  been  reached.  "You  see," 
said  he,  "as  we  go  down  deeper  the  ditch 
becomes  narrower  and  there  is  less  elbow 
room  for  our  steam  shovels  and  our  dirt 
trains.  There  will  be  a  gradual  slow-down, 
and  thus  the  latter  half  of  the  work  will 
move  forward  much  more  slowly  than 
the  first  half."  In  1908,  Colonel  Goethals 
said  that  he  was  afraid  that  he  would  not 
be  able  to  finish  the  canal  in  five  years  from 
that  date.  But  for  the  slides  which  could 
not  have  been  foreseen,  he  would  have 
been  able  to  present  to  the  United  States 
a  completed  Culebra  Cut  in  four  years,  or 
even  less. 

From  the  beginning  of  the  work  under 
his  direction  Colonel  Goethals  was  omni- 
present on  the  isthmus.  Every  morning  he 
spent  going  over  the  work  in  the  field  and 
every  afternoon  he  was  in  his  office  en- 
gaged in  administrative  duties.  No  super- 
intendent knew  the  details  of  his  own  end 
of  the  work  better  than  the  chief  engineer 
knew  the  details  of  every  phase  of  the 
undertaking.  He  once  stated  that  any 
one  who  looked  for  things  to  criticise 
doubtless  would  find  them.  "But  when 
you  find  them,  come  to  me,"  he  added, 
"and  you  will  not  have  opportunity  to 
criticise  my  desire  to  remove  every  just 
cause  for  criticism."  That  was  the  spirit 
of  the  man  from  first  to  last.  Everything 
was  open  to  inspection — he  delighted  in 


A  DAY  WITH  THE  CHIEF  ENGINEER 


137 


having  everything  inspected  by  those  who 
came  unheralded  and  with  a  desire  to 
learn  the  truth.  Such  investigators  were 
given  letters  directing  all  concerned  to 
place  at  their  disposal  every  facility  for 
seeing  the  work  and  to  give  all  information 
the  investigator  might  desire.  To  Colonel 
Goethals  the  unheralded  investigator  was 
a  means  of  transmitting  a  fair  statement 
of  conditions  to  the  people  back  home,  who, 
according  to  his  view,  had  a  right  to  know. 

In  the  work  of  maintaining  a  satisfactory 
force  Colonel  Goethals  ruled  with  that 
firm  hand  that  makes  for  discipline,  with 
that  spirit  of  justice  that  makes  for  con- 
tentment, and  with  that  fatherly  counsel 
that  makes  for  peace.  When  he  issued  an 
order  he  expected  it  to  be  obeyed,  and  it 
was.  He  was  careful  at  all  times  never  to 
ask  the  impossible.  As  he  went  up  and 
down  the  isthmian  highway,  sometimes 
in  a  motor  car,  more  often  in  a  day  coach 
on  a  regular  train,  but  most  frequently 
afoot,  he  talked  with  everybody  he  met. 
Now  he  discussed  the  whole  sweep  of  the 
undertaking  with  the  head  of  a  department; 
now  he  made  inquiries  about  the  work 
under  the  immediate  charge  of  a  resident 
engineer;  now  it  was  a  steam  shovel  man; 
now  a  dirt  train  conductor;  now  a  Jamaica 
negro  switch  boy.  Always  he  was  making 
mental  notes  of  the  answers  to  his  simple 
questions,  and  thus  keeping  in  direct  touch 
with  every  phase  of  the  work. 

The  following  details  of  a  trip  through 
the  Miraflores  Locks  and  the  dikes  below 
give  a  characteristic  outline  of  the  fore- 
noon inspections  by  Colonel  Goethals.  He 
was  at  Miraflores  by  seven  o'clock  in  the 
morning.  Walking  through  the  tunnel  at 
that  place  he  boarded  his  motor  car,  and 
was  whisked  away  to  the  concrete  spillway 
dam  at  Miraflores.  After  ordering  his 
chauffeur  to  pick  him  up  on  the  other  side 
of  the  canal  he  started  over  the  work.  First 
he  was  met  by  Resident  Engineer  Cole. 
Climbing  up  the  steep  embankment,  Colonel 
Goethals  immediately  plunged  into  a  dozen 
details  of  the  work  on  the  spillway  dam. 
"How  soon  do  you  think  you  can  make 


this  a  finished  piece  of  work?  Couldn't  you 
handle  another  mixer  over  there  to  advan- 
tage if  we  can  find  an  idle  one?  Is  there 
anything  else  you  need  to  keep  things 
moving  along?"  These  were  only  a  few  of 
his  questions.  Leaving  the  spillway,  he 
climbed  among  concrete  mixers  and 
structural  steel  until  he  came  to  some 
finishing-up  work  on  the  upper  locks  at 
Miraflores.  "Who  is  doing  that  work? "  he 
queried.  When  told  that  one  part  of  it 
was  being  done  by  the  fifth  division  and 
another  part  by  the  second  division,  he 
wanted  to  know  whether  in  the  interest 
of  economy  and  time  it  would  not  be  best 
to  have  it  all  done  by  the  one  division.  As 
he  clambered  down  the  side  lock  walls  he 
saw  the  preparations  for  placing  the  lamp 
posts  to  be  used  in  lighting  the  locks.  He 
suggested  that  they  could  be  made  less 
subject  to  settling  if  pieces  of  railroad  iron 
were  set  into  the  walls  under  the  lamp  post 
foundations.  A  little  further  on  he  en- 
countered the  superintendent  of  the 
McClintic-Marshall  Company,  who  had 
oversight  of  the  work  of  erecting  the  lock 
gates.  "When  are  you  going  to  give  us 
those  west  chamber  gates?"  queried  Colonel 
Goethals.  "If  we  have  good  luck  we  can 
let  you  have  them  by  the  first  of  September, 
but  at  any  hazard  we  will  be  able  to  give 
them  to  you  by  the  first  of  October," 
answered  Mr.  Wright.  "This  estimate 
gives  due  consideration  to  all  delays  from 
rain  that  you  are  likely  to  encounter?" 
pressed  the  chief  engineer.  "Yes,  we 
have  taken  that  into  the  reckoning," 
replied  the  gate  builder.  "Very  well  then," 
said  Colonel  Goethals,  "we  shall  count  on 
your  being  ready  for  us  by  the  first  of 
October." 

A  moment  later,  while  crossing  a  tempo- 
rary bridge  across  the  lofty  locks,  Colonel 
Goethals  chanced  to  spy  a  little  railroad 
track  on  the  bottom  of  the  lock.  "I 
thought  all  these  tracks  were  to  be  taken 
out  of  the  locks,"  said  he  to  Resident 
Engineer  Cole.  "They  were,"  replied  Mr. 
Cole,  "but  Mr.  Wright  said  we  could  use 
this  one  to  bring  some  of  our  material 


138 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


through  the  locks,  as  it  would  not  interfere 
with  the  gate  work  at  all."  "You  are 
sure  that  it  will  not  afford  an  excuse  for 
further  delay  on  the  lock  gates?"  "We 
had  a  perfect  understanding  as  to  that,  sir," 
replied  Mr.  Cole.  "All  right,  then,  go 
ahead,"  replied  the  chief  engineer.  From 
this  point  he  went  down  to  the  dike  which 
had  been  thrown  across  the  channel  to  keep 
the  waters  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  out  of  the 
unfinished  ditch  extending  to  the  locks. 
Between  this  dike  and  another  one  like  it, 
which  was  then  holding  back  the  waters 
of  the  Pacific,  there  was  a  stretch  of  the 
sea  level  channel  which  was  being  filled 
with  water  from  the  Rio  Grande  River. 
Colonel  Goethals  wanted  to  know  how 
much  water  was  going  into  the  channel, 
how  much  would  be  required  to  fill  it, 
what  precautions  had  been  taken  to  make 
the  dike  impervious,  how  many  holes  had 
been  bored  in  the  old  dike,  how  much 
dynamite  would  be  used  in  blowing  it 
out,  and  a  dozen  other  things  that  gave 
him  assurance  that  the  work  was  going 
forward  properly. 

Thence  he  went  over  the  dam  that 
links  the  locks  to  the  hills  west  of  the  canal, 
inspected  it  carefully,  and  ascertained  from 
the  man  in  charge  just  when  they  could 
promise  its  completion ;  now  he  was  talking 
to  a  brawny  old  Irishman  who  had  worked 
his  way  up  from  the  bottom  and  had 
charge  of  dumping  the  trains  which  were 
bringing  in  the  spoil  for  surfacing  the  dam. 
It  did  not  matter  that  this  Irishman  was 
old  and  weather-beaten  and  grimy — he 
knew  how  to  dump  material  and  where 
to  put  it. 

When  eleven  o'clock  had  come  the 
whole  field  had  been  surveyed  by  Colonel 
Goethals's  watchful  eye.  A  hundred  bits 
of  information  had  been  gathered,  and 
a  hundred  helpful  suggestions  had  been 
made.  Then  the  railway  motor  car  turned 
its  cowcatcher  toward  Culebra,  and  the 
presiding  genius  of  America's  great  water- 
way was  speeding  back  to  an  early  lunch 
and  an  afternoon  in  his  office. 

One  feature  which  had  much  to  do  with 


the  success  of  Colonel  Goethals  at  Panama 
was  his  manner  of  hearing  and  adjusting 
grievances.  Every  Sunday  morning  he 
was  down  at  his  office  bright  and  early, 
and  every  person  with  a  grievance  was 
invited  to  visit  him  and  tell  him  his 
troubles.  There  was  no  rank  or  order  of 
precedence  in  this  unique  little  court 
of  justice.  It  was  a  case  of  the  first  come, 
first  heard,  the  only  condition  being  that 
each  man  should  state  his  grievance 
quickly,  bearing  in  mind  that  there  were 
many  following  him  who  had  as  much 
right  to  be  heard  as  he  himself  possessed. 
Now  it  was  a  negro  laborer  who  com- 
plained that  he  had  not  received  a  fair 
accounting  on  his  time;  now  it  was  a 
railroad  engineer  who  felt  that  some  other 
engineer  had  been  promoted  out  of  turn; 
now  came  a  delegation  who  wanted  the 
cooperation  of  Colonel  Goethals  in  holding 
an  athletic  meet.  Here  was  a  group  of 
men  who  found  that  a  good  steam  shovel 
man  had  been  laid  off  in  order  to  put 
another  on  the  job  because  he  was  a  first- 
class  ball  pitcher.  The  next  in  line  was 
a  woman  who  felt  that  she  had  been 
discriminated  against  by  the  district  quar- 
termaster in  the  number  of  electric  lights 
allowed  in  her  house.  Here  was  a  woman 
whose  husband  was  figuring  in  one  of 
those  eternal  triangles  that  are  to  be 
found  in  every  clime. 

Each  one  was  heard  patiently.  The 
negro  laborer  who  complained  regarding 
his  pay  check  was  assured  that  the  matter 
would  be  looked  into;  the  railroad  engineer 
who  felt  that  he  was  cheated  out  of  his 
promotion  was  shown  his  efficiency  record 
and  that  of  the  man  who  was  promoted. 
The  delegation  preparing  for  the  athletic 
meet  were  told  that  every  facility  consistent 
with  the  service  would  be  provided.  The 
steam  shovel  man  who  had  seen  his  place 
taken  by  a  man  who  could  add  strength 
to  the  Culebra  ball  team  was  told  to  go 
to  another  division  where  he  would  be  put 
to  work,  and  was  asked  to  remember  that 
good  ball  teams  added  to  the  contentment 
of  the  people  on  the  Canal  Zone.  He  was 


THE  SUNDAY  GRIEVANCE  COURT 


139 


assured  that  he  would  in  no  wise  suffer 
by  the  exchange.  The  woman  with  the 
electric  light  grievance  was  hardest  to 
satisfy,  but  she  departed  believing  that 
the  chief  engineer  would  do  his  best  to 
adjust  matters  fairly.  The  woman  who 
was  the  victim  of  the  eternal  triangle  was 
assured  that  her  husband  would  mend  his 
ways  or  be  invited  to  leave  the  isthmus. 

And  so  justice  was  meted  out.  At  one 
time  there  was  a  waiters'  strike  at  the 
Tivoli  Hotel.  Colonel  Goethals  promptly 
issued  an  order  publishing  the  names  of 
the  strikers  and  forbidding  their  employ- 
ment in  any  capacity  at  any  future  time 
by  the  canal  commission.  Again,  the 
engineers  threatened  to  stop  every  train 
on  the  isthmus  if  one  of  their  number,  who 
had  run  over  a  negro  laborer,  was  not 
released  from  custody  at  once.  They  set 
a  time  limit.  Colonel  Goethals  replied 
that  they  would  receive  his  answer  at  the 
penitentiary,  and  that  any  man  who 
stopped  his  engine  because  of  that  answer 
would  be  deported  to  the  United  States 
by  the  first  boat  leaving  the  isthmus.  His 
answer  was  against  them,  but  not  an  engine 
failed  to  move  at  the  appointed  time. 

Congress  gave  to  Colonel  Goethals  the 
power  of  deportation  without  appeal,  and 
while  it  was  a  power  he  never  abused  and 
seldom  used,  it  made  for  peace  and  con- 
tentment. No  man  was  more  anxious 
to  promote  every  reasonable  aspiration 
of  organized  labor  and  of  the  individual 
employee  than  Colonel  Goethals.  He 
could  easily  have  left  the  hearing  of  griev- 
ances to  others.  Some  of  the  wiseacres 
who  visited  the  isthmus  proposed  that 
there  should  be  a  labor  commission  to 
attend  to  these  matters.  Colonel  Goethals 
replied  that  he  wanted  to  keep  in  the 
closest  touch  with  every  condition  on  the 
isthmus,  and  that  his  Sunday  grievance 
court  afforded  the  best  agency  of  doing  so. 
Ambassador  Jusserand  of  France,  who 
attended  one  of  these  sessions,  remarked 
that  it  reminded  him  of  the  court  of  justice 


held  by  Saint  Louis  beneath  the  majestic 
oak  at  Vincennes. 

Colonel  Goethals  had  a  very  fixed  idea 
as  to  the  usefulness  of  this  plan.  He 
said  on  one  occasion  that  only  in  a  very 
small  percentage  of  the  cases  could  he 
grant  the  requests  of  complainants,  but 
that  his  readiness  to  devote  Sunday 
mornings  to  hearing  them  was  taken  as 
proof  of  his  earnest  desire  to  "see  that 
every  one  got  a  square  deal,"  and  thus 
allayed  discontent.  "If  you  think  that 
the  time  has  come  when  the  machinery  of 
the  canal  army  moves  without  friction 
and  without  jar,"  said  he,  "you  will  have 
your  mind  disabused  if  you  will  come  up 
to  my  'at  home'  next  Sunday." 

Colonel  Goethals  cherished  no  false  no- 
tions about  his  position.  He  said  that  he 
realized  full  well  that  a  single  false  step 
on  his  part  might  bring  down  upon  his 
head  the  criticism  of  the  people  of  the 
United  States.  But  he  did  not  employ 
modern  methods  to  exploit  his  personality. 
He  seemed  to  rely  upon  the  character  of 
his  work.  He  knew  nothing  of  the  subtle 
arts  of  politics.  There  were  a  thousand 
men  under  him  who  had  better  sources  of 
confidential  information  from  the  National 
Capital  than  he  possessed.  In  his  dealings 
with  Congress  he  was  always  the  soul  of 
frankness;  he  never  asked  of  that  body 
anything  that  was  not  needed,  and  his 
greatest  effort  on  the  isthmus  was  to  make 
every  dollar  go  as  far  as  it  could. 

Colonel  Goethals  was  always  ready  to 
accord  to  every  man  the  credit  that  was 
his  due  in  the  work  at  Panama.  He  said 
frequently  that  if  either  Wallace  or  Shonts 
had  been  permitted  to  operate  on  the  lines 
pursued  by  corporations  in  great  under- 
takings, either  could  have  completed  the 
canal  without  question.  He  also  stated 
that  too  much  credit  could  not  be  given 
to  Stevens  for  the  work  of  providing  the 
facilities  for  digging  the  canal,  and  that 
without  this  work  the  army  itself  might 
have  failed. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 


CULEBRA  CUT 

DIVORCING  MOUNTAINS  AND  WEDDING  OCEANS — FORTUNATE  THAT  CONGRESS  DID  NOT 
FORESEE  DIFFICULTIES  ENCOUNTERED — THE  WORLD'S  ONLY  ARTIFICIAL 
CANON — BATTLING  WITH  THE  SLIDES — A  WONDERFUL  SCENE — PRESSING 
FORWARD  AT  TOP  SPEED — THE  USE  OF  DYNAMITE — SHOVELING  UP  THE  SPOIL — 
HAULING  IT  TO  THE  DUMPS — THE  LIDGERWOOD  EQUIPMENT — A  HUNDRED 
AND  ONE  INVENTIONS — THE  NAOS  ISLAND  BREAKWATER — TROUBLES  IN 
THE  RAINY  SEASON — Two  FARMS  GOING  INTO  THE  CANAL — UNCANNY  TRICKS 
BY  SLIDES — A  MISTAKEN  BOARD  OF  CONSULTING  ENGINEERS. 


THE  engineers  at  Panama  have  been 
able  figuratively  to  wed  the  oceans 
only  by  literally  divorcing  the 
mountains.  From  the  Arctic  to  the  Ant- 
arctic there  stretches  a  vast  and  lofty 
mountain  chain,  dividing  the  East  from 
the  West  on  two  continents.  The  task 
that  confronted  the  American  engineers 
was  that  of  cutting  through  the  weakest 
of  the  links  of  this  chain  of  mountains. 
When  it  was  proposed  to  build  the  Panama 
Canal  there  were  those  who  believed  it 
possible  to  cut  down  the  backbone  of 
the  Cordilleras  until  the  waters  of  the 
oceans  could  sweep  through  unhindered 
to  a  depth  which  even  at  low  tide  would 
carry  the  largest  steamship  afloat.  There 
were  others  who  held  that  a  more  feasible 
plan  would  be  to  lift  up  the  waters,  so 
that  they  could  meet  and  mingle,  not 
above  the  mountain  tops,  but  at  least  a 
part  of  the  way  above  the  sea.  The  latter 
idea  prevailed,  and  to  the  fact  that  it  did 
prevail  the  American  people  owe  their 
triumph  at  Panama. 

In  all  the  world  of  work  there  is  perhaps 
no  better  example  of  the  wisdom  of  the  In- 
finite in  withholding  from  man  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  future;  for  if  the  American 
people  had  known  of  the  tremendous 
difficulties  that  lay  before  them  in  their 
work  of  severing  the  link  that  united  two 
continental  mountain  systems  into  one 
chain,  it  is  doubtful  if  that  work  would 
ever  have  been  undertaken.  If  some 
prophet,  speaking  with  foreknowledge,  and 


not  without  honor  in  his  own  country,  had 
come  to  the  Congress  of  the  United  States 
in  1902,  stating  to  that  body  that  it  would 
cost  $10,000,000  a  mile  to  dig  Culebra 
Cut  at  its  present  level,  and  that  it  would 
require  the  excavation  of  over  100,000,000 
cubic  yards  of  material,  there  would  have 
been  no  Culebra  Cut  and  no  Panama  Canal 
to-day. 

There  now  stretches  through  the  back- 
bone of  the  intercontinental  divide  a 
canon  cut  by  human  beings,  the  only  one 
on  the  earth.  Nine  miles  long,  with  an 
average  depth  of  120  feet,  with  a  bottom 
width  of  300  feet,  and  with  a  top  width 
which  reaches  at  places  to  a  third  of  a 
mile,  this  marvelous  canon  presents  at 
once  an  inspiring  and  awesome  aspect, 
revealing  both  man's  audacity  and  nature's 
grim  resistance  to  his  efforts.  On  either 
side  of  the  gorge  rises  a  majestic  peak, 
standing  as  sentinels  guarding  the  passage 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  But 
now,  where  once  they  were  bound  together 
with  chains  of  primeval  rock,  they  are 
separated  by  the  arm  of  a  lake,  the  largest 
yet  created  by  human  cunning.  Where 
once  the  Chagres  river  encountered  im- 
mense barriers  which  turned  it  about  and 
forced  it  to  flow  into  the  Atlantic,  now  it 
comes  down  into  that  wide  lake,  whose 
waters  may  be  made  to  flow  either  into 
the  Atlantic  or  the  Pacific,  at  the  touch 
of  a  button. 

To  accomplish  this  wonderful  work,  the 
American  canal  army  was  called  upon  to 


140 


1.  The  late  Col.  D.  D.  Gaillard,  the  genius  of  Culebra  Cut. 

2.  View  from  Cucaracha  slide  looking  toward  Pedro  Miguel,  whose  locks  appear  in  the  background. 

3.  View  from  Contractor's  Hill,  looking  past  Cucaracha  slide. 


1.  Upheaval  in  the  bottom  of  Culebra  Cut. 

2.  View  of  the  basalt  formations  at  Gold  Hill,  in  Culebra  Cut. 


THE  BATTLE  WITH  NATURE 


141 


go  to  lengths  unprecedented  in  the  history 
of  engineering.  A  thousand  and  one  un- 
foreseen difficulties  arose.  Nature  inter- 
posed her  powerful  self  between  the  canal 
engineer  and  his  purpose,  and  seemed  to 
take  almost  fiendish  delight  in  a  defensive 
warfare  against  his  labors.  She  maneu- 
vered her  forces  with  consummate  cun- 
ning, in  a  way  best  designed  to  strike  terror 
to  the  hearts  of  those  against  whom  she 
was  defending  that  mountain  pass.  Now 
she  sent  down  slides  which  threatened  to 
disrupt  the  whole  system  of  excavation  in 
the  cut;  now  these  slides  became  quiescent, 
as  if  to  lull  the  engineer  into  a  false  security; 
now  they  made  a  feint,  threatening  dire 
results,  but  stopping  short  of  actual  conflict; 
now  they  came  in  the  dead  of  night, 
spreading  chaos  in  every  direction;  now 
they  seemed  to  raise  the  white  flag  of 
surrender,  allowing  the  dikes  of  basalt 
to  peep  out  as  a  message  to  the  engineers 
that  the  slides  could  move  no  further 
because  they  were  tied  by  these  dikes  to 
the  very  core  of  the  earth;  and  then  they 
would  destroy  the  hopes  which  these 
dikes  aroused  by  shearing  them  off  as 
if  they  were  but  pipe  stems,  and  flowing, 
unrestrained,  into  the  cut. 

But  through  all  their  trials  and  tribula- 
tions, through  all  their  delays  and  re- 
pulses, the  canal  engineers  led  their  forces 
onward,  checking  the  slides  and  retrieving 
every  inch  of  lost  ground,  until  Nature 
herself  lay  exhausted  at  their  feet  and 
accorded  them  the  triumph  for  which  they 
had  struggled  so  long  and  so  persistently. 

As  we  look  back  over  the  story  of  Cule- 
bra  Cut  we  are  struck  by  the  constantly 
rising  limit  of  the  amount  of  material  to  be 
excavated.  A  few  months  before  Colonel 
Goethals  took  charge  at  Panama,  the 
amount  of  material  which  it  was  thought 
would  have  to  be  removed  was  less  than 
54,000,000  cubic  yards.  As  we  survey 
the  completed  project  we  find  that  there 
has  been  removed  more  than  100,000,000 
cubic  yards;  that  the  cut  has  been  dug  at 
an  outlay  of  nearly  $10,000,000  a  mile,  and 
that  the  heaviest  miles  have  cost  as  much 


as  $15,000,000;  that  the  slides  added  some 
30,000,000  cubic  yards  of  material,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  unforeseen  difficulties  which 
they  brought  into  the  cut  with  them.  We 
find  that  there  has  been  taken  out  almost 
as  much  material  to  make  a  lock  level  cut 
as  was  estimated  for  the  sea-level  cut. 
We  find  that  there  was  taken  out  of  Cule- 
bra  Cut  to  bring  it  to  the  stage  of  com- 
pletion as  much  material  as  it  was  esti- 
mated would  have  to  be  removed  to 
complete  ( the  canal  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Pacific. 

Whether  the  cut  was  viewed  from  the 
hills  above,  or  from  the  bottom  of  the 
ditch  below,  it  presented,  during  the  con- 
struction period,  a  strange  admixture 
of  awesome  proportions  and  apparently 
chaotic  conditions;  but  what  seemed  to 
be  chaos  and  confusion  was  in  fact  order 
and  system.  Hundreds  of  well  drills, 
tripod  drills,  and  hand  drills  ate  their  way 
down  through  the  rock,  preparing  the 
holes  in  which  were  to  be  planted  the  tons 
of  dynamite  used  to  provide  the  daily  spoil 
for  the  forty-odd  steam  shovels  that  con- 
sumed the  vitals  of  the  cut.  Dozens  of 
dirt  trains  moved  to  and  fro,  as  they  took 
the  spoil  from  the  shovels  and  carried  it 
to  the  dumps,  which  were  an  average  of 
some  twelve  miles  distant.  Necessarily 
there  was  order  and  system  when  the 
daily  stint  was  that  of  loading  and  hauling 
away  160  trainloads  of  material  from  a  cut 
nine  miles  long. 

The  work  moved  forward  at  a  pace  un- 
precedented in  the  annals  of  engineering. 
In  the  nine-mile  section  in  a  single  twelve- 
month there  was  removed  a  total  of 
16,586,000  cubic  yards  of  material.  Six 
thousand  men  labored  within  this  short 
stretch,  preparing  for  the  blasts,  handling 
shovels  and  the  dirt  trains,  and  shifting  the 
tracks  as  the  work  moved  forward.  At 
eleven  o'clock  in  the  forenoon  and  at  five 
in  the  afternoon  the  cut  was  temporarily 
deserted ;  and  then  there  came  the  thunder- 
ous blasts  that  tore  loose  the  rock  and 
provided  the  next  four  hours'  supply  of 
food  for  the  steam  shovels. 


142 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA  CANAL 


Dynamite  was  used  in  enormous  quan- 
tities. No  mind  can  conceive  of  the 
tremendous  force  of  60,000,000  pounds  of 
high  powdered  dynamite,  the  amount  used 
by  the  engineers  in  tearing  asunder  Gold 
Hill  from  Contractor's  Hill.  Were  the 
holes  that  were  drilled  in  preparing  for 
the  work  of  the  dynamite  put  end  to  end, 
they  would  more  than  reach  through  the 
earth  itself,  at  the  equator.  Great  bat- 
teries of  the  largest  well  drills,  lined  up  in 
rows,  drove  down  through  the  solid  rock, 
to  an  average  of  twenty-four  feet  in  depth ; 
a  whole  company  of  tripod  drills  hammered 
their  noisy  way  down  into  the  adamant; 
while  here  and  there  gangs  of  negroes, 
swinging  heavy  sledges  to  the  rhythm  of 
some  folk  lore  song,  drove  the  steel  hand 
drills  inch  by  inch  into  the  rock.  In  the 
case  of  the  wells  a  small  amount  of  dyna- 
mite was  sent  to  the  bottom  and  exploded 
in  order  to  "spring"  the  hole.  Then 
hundreds  of  pounds  of  explosives  were  put 
down  into  these  wells,  tamped  home, 
and  connected  with  wires  bearing  high- 
power  current  from  the  electric  light  plants. 
The  turning  of  a  switch  made  the  earth 
shake  and  shattered  the  embedded  rock. 
More  than  600  holes  were  fired  daily. 
In  addition  to  these  there  were  small  "toe" 
blasts  and  many  "doby"  blasts.  The 
handling  of  dynamite  is  never  free  from 
dangers,  but  the  Culebra  Cut  work  was  so 
well  ordered  under  the  rules  formulated  by 
the  chief  engineer,  that  only  eight  men  were 
killed  in  the  handling  of  19,000,000  pounds 
of  explosives.  In  the  early  years  of  the 
work  blasts  were  set  off  by  simple  dry 
batteries,  but  it  was  found  that  this 
frequently  resulted  in  a  failure  to  explode 
the  charge,  with  constant  danger  of  pre- 
mature or  unexpected  explosions.  The 
substitution  of  the  other  method  insured 
the  explosion  of  every  charge.  The  largest 
single  blasts  at  Panama  were  set  off  in  a 
series  of  holes  containing  52,000  pounds 
of  dynamite.  The  most  serious  accident 
that  ever  occurred  was  at  Bas  Obispo, 
December  12,  1908,  when  44,000  pounds 
of  dynamite  exploded  prematurely,  at  the 


moment  when  the  last  load  was  being 
tamped  home.  Great  care  had  to  be 
exercised  in  preventing  premature  explo- 
sions. The  action  of  warm  moist  air  on 
the  iron  pyrites  sometimes  heated  the  mate- 
rial, causing  a  blast  to  go  off  while  being 
tamped  home.  To  overcome  this,  a  stream 
of  water  was  played  into  the  hole  before 
the  dynamite  was  put  down. 

After  the  blasts  had  been  fired,  the  steam 
shovels  appeared.  Some  of  them  could 
pick  up  eight  tons  of  material  at  a  mouthful 
and  take  a  new  mouthful  every  three 
minutes.  One  ninety-five-ton  Bucyrus 
shovel  handled  543,000  cubic  yards  of 
material  in  one  year.  The  record  for  a 
month  was  86,844  cubic  yards.  The 
average  output  per  shovel  ran  up  from 
500  yards  a  day  in  1905  to  more  than 
double  that  amount  in  1912.  There  were 
forty-three  shovels  at  work  at  the  height 
of  activities  in  Culebra  Cut.  To  handle 
the  spoil  that  could  be  loaded  upon  the 
trains  required  the  services  of  140  locomo- 
tives and  3,700  cars.  In  a  single  year  the 
shovels  loaded  1,119,000  carloads  of  ma- 
terial, and  75  trains  were  constantly  going 
in  and  out  of  the  big  ditch.  When  the 
work  reached  the  climax  there  was  a  train 
in  or  out  nearly  every  minute  of  the  work- 
ing day. 

The  bulk  of  the  spoil  was  hauled  away 
on  Lidgerwood  flat  cars.  Each  car  held 
about  nineteen  cubic  yards  of  spoil,  and 
they  were  run  in  twenty-one-car  trains. 
The  cars  were  boarded  upon  one  side  only, 
and  steel  sheets  were  hinged  from  the 
floor  of  one  car  to  the  floor  of  the  one 
ahead,  so  as  to  give,  to  all  intents  and 
purposes,  a  solid  car  floor  for  the  entire 
length  of  the  train.  When  a  train  was 
loaded,  it  was  pulled  out  of  the  cut  and 
hauled  to  the  dumps.  Here  a  huge  plow, 
reposing  on  a  car  that  had  been  unloaded 
previously,  was  attached  to  the  train  at 
one  end,  while  a  car  carrying  a  large 
steam  windlass  was  attached  to  the  other 
end.  A  cable  the  size  of  a  man's  wrist 
was  stretched  from  the  windlass  to  the 
plow.  When  the  train  was  in  position  for 


HAULING  AWAY  THE  SPOIL 


143 


unloading,  the  windlass  began  to  turn, 
pulling  the  plow  along  on  the  floor  of  the 
cars  until  they  were  unloaded.  Then  the 
car  on  which  the  plow  finally  rested  and  the 
one  on  which  the  windlass  rested  were  cut 
out  of  the  train,  and  it  was  hauled  back 
empty. 

The  heavy  cable  that  pulled  the  plow 
over  the  floor  of  the  train  was  stretched  in 
an  ingenious  way.  There  was  a  frame 
built  across  the  track  like  those  which  sup- 
port the  warning  ropes  at  overhead  bridges 
and  tunnels.  The  train  to  be  unloaded 
ran  through  this  frame,  switched  in  the 
car  containing  the  windlass,  and  attached 
the  end  of  the  cable  to  the  frame.  As  the 
train  moved  back,  the  cable  was  stretched 
along  the  length  of  the  train,  and  was 
ready  to  be  attached  to  the  plow  as  soon 
as  the  car  carrying  it  was  attached  to  the 
train.  All  this  indicates  that  there  was 
considerable  switching  in  placing  the  cars 
containing  the  windlass  and  the  plow  into 
the  train  and  cutting  them  out  again. 
There  was ;  but  the  men  who  did  it  became 
so  adept  that  there  was  comparatively 
little  delay. 

After  the  plow  had  removed  the  dirt 
from  the  cars  and  the  empty  train  had 
started  back  for  another  load,  another 
engine  came  along  with  another  sort  of 
plow.  This  plow  ran  along  the  track  and 
pushed  the  dirt  down  the  bank.  It  was 
followed,  in  turn,  by  a  track  shifter,  which 
lifted  the  track  over  bodily  to  the  new 
position  that  the  widened  bank  made 
possible.  And  thus  the  work  went  forward. 
Every  operation  that  could  be  performed 
by  machinery  was  taken  out  of  the  hands 
of  the  laborers.  Each  of  these  inventions 
made  it  possible  for  one  man  to  do  the 
work  of  dozens.  Each  car  gave  up  its 
load  in  a  half  minute;  the  spreader  forced 
a  trainload  of  rock  and  earth  down  the 
bank  in  ten  minutes;  and  the  track  shifters 
always  had  the  track  moved  over  by  the 
time  the  next  train  was  ready  to  discharge 
its  burden. 

From  time  to  time  many  improvements 
were  made  in  these  different  devices.  As 


originally  constructed  the  floors  of  the 
Lidgerwood  cars  extended  the  same  dis- 
tance over  the  wheels  on  both  sides.  This 
did  not  permit  a  proper  centering  of  the 
load,  necessitating  its  being  placed  too 
much  on  the  boarded  side,  which  resulted 
in  an  excessive  wear  and  tear  on  the  wheels 
of  one  side  of  the  car.  An  apron  was 
therefore  built  on  the  other  side  of  the 
car,  which  extended  the  floor  a  foot  or 
more  over  the  wheels.  This  permitted 
the  load  to  be  centered,  and  at  the  same 
time  permitted  the  plow  to  throw  the 
material  further  away  from  the  track. 
It  also  gave  the  car  a  nineteen-yard  capac- 
ity where  it  formerly  had  a  sixteen-yard 
capacity. 

The  cables  at  first  were  likely  to  break 
when  the  plow  struck  an  obstruction,  such 
as  a  large  stone  or  a  broken  car-floor;  a 
weak  link,  with  a  breaking-point  just  a 
little  weaker  than  that  of  the  cable,  over- 
come the  difficulty.  Couplers  sometimes 
became  worn  or  broken  under  hard  usage, 
causing  the  parting  of  a  train  at  times 
when  it  was  desirable  that  such  things 
should  not  happen;  a  master  mechanic  in- 
vented a  kind  of  "bridle"  that  saved  the 
day  here.  The  plows  sometimes  caught 
the  edge  of  the  side  board  at  the  end  of 
a  car;  a  bullnose  piece  of  iron  was  devised, 
which  steered  the  plow  away  from  the  side 
boards.  Some  fifty-odd  improvements 
were  made  on  the  spreaders  alone. 

In  addition  to  the  Lidgerwood  equip- 
ment for  hauling  away  the  spoil,  a  large 
number  of  Western  Dump  Cars,  dumped 
by  compressed  air,  and  a  number  of  ordi- 
nary cars,  dumped  by  hand,  were  used. 
At  the  height  of  the  work  333  trainloads 
of  material  were  handled  by  the  Central 
Division  in  a  single  day,  the  bulk  of  them 
coming  from  Culebra  Cut.  _^_^ 

f~ The  disposal  of  the  spoil  was  a  serious/ 
'problem.  Over  a  hundred  million  cubic 
yards  of  material  had  to  be  hauled  away 
and  dumped.  With  a  part  of  it  the  en- 
gineers converted  an  island  into  a  peninsula, 
three  and  a  quarter  miles  out  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  This  peninsula  is  the  Naos  Island 


144 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


Breakwater,  which  serves  the  double  pur- 
pose of  providing  communication  between 
the  mainland  and  the  Pacific  fortifications, 
and  preventing  the  cross  currents  of 
Panama  Bay  from  filling  up  the  end  of  the 
canal  with  silt.  With  another  part  of 
the  spoil  they  converted  nearly  500  acres 
of  the  Pacific  Ocean  into  a  town  site  and 
a  military  reservation.  With  still  another 
part  of  it  they  made  a  parade  ground.  But 
still  scores  of  millions  of  cubic  yards  of  this 
debris  had  to  be  hauled  out  and  dumped 
in  the  jungle.  In  one  of  these  big  waste 
dumps  17,000,000  cubic  yards  of  material 
were  disposed  of. 

The  Naos  Island  Breakwater  was  the 
most  troublesome  work  on  the  isthmus. 
At  one  spot  it  settled  125  feet.  In  not 
a  single  foot  of  its  more  than  three  miles 
of  length  is  the  original  trestle  to  be  found 
under  the  tracks  it  was  meant  to  support. 
It  sank  down  and  shifted  to  the  side,  at 
some  places  as  much  as  300  feet  from  the 
spot  where  it  was  put  down. 

Disposition  of  the  spoil  in  the  wet  season 
was  difficult.  Imagine  a  dump  covering 
perhaps  1,000  acres,  and  with  tracks  over 
its  several  terraces.  Then  picture  a  rain- 
fall twice  as  heavy  as  that  which  occurs 
in  the  United  States,  dashing  down  and 
converting  this  great  dump  of  freshly  ex- 
cavated material  into  a  sea  of  mud.  Then 
fancy  the  dirt  trains  running  through  that 
sea  of  mud,  with  the  track  sinking  three 
or  four  feet,  and  shifting  to  one  side  or  the 
other.  Then  watch  the  trainmen  working 
and  toiling  to  extricate  their  trains.  That 
is  what  might  have  been  seen  hundreds, 
if  not  thousands,  of  times  at  Panama.  But 
through  it  all,  and  in  spite  of  it  all,  the 
trains  kept  running  and  disposing  of  the 
spoil,  for  when  the  trains  stopped,  all  other 
work  ceased. 

We  now  come  to  the  slides ;  and  no  man 
who  ever  saw  them  working  their  way 
into  Culebra  Cut  can  fail  to  see  in  them 
the  handwriting  on  the  wall — the  hand- 
writing that  says  that  no  sea-level  canal 
shall  ever  be  built  at  Panama.  Bringing 
into  Culebra  Cut  more  than  250  acres  of 


land,  buildings,  and  all ;  driving  downward 
30,000,000  cubic  yards  of  material  which 
ought  never  to  have  come  into  the  cut; 
imposing  upon  the  canal  engineers  not 
only  the  task  of  removing  all  this  extra 
material,  but  multiplying  the  difficulties 
under  which  the  material  which  belonged 
in  the  cut  was  removed, — the  slides  were 
Nature's  heavy  artillery,  indeed,  in  repell- 
ing the  invasion  of  man. 

They  were  absolutely  unforeseen.  No 
one  dreamed  that  material  would  move 
into  Culebra  Cut  in  quantities  vast  enough 
to  load  a  train  of  cars  reaching  half  way 
round  the  earth,  and  requiring  the  equiv- 
alent of  a  string  of  locomotives  700  miles 
long  to  haul  it  away.  Nor  did  any  one 
foresee  that  the  cut  would  be  choked  up 
repeatedly,  now  disrupting  one-half  of  the 
entire  transportation  system,  now  disrupt- 
ing the  other  half.  A  total  of  200  miles  of 
railroad  track  was  covered  up,  destroyed, 
or  dislocated  in  a  single  year  by  these  slides. 
The  very  bottom  of  the  cut  itself  was  up- 
raised sometimes  as  much  as  18  feet,  as 
if  to  recover  the  ground  lost  by  the 
operation  of  the  steam  shovels  and  the  dirt 
trains. 

It  was  more  than  the  mere  digging  of 
a  ditch  that  Colonel  Goethals  had  to  en- 
counter when  seventy-five  acres  of  the 
town  of  Culebra  broke  away  and  moved 
foot  by  foot  into  the  canal ;  carrying  hotels 
and  club  houses  with  them  until  these 
buildings  were  removed.  Cucaracha  slide 
carried  into  the  cut  many  millions  of  cubic 
yards  of  material,  bottling  up  the  channel, 
and  sending  its  "toe"  sixty-odd  feet  up 
the  other  side.  It  was  fight,  fight,  fight, 
now  with  dynamite,  now  with  steam 
shovels,  now  with  hydraulic  excavators, 
and  now  with  dredges.  The  campaign 
finally  resolved  itself  into  one  of  inviting 
the  slides  to  do  their  worst,  and  then 
meeting  them  as  they  came.  Some  of 
them,  like  Cucaracha,  were  mere  masses  of 
material  slipping  by  force  of  gravity  into 
the  channel ;  others,  like  the  West  Culebra 
slide,  were  breaks.  If  a  cut  is  dug 
deep  enough,  even  side  walls  of  granite 


1.  Slides  which  carried  230  acres  of  earth  into  the  canal. 

2.  Steam  shovel  caught  in  a  slide. 


DELAYED  BY  THE  SLIDES 


145 


finally  will  break  at  the  bottom,  causing 
the  material  above  to  press  down  and  into 
the  cut.  This  is  what  happened  at  West 
Culebra.  The  material  at  the  bottom 
broke,  and  the  material  above  forced  its  way 
down,  and  like  water  poured  into  a  U  tube, 
rose  up  on  the  other  side — the  other  side 
in  this  case  being  the  bottom  of  the  canal. 

Sometimes  these  breaks  played  uncanny 
tricks.  At  one  place  a  steam  shovel,  track 
and  all,  was  picked  up  and  carried  half 
way  across  Culebra  Cut,  where  it  was  left 
unharmed.  At  another  place,  where  three 
tracks  were  close  together,  the  one  nearest 
the  bank  sank  down  several  feet,  and  the 
one  farthest  from  the  bank  rose  up  cor- 
respondingly, while  the  middle  one  was 
not  disturbed.  One  slide  kept  a  gradual 
motion,  moving  down  just  as  fast  as  the 
steam  shovel  worked,  so  that  the  shovel 
was  able  to  make  103  trips  across  the  "  toe" 
of  the  slide  without  shifting  its  track  an  inch. 

Cucaracha,  with  its  fifty  acres  or  more 
of  sliding  material,  was  first  in  the  field, 
having  paid  the  French  a  visit  that  drove 
them  from  that  part  of  the  Culebra  Cut. 
Again  in  1905  it  came  down,  and  once 
more  in  1907.  Intermittently  it  has  been 
in  motion  ever  since.  At  one  time  it 
broke  so  far  back  that  the  rear  part  sloped 
away  from  the  canal.  Then  a  hydraulic 
jet,  with  a  nozzle  pressure  of  eighty  pounds 
to  the  inch,  was  turned  on  the  materials 
that  drained  away  from  the  cut,  and  they 
were  sluiced  back  into  another  valley. 

The  actual  delay  in  the  completion  of 
Culebra  Cut  because  of  the  slides  cannot 
be  ascertained  accurately.  If  the  slides 
had  not  involved  any  other  difficulty  than 
that  of  removing  them  the  delay  would 
have  been  twenty-two  months.  But  when 
we  reckon  all  the  hindrances  to  the  other 
work,  it  is  probable  that  the  total  delay 
involved  is  not  less  than  two  and  a  half 
years.  In  other  words,  but  for  the  slides, 
Colonel  Goethals  and  his  lieutenants 
would  have  completed  Culebra  Cut  by 
the  first  of  January,  1912;  they  would  have 
removed  the  70,000,000  cubic  yards  of 
material,  other  than  the  slides,  in  five 


years,  although  the  board  of  consulting 
engineers  said  it  would  require  eight  years 
to  remove  54,000,000  cubic  yards;  and  they 
would  have  removed  the  larger  amount 
with  forty  steam  shovels,  although  the 
board  of  consulting  engineers  estimated 
that  it  would  require  100  steam  shovels  to 
remove  the  smaller  amount. 

The  board  of  consulting  engineers,  in 
fact,  went  astray  in  dealing  with  Culebra 
Cut.  Serious  results  would  have  followed 
the  adoption  of  their  recommendations. 
They  reported  that  a  sea-level  Culebra  Cut 
would  require  the  excavation  of  only  110,- 
000,000  cubic  yards  of  material ;  it  has  taken 
almost  that  much  work  to  build  the  lock- 
level  cut.  It  would  probably  require  the 
removal  of  another  100,000,000  cubic  yards 
to  bring  the  present  cut  down  to  sea  level. 

Those  engineers  in  the  majority  report 
ridiculed  the  idea  of  encountering  any 
serious  difficulties  in  Culebra  Cut;  they 
said  its  banks  would  stand  up  with  an 
average  slope  of  three  feet  rise  on  two  feet 
back;  yet  at  some  places  there  is  only  one 
foot  rise  to  ten  feet  back.  They  said  a 
hundred  shovels  could  be  operated  in 
Culebra  Cut;  the  highest  number  operated 
was  forty-three.  They  said  handling  the 
slides  was  only  a  question  of  drainage;  and 
yet  the  worst  ones  occurred  in  the  dry  season. 

The  American  people  probably  owe  it 
to  Mr.  Roosevelt  that  their  enterprise  at 
Panama  did  not  fail  as  ingloriously  as  the 
French  project.  If  he  had  not  possessed 
the  moral  courage  to  change  his  own  mind, 
and  to  come  out  against  such  a  powerful 
majority  as  that  on  his  board  of  consulting 
engineers,  the  country  would  be  awaking 
to  the  discovery  that  a  sea-level  canal  is 
an  impossibility — so  far  as  pocketbooks 
and  patience  go — instead  of  putting  the 
finishing  touches  on  the  lock  canal.  Mean- 
while there  would  have  been  expended  some 
$50,000,000  in  digging  a  sea-level  ditch  from 
Gatun  to  Gamboa;  some  $8,000,000  on  a 
masonry  dam  at  Gamboa,  and  as  much  more 
on  tidal  locks  at  Sosa  Hill — only  to  find 
that  none  of  these  expenditures  would  have 
been  of  value  in  building  a  lock  canal. 


CHAPTER  XXV 


BUILDING  THE  DAMS 

MAKING  A  LAKE  OUT  OF  A  RIVER — THE  CHAGRES  VALLEY  AS  A  PLACE  FOR  A  LOCK 
CANAL — THE  DIMENSIONS  OF  GATUN  DAM — How  THE  "TOES"  OF  THE  DAM 
WERE  BUILT — MAKING  A  CORE  OF  NATURAL  LIQUID  CEMENT — THE  GATUN 
SPILLWAY — How  IT  Is  OPERATED — THE  MOODY  CHAGRES — FACILITIES  FOR 
TAKING  CARE  OF  Two  RIVERS  LIKE  IT — DRIVING  A  HYDRO- ELECTRIC  PLANT 
— FIRST  SUGGESTION  OF  GATUN  AS  A  DAM  SITE — JOHN  F.  STEVENS  FAVORED  IT 
— OBJECTION  TO  A  LOCK  CANAL  ON  ACCOUNT  OF  GATUN  DAM — SEVILLE  CON- 
DUCTS THE  EXPERIMENTS  WHICH  DETERMINE  THE  CHARACTER  OF  THE  STRUC- 
TURE— A  DAM  THAT  BURST  WHERE  THERE  WAS  NO  DAM — PRESIDENT-ELECT 
TAFT  AND  His  CONSULTING  ENGINEERS  VISIT  GATUN — GATUN  DAM  A  HAPPY 
SURPRISE — THE  DAM  AT  PEDRO  MIGUEL — THE  WORKS  AT  MIRAFLORES — 
THE  ABANDONED  SOSA  HILL  LAKE. 


THE  construction  of  the  Panama 
Canal  required  the  construction  of 
three  dams,  two  on  the  Pacific  side 
and  one  on  the  Atlantic  side.  The  dam 
at  Gatun  is  so  huge  in  its  proportions, 
and  was  for  years  the  subject  of  so  much 
controversy,  that  it  eclipses  the  two  dams 
on  the  Pacific  side.  The  vastness  of  its 
proportions  can  scarcely  be  conceived.  It 
is  really  nothing  more  or  less  than  a 
hill  thrown  across  the  Chagres  valley, 
so  as  to  impound  the  waters  of  the  Chagres 
River,  converting  them  into  a  lakeJwith 
an  area  of  164  square  miles,  and  with  a 
shore  line  of  1,016  miles.  The  Chagres 
River  drains  a  watershed  of  1,320  square 
miles.  The  average  rainfall  on  this  water- 
shed approximates  100  inches  annually. 
It  is  the  mission  of  the  Gatun  Dam  to 
impound  enough  of  this  water  in  the 
lake  to  carry  the  commerce  of  the  world 
across  the  continental  divide,  and  to 
provide  lockage  water  for  putting  the  ships 
through  the  locks  at  the  two  sides  of  the 
isthmus.  The  dam  impounds  183,000,- 
000,000  cubic  feet  of  water,  or  practically 
as  much  as  the  Chagres  River  brings  down 
in  an  average  year. 

The  valley  of  the  Chagres  was  framed  by 
the  hand  of  Nature  in  such  a  way  as  to  fit 
admirably  into  the  plans  of  the  canal  en- 
gineers for  a  lock  canal  across  the  isthmus, 


with  the  Atlantic  locks  at  Gatun.  In  the 
upper  and  middle  reaches  of  the  valley, 
after  the  river  strikes  the  line  of  the  canal, 
the  hills  which  border  it  are  far  flung. 
As  you  approach  Gatun,  coming  down  the 
valley,  they  swing  in  toward  the  canal  on 
both  sides,  and  at  that  point  are  only  a 
mile  and  a  half  apart.  Midway  across  this 
valley  there  was  a  small  hill  with  a  foun- 
dation of  rock.  The  problem  was  simply 
one  of  building  a  dam  between  the  hills 
at  the  two  sides  of  the  valley,  utilizing 
the  small  hill  in  the  middle  of  the  valley 
as  a  site  for  the  spillway,  through  which 
the  surplus  waters  in  the  lake  should  be 
passed  over  the  dam  and  down  into  the 
sea.  The  dam  which  was  built  is  a  mile 
and  a  half  long,  half  a  mile  wide  at  the  base, 
300  feet  wide  at  the  water  line,  and  100 
feet  wide  at  its  crest.  It  is  105  feet  high, 
making  the  crest  twenty  feet  higher  than 
the  normal  surface  of  the  water  in  the  lake. 
The  dam  contains  22,000,000  cubic  yards 
of  material.  Its  total  weight  approximates 
30,000,000  tons.  It  covers  288  acres  of 
ground,  and  contains  enough  earth  and 
rock  to  build  a  fence  eighteen  inches  thick 
and  three  feet  high  around  the  earth  at  the 
equator;  or  a  wall  around  the  State  of  Ohio 
ten  feet  high  by  twelve  feet  wide. 

In  the  construction  of  the  dam  two  par- 
allel ridges  of  stone  1,200  feet  apart  were 


146 


CURBING  THE  CHAGRES  RIVER 


147 


first  thrown  across  the  Chagres  valley. 
The  height  of  these  ridges  ranged  from 
thirty  feet  on  the  down-stream  side  to  sixty 
feet  on  the  up-stream  side.  Between  these 
ridges,  which  were  technically  known  as 
"toes,"  there  was  built  up  a  dam  of  earth. 
The  central  portion  of  this  earth-dam 
is  known  as  the  hydraulic  core.  Huge 
dredges  were  put  to  work  breaking  loose 
the  soft  natural  cement  of  the  valley  below 
the  dam  and  pumping  it  into  the  great 
pond  maintained  on  the  surface  of  the 
dam  as  it  rose  upward.  The  material 
carried  in  suspension  in  the  water  was 
allowed  to  settle,  and  then  the  water  was 
drawn  off  and  sent  back  for  another  load 
of  liquid  silt.  In  this  way  there  was  built 
across  the  valley,  in  the  heart  of  the  dam, 
a  wall  of  natural  cement  850  feet  wide  at 
the  base  and  as  high  as  the  dam  itself. 

After  the  dam  was  built  to  its  desired 
height,  the  entire  up-stream  side  was 
armored  with  stone.  Wherever  the  wave 
action  is  strong,  huge  boulders  weighing 
many  tons  are  planted  on  the  face  of  the 
dam,  to  break  the  force  of  the  waters. 
Although  the  dam  impounds  the  largest 
artificial  lake  in  the  world,  its  bulk  is  so 
great  that  sixty-three  pounds  of  material 
would  have  to  be  pushed  aside  for  every 
pound  of  pressure  that  can  be  brought 
against  the  dam. 

The  spillway  by  which  the  surplus  waters 
brought  down  by  the  Chagres  into  Gatun 
lake  are  passed  to  the  sea  is  a  most  in- 
teresting structure.  It  consists  of  a  large 
semi-circular  masonry  dam  built  on  the 
small  hill  in  the  middle  of  the  valley,  with 
the  arc  jutting  up  into  the  lake.  On  the 
crest  of  this  dam  were  set  thirteen  piers 
and  two  abutments,  making  fourteen  open- 
ings, each  of  which  is  forty-five  feet  wide 
and  twenty  feet  high.  Huge  gates  close 
these  openings,  moving  up  and  down  on 
roller  bearings.  They  weigh  forty-two  tons 
each,  and  are  operated  by  electricity.  The 
water  is  permitted  to  pass  through  these 
openings,  and  the  torrents  thus  created  are 
made  to  converge  at  the  bottom  of  the 
spillway,  so  that  their  fury  is  neutralized  as 


they  rush  together.     In  addition  to  this, 
there    are    huge    steel-faced    baffle    piers 
erected  near  the  bottom  of  the  spillway 
apron,  which  further  arrest  the  maddened 
waters  as  they  make  their  sixty-foot  plunge 
from  the  surface  of  the  lake  to  the  surface 
of  the  river  channel  below.     The  spillway 
is  so  constructed  that  whenever  the  water 
flows  deeper  than  six  feet  it  adheres  to  the 
apron  of  the  spillway  instead  of  rushing 
over  and  making  a  perpendicular  descent^ 
The  Chagres  River  is  one  of  the  moodiest  J 
streams  in  the  world.     Now  it  flows  along 
as  a  peaceful,  lazy  little  tropical  river  not 
over   two  feet  deep,  moving  sleepily  on 
its  journey  to  the  sea.     A  day  later  it  may 
become  a  wild,  raging  torrent,  forty  feet 
deep,  madly  hastening  on  toward  the  sea. 
Once    there   was    nothing    to   oppose    its 
moods,  and  it  swept  out  to  sea  like  a  tidal 
wave.     But    to-day    the    mouth    of    the 
Chagres,  properly  speaking,  is  no  longer  at 
the  Caribbean  Sea;  it  is  some  thirty  miles 
inland,  at  Gamboa.     What  once  was  the 
valley  of  the  Chagres  between  Gamboa  and 
Gatun  is  now  Gatun  Lake,  and  the  Chagres 
flows  into  it  at  Gamboa  instead  of  flowing 
into  the  Atlantic  Ocean  at  Fort  Lorenzo. 
Now  the  river  may  rage,  coming  down  from 
its  upper  watershed  with  as  great  a  flood 
as  it  has  ever  been  known  to  carry,  but  the 
lake  into  which  it  flows  is  so  extensive  that 
angry  torrents  of  the  Chagres  are  swal- 
lowed up  and  scarcely  disturb  the  placid 
surface.     When  the  lake  reaches  eighty- 
seven  feet,  the  spillway  has  a  capacity  of 
145,000  cubic  feet  per  second,  which  is 
17,000  cubic  feet  more  than  the  Chagres 
has  ever  carried.     In  addition  to  this  the 
big  culverts  in  the  locks  can  dispose  of 
50,000  cubic  feet  per  second.     At  ninety- 
two  feet  the  capacity  of  the  spillway  and 
locks    becomes    262,000    cubic    feet    per 
second,    which   would    take   care   of   two 
Chagres    rivers   instead    of   one.     During 
the  rainy  season  observers  of  the  Chagres 
are  placed  above  Gamboa,  who  telephone 
the  stages  of  the  river  to  the  operators  at 
Gatun.     There    is    no    danger    that    the 
operators  at  Gatun  will  ever  be  caught 


148 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


napping  for  a  period  of  two  days  while 
the  Chagres  is  on  a  rampage,  and  inasmuch 
as  the  capacity  of  the  spillway,  even  at 
the  normal  lake  level,  is  greater  than  the 
water-carrying  capacity  of  the  Chagres  at 
its  flood  stage,  the  Chagres  has  been  robbed 
of  all  its  terrors.  It  has  been  transformed 
from  a  menace  to  the  canal  into  a  burden- 
bearer  of  commerce.  Not  only  will  it 
bear  the  burden  of  maintaining  the  level 
of  the  lake  in  the  thirty-five  miles  stretch 
from  Gatun  to  Pedro  Miguel,  but  it  will 
also  be  called  upon  to  furnish  the  water 
which  will  drive  the  turbines  of  the  hydro- 
electric plant  at  Gatun  spillway,  where  the 
power  for  operating  the  locks,  operating 
the  terminal  facilities,  and  lighting  the 
Canal  Zone  settlements  will  be  generated. 
Furnishing  the  water  for  the  middle  thirty- 
seven  mile  stretch  of  the  canal,  for  the 
locks,  and  for  the  hydro-electric  plant, 
the  Chagres  River  has  been  made  the 
major  factor  of  the  great  trans-isthmian 
highway.  It  has  become  the  friend  of  the 
lock  canal,  where  it  would  have  been  the 
foe  of  a  sea-level  canal. 

The  first  suggestion  of  Gatun  as  a  proper 
site  for  the  locks  on  the  Atlantic 
isthmus  was  made  in  1879  by  Godin  de 
Lepinay,  who  was  chief  engineer  of  bridges 
and  roads  in  France.  He  tried  to  induce 
de  Lesseps  to  give  real  consideration  to 
engineering  figures  on  his  proposition  to 
build  a  lock-type  canal,  but  de  Lesseps 
dodged  the  issue.  De  Lepinay  then  wrote 
his  own  report,  setting  forth  objections 
to  a  sea-level  canal,  and  presenting  the 
advantages  of  a  lock  canal  at  Gatun.  That 
report  has  been  proved  a  very  far-seeing 
one  by  experience  at  Panama.  The  rea- 
soning he  employed  against  a  sea-level 
canal,  and  that  which  he  urged  in  favor 
of  a  lock  canal,  is  amply  vindicated  by 
facts  ascertained  in  the  actual  construc- 
tion of  the  highway.  When  the  Walker 
Commission  took  up  the  matter,  they 
followed  de  Lesseps 's  plan  for  a  dam  at 
Bohio.  The  first  chief  engineer  of  the 
present  canal,  John  F.  Wallace,  took  little 
interest  in  investigations  at  Gatun,  because 


he  advocated  a  sea-level  canal.  It  was 
the  second  chief  engineer,  John  F.  Stevens, 
who  recommended  the  site  at  Gatun, 
and  upon  his  careful  investigations  the 
decision  to  build  the  dam  and  locks  there 
was  reached.  One  of  the  principal  ob- 
jections urged  to  a  lock  canal  was  that  a 
stable  dam  could  not  be  built  at  Gatun. 
How  little  this  objection  was  justified  is 
shown  by  the  success  that  attended  the 
construction  of  Gatun  Dam. 

The  fight  against  a  lock  canal  was  kept 
up  even  after  that  type  had  been  author- 
ized by  Congress,  and  those  who  opposed 
the  lock  canal  centered  their  attack  upon 
Gatun  Dam.  They  declared  that  under- 
ground rivers  flowed  beneath  the  valley 
of  the  Chagres,  and  that  there  was  no  hope 
of  building  there  a  dam  which  would  im- 
pound the  waters  of  Gatun  Lake.  Colonel 
Goethals,  as  soon  as  he  took  charge, 
determined  to  ascertain  just  what  the 
situation  was  beneath  the  surface  of  the 
valley.  He  called  to  his  aid  Caleb  M. 
Seville,  one  of  the  foremost  earth-dam 
experts  of  the  world,  who  had  been  in 
charge  of  the  work  on  the  Wachusetts 
Dam  in  Massachusetts.  They  honey- 
combed the  site  of  Gatun  Dam  with  bor- 
ings, and  sank  test  pits  here  and  there,  so 
that  they  could  go  down  and  see  with 
their  own  eyes  the  various  strata  of  the 
proposed  foundation  of  the  dam.  Never 
was  the  site  of  any  structure  explored  more 
thoroughly  than  was  the  site  of  Gatun 
Dam.  They  found  that  the  alleged  rivers 
beneath  the  valley  of  the  Chagres  had  no 
existence  except  in  the  imagination  of  those 
who  opposed  the  building  of  a  dam  at 
Gatun.  After  they  had  satisfied  them- 
selves as  to  the  site,  they  next  took  up  the 
work  of  determining  the  properties  of  the 
materials  with  which  the  dam  was  to  be 
constructed.  They  modeled  experimental 
dams  drawn  to  scale,  and  brought  varying 
water  pressures  against  them.  They  filled 
huge  steel  cylinders  with  the  material  they 
proposed  to  put  into  the  dam,  and  exerted 
a  water  pressure  upon  it  equal  to  a  head 
of  water  twice  that  of  Gatun  Lake;  and 


1.  Brig.  Gen.  William  L.  Sibert,  builder  of  Gatun  Dam. 

2.  Pipe  line  dredge  pumping  silt  to  crest  of  dam  making  natural  cement  core. 

3.  Lake  side  of  dam,  riprapped  to  prevent  destructive  wave  action. 


1.  The  lake  side  of  Gatun  spillway  dam. 

2.  The  water  after  passing  over  the  spillway. 

3.  Down-stream  side  of  the  spillway  dam. 


ENORMOUS  STRENGTH  OF  GATUN  DAM 


149 


the  trace  of  seepage  through  three  feet 
of  this  material  was  nothing  but  perfectly 
clear  water.  It  was  obvious  that  if  three 
feet  of  the  material  was  impervious  under 
such  a  pressure,  there  could  be  no  question 
about  the  800  feet  of  it  to  be  used  in  the 
dam. 

When  the  stone  in  one  of  the  "toes"  of 
the  dam  sank  in  1908,  a  sensational  dis- 
patch was  sent  to  a  New  Orleans  news- 
paper stating  that  the  dam  had  given  way. 
This  report  was  spread  broadcast,  and  it 
so  stirred  the  nation — for  the  people  had 
not  stopped  to  think  that  there  was  as 
yet  no  dam  at  Gatun  to  give  way — that 
President  Roosevelt  asked  President-elect 
Taft  to  go  to  Panama  to  investigate  the 
situation.  The  net  result  of  this  investi- 
gation was  that  the  engineers  who  accom- 
panied Mr.  Taft — Messrs.  F.  P.  Stearns, 
Arthur  P.  Davis,  Henry  A.  Allen,  James  D. 
Schuyler,  John  R.  Freeman,  and  Allen 
Hazen — decided  that  the  dam  was  being 
built  with  a  greater  margin  of  safety  than 
even  the  utmost  precaution  required. 
They  reported  that  the  crest  of  the  dam 
should  be  cut  down  thirty  feet,  and  that 
there  was  no  necessity  for  driving  inter- 
locking sheet  piling  across  the  valley  as  a 
precaution  against  imaginary  underground 
rivers. 

The  completed  Gatun  Dam  has  proven 
a  happy  surprise.  It  has  shown  itself  to  be 
water-tight  beyond  all  engineering  de- 
mands; it  has  become  such  a  part  and 
parcel  of  the  topography  of  the  Gatun 
region  that  it  seems  to  be  nothing  more 
than  a  hill  of  very  gentle  slope,  thrown  by 


the  hand  of  Nature  across  the  valley  at 
Gatun.  Nature  has  adopted  it  as  a  part 
of  her  own  work,  having  covered  it  with 
a  dense  cover  of  jungle  growth  which  re- 
lieves it  of  every  indication  of  artificiality. 

At  Pedro  Miguel  the  valley  to  be  closed 
up  was  half  a  mile  wide.  Here  a  very 
small  dam,  thrown  from  the  locks  to  the 
hills  on  the  west,  acts  as  a  cork  for  the 
Gatun  Lake  bottle,  of  which  Culebra  Cut 
is  the  neck.  At  Miraflores  there  are  two 
small  dams.  The  construction  of  the  west 
dam  is  similar  to  that  at  Gatun,  and  runs 
almost  parallel  with  the  locks.  This  was 
made  necessary  in  order  to  control  a  small 
river  during  the  period  of  lock  construction 
at  Miraflores.  More  than  a  dozen  of  these 
small  rivers  were  haltered  and  led  about 
by  the  canal  diggers  during  the  work  of 
completing  the  canal.  Some  of  them  were 
forced  to  change  their  beds  several  times 
before  they  were  finally  permitted  to  resume 
an  age-long  repose. 

At  the  outset  of  the  work  at  Panama  it 
was  intended  to  create  a  large  lake  at  the 
Pacific  end  of  the  canal,  by  throwing  dams 
across  depressions  between  Ancon  Hill, 
Sosa  Hill,  and  the  hills  to  the  west  of  the 
canal.  It  was  found,  however,  that  instead 
of  costing  $4,000,000,  dams  at  these  points 
would  cost  $11,000,000.  Furthermore, 
locks  and  dams  at  Sosa  Hill  would  have 
been  exposed  to  an  enemy's  fire  from 
Panama  Bay,  while  Miraflores  is  out  of  the 
range  of  hostile  guns.  These  considera- 
tions led  to  the  abandonment  of  the  pro- 
jected lake,  and  the  digging  of  a  sea-level 
canal  from  the  Pacific  to  Miraflores  followed. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 


THE  STORY  OF  THE  LOCKS 

THE  FUNCTION  OF  THE  PANAMA  LOCKS — THEIR  DIMENSIONS — THE  WATER  CULVERTS 
— THE  LOCK  GATES — How  THE  GATE  LEAVES  ARE  MOVED — PRECAUTIONS 
AGAINST  ACCIDENT  IN  THEIR  MOVEMENTS — MAKING  THE  GATE  CONTACT 
WATERTIGHT — SAFEGUARDING  THE  OPERATIONS  OF  THE  LOCKS — HUGE  FENDER 
CHAINS — AUTOMATIC  PUMPS — TOWING  LOCOMOTIVES — EXTRA  SAFETY  GATES 
— THE  EMERGENCY  DAM — ACCIDENT  AT  THE  Soo  LOCKS — ELIMINATING  THE 
PERSONAL  EQUATION — LITTLE  GATES  AND  BIG  GATES — GREAT  USE  OF  CON- 
CRETE— CABLEWAYS  AND  ELECTRIC  RAILROADS — MIXING  CONCRETE  AND 
WIGWAGGING  IT  INTO  POSITION — USING  CRANES  ON  THE  PACIFIC  SIDE. 


THE  great  locks  at  Panama  through 
which  ships  are  lifted  up  from  the 
sea  to  Gatun  Lake  and  back  down 
to  the  sea  again,  after  a  thirty-seven-mile 
sail  through  fresh  water,  constitute  a 
vast  and  wonderful  engineering  work. 
Their  total  cost  approximates  $60,000,000. 
With  their  approach  walls,  their  aggregate 
length  is  nearly  two  miles.  There  are 
three  steps  on  each  side  of  the  isthmus 
by  which  ships  are  lifted  up  85  feet  on  the 
one  side  and  let  down  85  feet  on  the  other. 
Each  of  these  steps  has  two  lock  cham- 
bers, making  parallel  shipways  through 
the  locks.  The  side  walls  vary  from  45 
to  50  feet  wide  at  the  floor  of  the  locks, 
and  at  a  point  24^  feet  above  the  floor 
they  begin  to  step  in  6-foot  steps  until 
they  are  8  feet  wide  at  the  top.  The 
total  width  of  the  locks  between  the  two 
side  walls  is  280  feet.  In  the  middle  of 
the  locks,  and  running  parallel  with  the 
side  walls,  is  a  center  wall,  which  divides 
the  locks  into  two  chambers.  This  wall  is 
60  feet  wide  all  the  way  up.  At  a  point 
42^  feet  above  the  floor  of  the  lock  the 
solid  construction  ceases,  and  a  U-shaped 
opening  runs  the  entire  length  of  the  wall. 
This  serves  to  provide  three  long  tunnels, 
the  full  length  of  the  center  wall,  one  above 
the  other.  The  lowest  of  these  tunnels  is 
used  for  drainage  purposes;  the  middle 
one  is  used  for  the  conduits  through  which 
the  electric  cables  are  run ;  the  upper  tunnel 


is  used   as  a  passageway  from  one  piece 
of  operating  machinery  to  another. 

Running  lengthwise  through  the  side  and 
center  walls  are  three  large  water  tunnels, 
or  culverts,  eighteen  feet  in  diameter — 
large  enough  to  accommodate  a  modern 
passenger  train.  These  huge  culverts  are 
used  to  carry  the  water  down  from  ^ie  lake 
into  the  several  locks.  From  these  tun- 
nels extend  a  series  of  cross  culverts  which 
pass  under  the  floor  of  the  locks.  There 
are  fourteen  of  these  cross  culverts  in  each 
lock  chamber.  Seven  of  them  open  from 
the  side  culvert  and  seven  from  the  center 
wall  culvert.  These  cross  culverts  are 
large  enough  for  the  passage  of  a  two-horse 
team.  Through  each  one  of  them  there 
are  five  openings  into  the  floor  of  the  lock 
chamber  itself,  making  seventy  in  all 
in  the  bottom  of  each  lock  chamber. 
These  holes  are  so  large  that  a  sugar  barrel 
could  pass  through  each  one  without  diffi- 
culty. The  passage  of  water  through  the 
culverts  is  controlled  by  a  large  number 
of  valves.  In  the  large  wall  culverts, 
these  valves  consist  of  two  huge  gates, 
each  8  by  1 8  feet,  which  slide  up  and  down 
in  frames  after  the  manner  of  a  window. 
Each  of  these  gates  weighs  ten  tons,  and 
must  be  able  to  hold  in  check  a  head  of 
sixty  feet  of  water.  The  gates  which  con- 
trol the  passage  of  the  water  from  the  wall 
culverts  to  the  cross  culverts  have  ordi- 
nary cylindrical  valves.  They  are  so 


150 


MOVEMENT  OF  THE  GATES 


arranged  that  each  one  may  be  opened  or 
closed  independently,  or  they  may  be 
opened  or  closed  in  series. 

The  gates  which  separate  the  several 
chambers  of  a  flight  of  locks  are  of  enor- 
mous size,  ranging  from  47  to  82  feet  high, 
and  are  7  feet  thick.  They  are  built  in  two 
leaves  to  each  gate,  each  of  these  leaves 
being  65  feet  wide.  The  weight  of  the 
leaves  varies  from  390  tons  to  730  tons, 
depending  upon  the  height  of  the  leaf. 
They  are  swung  to  the  walls  of  the  lock 
chamber  in  such  a  way  that  when  they  are 
closed  they  extend  across  the  lock  in  the 
shape  of  a  flattened  V,  with  the  apex 
pointing  in  the  direction  from  which  the 
pressure  comes.  The  lower  sill  of  each  gate 
leaf  weighs  approximately  eighteen  tons. 
The  gates  are  built  up  of  structural  steel, 
and  are  covered  with  large  riveted  steel 
plates,  just  as  the  hull  of  a  ship  is  covered. 
Each  of  these  gate  leaves  is  hung  on  huge 
pintles  anchored  to  the  walls  of  the  lock. 
The  hinges  that  are  hung  on  them  weigh 
36,752  pounds  each.  They  were  made  to 
stand  a  strain  of  40,000  pounds  before 
stretching,  and  70,000  pounds  before  break- 
ing. Under  an  actual  test  it  was  found 
that  they  were  able  to  stand  a  strain  of 
3,300,000  pounds  before  breaking. 

The  movement  of  a  gate  leaf  is  accom- 
plished through  a  huge  connecting  rod, 
one  end  of  which  is  attached  to  the  leaf 
about  midway  between  the  wall  and  the 
other  end  of  the  leaf;  the  other  end  is 
attached  to  a  huge  master  wheel  which  lies 
flat  on  the  top  of  the  lock  wall.  This  mas- 
ter wheel  weighs  34,000  pounds  and  turns 
on  a  huge  center  pin  which  is  keyed  in  a 
heavy  casting,  anchored  securely  to  the 
concrete.  The  casting  and  the  center  pin 
weigh  13,000  pounds.  The  rim  of  the 
great  master  wheel  is  so  heavy  that  its 
weight  would  break  the  spokes,  and  so  it  is 
supported  in  four  places  by  rollers.  One- 
half  of  this  rim  is  cog  geared.  Through 
these  it  is  revolved  by  an  electric  motor 
which  drives  a  train  of  gears  and  pinions. 
These  turn  the  rim  of  the  wheel,  which 
moves  the  connecting  rod  to  the  gate, 


causing  the  gate  to  open  or  close  in  two 
minutes.  The  action  is  just  the  reverse 
of  the  action  of  the  connecting  rod  on  the 
driving  wheel  of  a  locomotive.  If  the 
reader  can  picture  a  locomotive  suspended 
in  the  air,  and  the  driving  wheel  moved  by 
power  applied  to  the  rim,  the  resulting 
movement  of  the  connecting  rod  with  the 
piston  will  represent  in  general  outline  the 
method  by  which  the  gate  leaves  are  moved 
back  and  forth.  The  motor  is  remotely 
controlled  by  an  operator  stationed  in  the 
controlling  house  near  the  lower  end  of 
the  upper  locks,  a  simple  pull  of  a  small 
switch  being  sufficient  either  to  close  or 
open  a  7oo-ton  gate. 

Elaborate  precautions  have  been  taken 
against  accidents  to  the  gate  leaves.  It  is 
easy  to  see  that  this  huge  connecting  rod, 
driven  by  the  powerful  master  wheel, 
pushing  the  gate  shut  or  pulling  it  open, 
would  cause  great  damage  in  case  the  gate 
struck  an  obstruction,  unless  some  method 
were  devised  to  stop  the  machinery  auto- 
matically. Such  a  method  was  devised 
and  is  in  operation.  At  the  gate  end  of 
the  connecting  rod  there  are  two  large 
nests  of  springs,  one  of  which  comes  into 
play  when  the  gate  is  being  opened,  and 
the  other  when  the  gate  is  being  closed. 
These  springs  will  bear  a  pressure  of  60,- 
ooo  pounds  before  compressing  in  the 
slightest  degree,  and  a  pressure  of  134,000 
pounds  before  breaking.  In  case  a  gate 
leaf  is  being  closed,  and  a  serious  obstruc- 
tion is  encountered,  one  nest  of  springs  will 
be  compressed.  When  they  reach  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  compression  a  lever  is  auto- 
matically thrown  which  cuts  off  the  elec- 
tric power  from  the  master  wheel  and 
stops  it  instantly.  The  opposite  nest  of 
springs  acts  in  the  same  way  when  the  gate 
strikes  an  obstruction  on  being  opened. 

The  connecting  rods  and  master  wheels 
are  so  arranged  that  the  greatest  power  is 
exerted  when  the  most  of  it  is  needed. 
As  a  gate  leaf  is  swung  open  it  must  force 
out  the  water  in  the  V-shaped  space  be- 
tween it  and  the  lock  wall,  so  that  most 
power  is  needed  just  at  that  time.  When 


152 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


a  gate  swings  back  against  its  recess  in 
the  wall  the  angle  of  the  connecting  rod 
is  such  as  to  give  it  great  leverage  but  slow 
motion.  The  same  wise  provision  has 
been  made  for  holding  the  gale  in  posi- 
tion when  closed.  At  this  point  the  con- 
necting rod  is  practically  on  a  dead  center, 
so  that  any  pressure  that  may  be  exerted 
on  it  does  not  tend  to  revolve  the  master 
\>  Awheel. 

It  may  be  imagined  that  without  many 
sealing  devices  there  would  be  openings 
between  the  gate  leaves  and  between  the 
gates,  walls,  and  floors  that  would  leave 
them  anything  but  water  tight.  One  of  the 
devices  in  use  is  known  as  a  miter-forcing 
machine.  This  consists  of  a  mechanism 
placed  on  the  end  of  one  gate  leaf,  which 
reaches  out  and  takes  hold  of  an  engag- 
ir.0  part  on  the  end  of  the  opposite  leaf, 
when  the  gates  are  in  the  act  of  clos- 
ing. It  forces  the  two  leaves  together  and 
holds  them  in  rigid  contact  so  long  as  the 
gates  are  shut.  In  opening  the  gates  it  is 
necessary  first  to  release  this  miter-forcing 
machine.  On  the  floor  of  the  lock  is 
placed  a  heavy  timber  which  comes  in 
contact  with  very  heavy  rubber  flaps  four 
inches  wide,  on  the  bottom  of  the  gate, 
thus  making  a  perfect  seal. 

Around  no  other  canal  locks  in  the  world 
have  so  many  safeguards  been  thrown.  In 
the  first  place,  across  the  locks  ahead  of 
each  gate,  a  huge  chain,  whose  links  are 
fashioned  out  of  three-inch  iron,  is  swung 
in  such  a  way  that  any  ship  not  stopping 
in  due  time  will  ram  its  nose  into  the 
chain  and  will  be  checked  by  it  before  any 
damage  can  be  done.  This  chain  will 
stop  within  70  feet  a  10,000- ton  ship 
moving  at  the  rate  of  five  knots  an  hour. 
Each  of  these  protective  chains  has  a  great 
hydraulic  paying-out  arrangement  at  either 
end,  which  is  imbedded  in  the  lock  walls. 
The  chain  begins  to  pay  out  when  the 
pressure  reaches  100  tons.  It  will  not 
break  under  a  pressure  of  less  than  262 
tons.  Each  chain  is  428  feet  long,  and 
its  two  e;ids  are  attached  to  big  plungers 
in  cylinders  imbedded  in  the  lock  walls. 


There  is  a  broad  surface  of  water  under 
each  plunger  from  which  small  valves 
open  up  when  a  pressure  of  750  pounds 
to  the  square  inch  is  brought  against 
them.  The  harder  the  pressure,  the 
greater  the  amount  of  water  let  out 
and  the  greater  the  resulting  speed  of  the 
paying-out  apparatus.  The  chain  pays 
out  four  feet  for  each  foot  of  movement  of 
the  piston.  The  hydraulic  arrangement 
of  the  chains  practically  makes  them  vast 
water  buffers  against  the  progress  of  the 
ship.  The  paying-out  process  is  rapid 
enough  to  prevent  any  undue  strain  on 
the  fender  chains,  and  yet  slow  enough  to 
stop  the  ship  before  it  can  do  any  harm. 
There  are  twenty-four  of  these  fender 
chains  across  the  locks,  and  their  normal 
position  is  one  of  readiness  to  stop  any 
ship  which  approaches  the  lock  gates 
when  it  is  not  under  thorough  control. 
These  chains  are  raised  and  lowered  in 
about  one  minute.  As  there  is  always 
danger  that  a  paying-out  mechanism  may 
be  flooded,  a  unique  automatic  pump  has 
been  installed.  A  flood  valve  is  in  position 
always  ready  to  turn  on  an  electric  switch, 
which  starts  the  pump  the  minute  the 
paying-out  mechanism  is  threatened  with 
such  an  overflow  of  water.  As  soon  as 
the  water  is  pumped  out,  the  switch  is 
turned  back  by  the  same  automatic  pro- 
cess, and  the  pump  stopped. 

It  has  been  demonstrated  that  the 
majority  of  accidents  in  the  operation  of 
locks  are  caused  by  ships  passing  through 
them  under  their  own  power.  A  single 
misunderstood  order  or  a  single  moment 
of  hesitation  in  executing  an  order  passed 
from  the  lock  operator  to  the  man  in  the 
engine  room  may  result  in  disastrous  con- 
sequences, and  has  so  resulted  upon  many 
occasions  in  various  locks.  At  Panama 
no  ship  will  be  allowed  to  pass  through 
the  locks  under  its  own  power.  All 
vessels  are  required  to  come  up  to  the 
guide  walls,  where  they  are  taken  in 
tow  by  electric  towing  engines.  There 
are  engines  on  each  of  the  two  walls  of  a 
lock  chamber,  and  with  ordinary  ships 


1.  Dike  at  Gamboa  which  kept  the  water  of  the  Chagres  River  out  of  Culebra  Cut  during  the  construction  period.     Well 

drills  at  work  preparing  for  blasting. 

2.  Blowing  up  Gamboa  dike. 


PROTECTION  OF  THE  LOCKS 


153 


two  of  these  will  be  connected  with  the 
forward  part  of  the  ship  by  cables,  while 
two  other  engines  get  behind  to  hold  the 
vessel  from  moving  too  fast.  In  this  way 
the  average  ship  will  have  four  engines 
attached  to  it  by  long  cables,  two  for  pull- 
ing it  forward  and  two  for  preventing  it 
from  moving  too  fast,  and  they  stop  it 
exactly  when  a  stop  is  desired.  Each  of 
these  engines  is  provided  with  a  windlass 
by  which  it  may  control  a  ship  even  when 
standing  still.  There  are  two  tracks  for 
these  engines.  The  track  used  in  towing 
a  ship  through  the  locks  is  a  rack  track  to 
which  the  engine  is  geared.  An  ordinary 
railroad  track  is  used  for  the  towing 
locomotives  when  they  run  idle.  These 
towing  locomotives  were  built  by  the 
General  Electric  Company.  The  ones  de- 
signed by  the  Canal  Commission  provided 
friction  drums  which  would  automatically 
permit  the  cable  to  pay  out.  It  was 
found  that  these  friction  drums  were  un- 
reliable, and  they  were  discarded.  An- 
other trouble  encountered  with  the  first 
engine  built  was  that  the  paying-out  drum 
was  too  narrow,  which  caused  the  cable 
much  injury  in  its  operation.  Still  an- 
other difficulty  was  the  jar  caused  by  the 
uneven  surface  of  the  rack  track,  when  the 
wheels  which  protected  the  locomotives 
from  a  side  pull  engaged  it.  This  trouble 
was  overcome  by  utilizing  huge  springs  in 
a  side-thrust-preventing  mechanism.  The 
solenoid  brakes  and  friction  clutches  were 
substituted  for  hand  brakes  and  clutches, 
and  the  windlass  was  made  wider,  so  that 
the  engine,  as  finally  built,  embodies  the 
most  approved  ideas  in  towing  locomotive 
design. 

Another  method  of  protecting  the  locks 
from  injury  is  the  provision  of  extra  gates 
at  every  exposed  position.  These  gates 
are  seventy  feet  away  from  the  operating 
gates.  Should  a  ship,  approaching  the 
locks,  by  any  chance  break  the  big  fender 
chain  which  is  intended  to  stop  it,  the 
safety  gates  would  next  be  rammed.  These 
gates  are  even  more  securely  mounted 
than  the  main  operating  gates,  and  the 


apex  of  the  two  leaves  is  turned  in  the 
direction  from  which  the  ship  would  come. 
It  would  take  tremendous  force  to  ram 
down  a  pair  of  these  protective  gates. 
Every  precaution  will  be  taken  to  stop 
ships  before  they  reach  the  fender  chains, 
and  it  is  to  be  doubted  whether  one  in  a 
thousand  would  ram  its  nose  into  these 
chains.  Likewise,  it  is  to  be  doubted 
whether  one  in  a  thousand  of  those  which 
did  encounter  the  fender  chains  would  break 
them,  so  that  there  is  not  one  chance 
in  a  million  that  the  protective  gates  will 
be  rammed.  And  it  is  probably  a  thousand 
to  one  that  no  ship  which  had  negotiated 
these  defenses  would  break  down  the  pro- 
tective gates.  Thus  the  possibility  of 
ramming  the  operating  gates  is  seen  to  be 
exceedingly  remote. 

But  in  their  unprecedented  spirit  of 
precaution  the  designers  of  the  locks  have 
provided  against  even  so  remote  a  chance 
as  that.  At  the  head  of  each  set  of  locks 
they  have  built  an  emergency  dam  with 
which  they  may  close  up  the  lock  chambers 
with  sheets  of  steel,  in  the  event  that  all 
other  precautions  fail.  These  dams  are 
huge  cantilever  pivot  bridges,  one  of 
which  is  built  on  each  side  wall  of  a  set  of 
locks.  When  out  of  use  the  dam  reposes 
on  the  wall,  parallel  with  its  longitudinal 
axis.  When  needed  to  close  the  channel 
it  is  swung  across  the  lock  by  electric- 
ity. To  the  floor  beams  of  the  end  of 
the  bridge  which  goes  across  the  lock, 
there  are  attached  a  series  of  six  wicket 
girders. 

One  end  of  each  of  these  girders  is  free, 
and  by  steel  cables  they  may  be  raised  or 
lowered  singly  or  in  series.  When  it  is 
desired  to  use  the  dam,  the  bridge  is  swung 
across  the  channel,  and  the  free  end  of  the 
girders  let  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  lock, 
where  they  engage  in  an  offset.  These 
thus  make  a  sort  of  inclined  railway,  down 
which  huge  steel  plates  are  run  on  live 
roller  bearings.  There  are  six  plates  rest- 
ing on  each  girder,  and  when  they  are  all 
in  position  they  make  a  solid  steel  dam 
extending  from  the  bottom  of  the  locks  to 


154 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


the  floor  of  the  bridge.  Every  precaution 
has  been  taken  to  make  these  dams  efficient. 
The  bridges  are  swung  by  electricity,  and 
limit  switches  make  certain  that  they  will 
stop  in  exactly  the  right  position.  Elec- 
trically operated  machinery  drives  the 
wedges  which  hold  the  bridge  firmly  in 
position.  The  emergency  dams  were  made 
by  the  American  Bridge  Company,  and 
each  one  had  to  be  thoroughly  tried  out  be- 
fore it  was  accepted.  It  takes  only  a  few 
minutes  to  swing  the  bridge  across  the 
channel,  and  not  much  longer  to  close  up 
the  channel  with  the  steel-plated  dam  which 
swings  down  from  the  floor  of  the  bridge  to 
the  floor  of  the  locks.  While  all  of  the 
machinery  of  the  emergency  dams  is 
operated  by  electricity,  provision  is  made 
for  their  operation  by  hand  in  the  event 
that  they  are  needed  in  an  emergency  when 
no  electric  current  is  available.  That 
these  dams  give  efficient  results  is  shown  by 
experience  at  the  Soo  Canal.  There  a  ship 
rammed  the  gates  and  started  the  waters 
flowing  through  the  locks  with  destructive 
force.  The  emergency  dam  had  been  so 
long  out  of  use  that  it  could  be  operated 
only  by  hand.  Yet  with  this  difficulty,  the 
Soo  lock  operators  were  able  to  check  the 
flow  of  water  in  a  very  little  while. 

Every  precaution  has  been  taken  to  elim- 
inate the  personal  equation  in  the  operation 
of  the  locks  at  Panama.  The  man  who 
operates  a  set  of  locks  occupies  a  control 
house  on  the  center  wall  of  the  upper  flight 
of  locks,  thus  giving  him  an  unobstructed 
view  of  the  whole  series  of  locks  with  which 
he  must  deal.  Further  than  this,  he  has  a 
little  model  of  the  locks,  and  every  result 
of  his  manipulation  of  the  levers  and 
switches  stands  out  before  him  on  the 
model  in  his  office.  When  he  opens  the 
mighty  gates  of  the  locks,  he  also  opens  the 
gates  of  the  little  lock  model;  when  he 
operates  the  valves  in  the  water  supply  cul- 
verts, he  also  operates  the  valves  of  his  little 
model.  In  this  way  he  is  able  at  all  times 
to  know  exactly  what  he  has  been  doing. 
Further  than  this,  he  cannot  make  a  wrong 
movement  even  if  he  should  be  careless. 


His  system  of  levers  and  buttons  is  an  in- 
terlocking one,  and  he  simply  cannot  do 
the  wrong  thing.  For  instance,  he  cannot 
let  the  water  through  the  large  culverts 
until  the  gates  which  are  to  control  this 
water  have  first  been  set  into  position. 
Likewise,  he  cannot  operate  the  gates  until 
he  has  first  set  the  fender  chains  in  their 
proper  position.  In  this  way  practically 
every  chance  of  accident  from  carelessness 
is  eliminated. 

Having  seen  now  what  the  locks  are,  let 
us  return  and  look  at  them  in  the  process 
of  construction.  In  building  them  enough 
concrete  was  used  to  build  a  row  of  houses 
reaching  from  Chicago  to  St.  Louis.  Up- 
ward of  five  million  barrels  were  used  in  con- 
structing the  locks,  spillways,  and  dams. 
The  stone  for  the  locks  on  the  Atlantic  side 
was  brought  from  Porto  Bello;  that  used  on 
the  Pacific  side  was  quarried  at  Ancon  Hill. 
Two  different  types  of  material  handling 
machines  were  used.  On  the  Atlantic  side 
the  concrete  was  handled  by  huge  Lidger- 
wood  cableways.  The  towers  of  these 
cableways  were  85  feet  high,  and  they  were 
set  on  the  banks  of  the  canal  so  that  the 
cableways  would  span  the  set  of  locks. 
The  cables  consisted  of  two  and  a  half  inch 
lock  steel  wire.  They  were  guaranteed  to 
carry  six  tons  at  a  trip  and  to  make  twenty 
trips  an  hour.  Each  cableway  was  guar- 
anteed for  a  life  of  60,000  trips. 

A  circular  electric  railroad  connected  the 
storage  piles  of  sand,  stone,  and  cement 
with  the  concrete  mixing  machinery.  The 
material  in  the  storage  piles  had  been 
brought  to  Gatun  in  barges,  the  sand  from 
Nombre  de  Dios,  the  stone  from  Porto 
Bello,  and  the  cement  from  the  docks  at 
Colon.  The  sand  and  stone  supply  was 
unloaded  upon  the  storage  piles  by  cable- 
ways  like  those  used  in  handling  the  con- 
crete in  building  the  locks.  It  was  taken 
from  these  piles  and  loaded  upon  the  little 
cars  of  the  circular  railway,  in  exactly  the 
right  proportions.  Then  the  cars  were  sent 
on  their  way  to  the  concrete  mixers,  which 
could  deliver  a  mixed  charge  or  receive 
an  unmixed  one  without  stopping.  The 


HANDLING  THE  CONCRETE 


155 


little  cars  on  the  circular  railway  ran  with- 
out motormen.  They  had  automatic  gov- 
ernors that  held  them  to  a  constant  speed 
up  hill  and  down,  and  when  going  down 
hill  their  motors  were  reversed  into  genera- 
tors, thus  making  them  furnish,  in  part, 
the  current  that  lifted  some  other  car  over 
the  incline. 

After  the  concrete  mixers  had  finished 
rolling  around  the  stone,  sand,  cement,  and 
water  in  their  busy  maws,  they  dumped  the 
mixture  out  in  big  buckets  mounted  on 
little  electric  trains  operated  by  a  motor- 
man  on  a  third  rail  track.  Each  little  train 
carried  two  buckets.  One  of  them  would 
pull  up  to  the  concrete  mixers,  receive  its 
two  bucketfuls  of  concrete,  nearly  six  tons 
of  it  to  the  bucket,  and  then  hasten  away 
to  a  point  under  a  Lidgerwood  cableway. 
Here  would  come  down  out  of  the  air  two 


empty  buckets,  which  would  be  set  on  the 
cars  beside  the  two  full  ones.  A  little  wig- 
wagging served  to  place  them  properly, 
and  then  a  little  more  wigwagging,  and  the 
full  buckets  were  caught  up  into  the  air  to 
the  steel  cableway  where  they  struck  a  car- 
rier that  carried  them  across  to  the  desired 
position  over  the  locks.  Here  they  were 
emptied  and  returned  to  be  delivered  to  the 
next  train  that  came  along,  in  exchange  for 
two  other  buckets  rilled  with  concrete. 

On  the  Pacific  side  cranes  were  used  in 
lieu  of  cableways,  and  dinkey  steam  loco- 
motives instead  of  electric  railways.  One 
crane  carried  the  materials  to  the  concrete 
mixers,  which  turned  over  the  concrete 
to  the  little  trains,  just  as  at  Gatun.  They 
conveyed  it  to  the  other  crane,  which 
lifted  it  up  to  the  desired  position,  where 
it  was  dumped. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 


HAMMERED  DOWN  UNIT-COSTS 

COST  OF  REMOVING  MATERIAL  REDUCED  FROM  NINETY-EIGHT  CENTS  A  CUBIC  YARD 
TO  FIFTY-FOUR — HAMPERED  BY  SLIDES — THE  COST-KEEPER'S  SHEET — VALUE 
OF  RIVALRY — ESTABLISHMENT  OF  A  NEWSPAPER — How  IT  DIFFERED  FROM 
THE  DE  LESSEPS  PAPER — REPORTS  ON  THE  PERFORMANCES  OF  STEAM  SHOVELS 
— THREE  DIVISIONS  OF  WORK,  ATLANTIC,  PACIFIC,  CENTRAL — RIVALRY  IN 
ECONOMY — FIRST  ESTIMATES  OF  PROBABLE  COSTS — THE  SAVING  IN  COST  OF 
CONCRETE  AT  GATUN  $500,000 — SAVING-  IN  CONCRETE  ON  PACIFIC  SIDE  OF 
CANAL  $6,500,000 — PORTO  BELLO  QUARRY  STONE  EXPENSIVE — COMPARISON 
OP  COSTS  BEFORE  JULY  i,  1909,  WITH  YEARS  THAT  FOLLOWED — LIEUTENANT 
COLONEL  GAILLARD  AT  CULEBRA  CUT — VALUE  OF  COST-KEEPING  SYSTEM — 
MILLIONS  SAVED  EACH  YEAR — AN  EXAMPLE  OF  PUBLIC  EFFICIENCY — CANAL 
COMPLETED  YEARS  AHEAD  OF  EXPECTATIONS. 


IN  1908  it  was  estimated  that  the  cost 
of  removing  the  material  from  Culebra 
Cut  would  be  ninety-eight  cents  a 
yard.  By  1912  the  cost  had  been  forced 
down  to  fifty-four  cents.  The  rigorous 
hammering  down  process  applied  in  Cule- 
bra Cut  saved  Uncle  Sam  some  fifty  million 
dollars  on  the  estimates  of  1908.  When 
those  estimates  were  made,  it  was  thought 
that  there  would  be  nothing  but  the 
straight-away  removal  of  the  spoil  in  place. 
Little  was  it  dreamed  that  thirty  mil- 
lion yards  of  material  would  slip  and  slide 
and  break  into  the  cut,  necessitating  not 
only  its  removal  under  great  difficulties,  but 
making  more  difficult  the  removal  of  the 
material  naturally  there.  But  that  hap- 
pened, and  had  not  the  engineers  faced 
squarely  the  problems  it  involved,  there 
would  have  been  a  vast  deal  of  trouble  at 
Panama,  trouble  that  would  have  cost  mil- 
lions of  dollars  and  involving  years  of 
delay. 

It  was  a  keen  understanding  of  the  value 
of  rivalry  among  the  workers  that  led 
Colonel  Goethals  to  institute  the  cost- 
keeping  system  which  he  established  at 
Panama.  He  wanted  every  man  on  the 
job  to  know  just  what  he  was  doing  and 
just  what  his  colaborers  were  doing.  He 
wanted  comparisons  made  constantly — 
and  on  the  isthmus,  comparisons  were 


not  odious  except  to  the  man  who  fell 
behind  in  his  work. 

One  of  the  valuable  aids  in  reducing 
unit-costs  was  the  canal  newspaper.  De 
Lesseps  had  a  canal  bulletin,  which  devoted 
much  space  to  the  great  promoter  himself 
and  drew  glowing  pictures  of  achievements 
that  existed  only  in  the  brains  of  those  who 
were  responsible  for  the  bulletin.  Goethals 
started  a  paper  that  showed  records  from 
week  to  week,  thereby  stirring  up  active 
rivalry  among  the  men. 

Each  week,  the  Canal  Record  came  out 
with  a  report  upon  the  performance  of  the 
steam  shovels.  Every  steam  shovel  crew 
sought  to  head  the  list  and  to  go  its  own 
achievements  one  better.  The  competi- 
tion for  high  records  stirred  the  enthu- 
siasm of  the  men  to  a  remarkable  degree. 
Of  course,  the  shovel  that  got  the  week's 
record  wanted  to  win  the  month's  record; 
and  the  one  that  made  the  month's  record 
tried  to  capture  the  year's  record,  and  so 
there  was  incentive  multiplied  and  in- 
tensified. It  meant  more  cubic  yards  of 
dirt  moving  in  a  given  time,  the  only 
extra  cost  being  the  added  repairs  to 
machinery  and  a  little  extra  coal.  The 
results  of  this  campaign  for  steam  shovel 
efficiency  were  gratifying  in  more  ways  than 
the  saving  of  money.  Every  time  a 
shovel  took  out  a  hundred  yards  more 


156 


1.  Brig.  Gen.  Harry  F.  Hodges,  designer  of  locks  at  Panama. 

2.  Dredging  fleet  entering  locks  at  Gatun. 

3.  Dredge  in  lock  chamber  at  Pedro  Miguel. 


1.  View  showing  gates  closed  across  a  lock  chamber  and  water  welling  up  through  the  floor  of  the  lock. 

2.  From  large  culvert  at  the  right  the  water  is  conveyed  through  cross  culverts  under  the  lock  floor,  and  thence  through 

openings  in  the  floor,  as  shown  in  No.  I. 


RIVALRY  AMONG  THE  DIVISIONS 


157 


than  its  estimated  capacity  in  a  given 
time,  it  hastened  the  completion  of  the 
big  waterway,  for  Culebra  Cut  was  the 
backbone  of  the  work,  just  as  Culebra 
Mountain  was  the  backbone  of  the  isth- 
mus. 

When  Colonel  Goethals  installed  the 
cost-keeping  system  under  which  he  pro- 
posed to  check  up  the  work  of  every  man 
on  the  canal,  he  was  carrying  out  the 
same  idea  that  had  led  to  keen  rivalry 
among  the  Atlantic,  Central,  and  Pacific 
divisions.  The  Atlantic  division  he  made 
a  military  organization.  Every  one  of  its 
responsible  heads  was  a  military  man.  The 
Pacific  division  was  strictly  a  civilian's  or- 
ganization— not  a  man  in  it  was  an  army 
man.  The  Central  division  was  made  up 
of  a  military  head  and  civilian  subordinate 
officials.  Of  course  the  army  men  on  the 
Atlantic  side  were  not  willing  that  the 
civilians  over  the  mountain  should  excel 
them,  and,  of  course,  the  civilians  on 
the  Pacific  side  would  not  think  of  allowing 
the  army  folk  across  the  Continental 
Divide  to  come  out  ahead  of  them  if  that 
could  be  avoided;  so  under  the  leadership 
of  Sidney  B.  Williamson,  they  toiled  as 
though  their  very  lives  depended  on  the 
job.  Meanwhile,  the  Central  division,  hav- 
ing little  work  to  do  that  was  strictly  com- 
parable to  the  work  in  the  other  two  divi- 
sions, desired  above  everything  else  to  get 
its  work  as  a  whole  finished  before  the 
other  two  divisions  had  finished.  It  is 
asserted  that  they  would  have  finished 
their  work  first  but  for  the  slides  which  they 
had  to  combat.  These  slides  threw  them 
back  more  than  two  years. 

After  Colonel  Goethals  had  given  the 
force  a  year's  try-out,  he  set  to  work,  as 
stated  in  another  chapter,  to  reduce  unit 
costs.  He  wanted  rivalry  not  only  as  to 
expedition,  but  as  to  economy,  so  he  insti- 
tuted a  cost-keeping  system.  This  system 
was  not  popular  in  some  quarters,  being 
referred  to  as  "a  kindergarten  for 
accountants."  It  was  suggested  that 
it  would  cost  as  much  to  keep  the  cost- 
sheets  as  it  would  to  do  the  work.  But  in 


spite  of  these  criticisms,  the  cost-keeping 
system  went  into  effect. 

The  first  thing  to  be  done  was  to  esti- 
mate all  probable  unit-costs  as  the  facts  in 
hand  then  indicated  they  would  be.  Every 
piece  of  work  from  the  breakwater  in  Limon 
Bay  to  the  fill  in  Panama  Bay  was  gone 
over,  and  the  estimated  cost,  both  as  a 
whole  and  for  its  units,  was  fixed. 

It  was  estimated  at  that  time  that  the 
cost  of  the  concrete  work  at  Gatun  would 
be  $7-75  a  cubic  yard.  The  cost  proved  to 
be  $7.46  a  cubic  yard,  representing  a  saving 
of  about  half  a  million  dollars  in  the  con- 
crete work  on  the  locks. 

The  showing  on  the  Pacific  locks  was 
very  much  more  striking  than  that  on  the 
Atlantic  locks.  To  begin  with,  the  esti- 
mates of  cost  were  higher  by  fifty  cents  a 
cubic  yard,  owing  to  the  fact  that  on  the 
Atlantic  side,  the  three  flights  of  locks  were 
all  together,  while  on  the  Pacific  side,  there 
was  one  flight  at  Pedro  Miguel  and  two  at 
Miraflores,  necessitating  the  practical  com- 
pletion of  the  Pedro  Miguel  lock  before  the 
others  could  be  started,  and  calling  for  a 
removal  of  the  plant  from  the  former  place 
to  the  latter.  Therefore,  the  estimates  of 
the  cost  of  the  concrete  on  the  Pacific  side, 
in  place,  called  for  $8.25  a  cubic  yard. 
The  actual  cost  at  Pedro  Miguel  was 
$5.87  a  cubic  yard,  approximately,  a 
saving  of  $2.38  a  cubic  yard  on  906,000 
cubic  yards  of  concrete.  At  Miraflores  the 
cost  was  $5.34  a  cubic  yard,  a  saving  of 
$2.91  a  cubic  yard  on  each  of  1,476,895 
cubic  yards  of  concrete,  plain  and  rein- 
forced, put  into  the  locks.  The  saving  on 
concrete  in  the  locks  on  the  Pacific  side 
was  approximately  six  and  a  half  million 
dollars. 

The  greater  saving  on  the  Pacific  side 
over  that  on  the  Atlantic  side  is,  in  a  meas- 
ure, explained  by  the  difference  in  the  cost 
of  sand  and  stone.  The  stone  used  at 
Gatun  in  1911,  an  average  year,  cost  $2.34 
a  cubic  yard  delivered  at  the  storage  bins, 
while  that  at  Pedro  Miguel  and  Miraflores 
cost  84^  cents  a  cubic  yard. 

The  selection  of  Porto  Bello  quarry  was 


158 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA  CANAL 


due  to  the  wish  of  Lieutenant  Colonel 
Sibert  to  have  the  entire  work  of  the 
Atlantic  division  done  under  his  charge. 
He  believed  he  could  get  stone  at  Porto 
Bello  as  cheaply  as  it  could  be  obtained 
at  Ancon.  This  addition  of  about  a  dollar 
and  a  half  a  cubic  yard  to  the  cost  of  the 
concrete  used  made  a  heavy  extra  ex- 
pense on  the  Atlantic  side.  For  the  fiscal 
year  1912,  the  cost  of  stone  in  storage 
at  Gatun,  compared  with  that  at  Pedro 
Miguel,  was  greater  by  $1.69  a  cubic  yard. 
If  there  be  deducted  from  this  the  differ- 
ence between  the  cost  of  transportation 
and  the  difference  between  plant  arbi- 
traries,  the  net  difference  was  52^  cents  a 
cubic  yard  in  favor  of  the  Ancon  quarry. 
Sand,  on  the  Atlantic  side  of  the  isthmus, 
also  cost  much  more  than  on  the  Pacific 
side.  Here,  again,  a  different  story  might 
have  been  told  if  all  the  sand  had  come 
from  Chame.  The  added  cost  of  trans- 
porting stone  and  sand  from  Miraflores  to 
Gatun  would  have  been  very  small  as 
compared  with  the  costs  encountered  in 
using  stone  from  Porto  Bello  and  sand 
from  Nombre  de  Dios. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  the  costs  of 
many  kinds  of  work  before  July  I,  1909, 
with  the  cost  during  the  years  that  fol- 
lowed. In  the  Atlantic  division  it  was 
costing  67.3  cents  a  cubic  yard  to  excavate 
material  with  steam  shovels  up  to  that 
date;  by  1912,  the  cost  had  fallen  to  63.6 
cents.  At  Gatun  spillway,  the  cost  of  plain 
concrete  fell  from  $8.00  a  cubic  yard  to 
$7.42.  Dry  filling  at  Gatun  dam  fell  from 
49.4  cents  a  cubic  yard  to  38.6  cents  a  yard. 
At  Gatun  locks,  the  cost  of  plain  concrete 
in  position  fell  from  $7.79  a  cubic  yard  be- 
fore July  I,  1909,  to  $6.94  a  cubic  yard  in 
1913.  Back-filling  at  Gatun  fell  from  58.56 
cents  a  cubic  yard  in  1910  to  42.56  cents  in 

I9I3- 

In  the  Central  division,  the  average  cost 
of  excavating  prior  to  July  i,  1909,  had 
been  $1.03.  By  1912,  the  cubic  yard 
cost  was  reduced  to  54.62  cents.  This 
achievement  stands  as  a  monument  to 
the  lamented  Lieut.  Col.  D.  Du  Bose 


Gaillard,  who  died  too  soon  to  see  his  won- 
derful work  in  Culebra  Cut  completed.  It 
seemed  that  he  had  a  positive  genius  for 
lowering  unit-costs  after  Colonel  Goethals 
had  pointed  the  way  with  his  cost-keeping 
system.  He  bore  cheerful  testimony  to  the 
value  of  that  system  before  a  committee  of 
Congress,  saying  that  he  spent  a  great  deal 
of  his  time  studying  his  cost  sheets  and 
trying  to  discover  from  them  where  econ- 
omies could  be  effected.  As  difficulties 
multiplied,  unit-costs  went  down.  Al- 
though slides  might  come  down  like  ava- 
lanches, they  could  never  force  up  the 
unit-cost  in  Culebra  Cut.  They  might 
even  force  the  bed  of  the  canal  to  rise, 
but  still  the  unit-costs  went  down.  Big 
diversion  channel  embankments  might 
burst  and  flood  the  cut,  steam  shovels 
might  be  caught  and  overturned,  dirt 
trains  might  be  imprisoned,  trackage 
facilities  might  be  injured,  but  Nature 
could  not  stay  that  steady  march  of  Colonel 
Gaillard's  unit-costs  down  the  scale.  More 
rock  was  encountered  as  the  cut  deepened, 
longer  hauls  had  to  be  made  in  the  dis- 
posal of  the  spoil  as  the  work  progressed, 
there  was  less  elbow  room  for  maneuvering 
the  digging  army  as  the  sloping  sides  of 
Culebra  Cut  narrowed,  but  still  the  unit- 
cost  figures  went  down.  It  was  a  brilliant 
achievement,  deserving  to  rank  among 
the  greatest  feats  in  the  history  of  en- 
gineering. 

Enormous  sums  were  saved  to  the  United 
States  by  the  successful  application  of  the 
cost-keeping  sheets  to  the  problem  of  dig- 
ging Culebra  Cut.  During  the  fiscal  year 
1910,  it  resulted  in  the  saving  of  about 
$5,000,000;  in  1911,  it  saved  some  $7,000,- 
ooo;  in  1912,  it  saved  nearly  $9,000,000, 
and  in  1913,  it  saved  upwards  of  $5,000,000. 
In  1908,  it  was  costing  n^  cents  a  cubic 
yard  to  load  material  on  the  cars  with 
steam  shovels;  in  1912,  this  unit-cost  had 
fallen  to  less  than  7  cents.  In  1908,  the 
expense  of  drilling  and  blasting  was  more 
than  14  cents  a  cubic  yard;  in  1912,  it  was 
less  than  12  cents  a  cubic  yard.  In  1908, 
it  was  costing  more  than  18  cents  a  cubic 


BIG  SAVINGS  IN  LITTLE  THINGS 


159 


yard  to  haul  spoil  to  the  dumps,  an  average 
distance  of  about  eight  miles;  in  1912,  this 
expense  had  fallen  to  less  than  14  cents  a 
cubic  yard,  although  in  the  meantime  the 
average  hauling  distance  had  increased  to 
twelve  miles.  It  cost  13  cents  a  cubic  yard 
to  dump  the  material  in  1908  as  compared 
with  less  than  5  cents  a  cubic  yard  in  1912. 
One  pound  of  dynamite  in  1912  was  made 
to  do  the  work  that  had  been  done  by  two 
pounds  in  1908.  Such  was  the  story  all 
through  the  great  work  at  Culebra. 
Every  man's  work  was  checked  every 
month  and  he  could  see  for  himself  how  he 
stood  in  comparison  with  other  men  doing 
similar  work.  Commanding  the  Culebra 
brigade  was  a  master  of  economy  and 
efficiency,  hammering  away  day  by  day 
at  the  unit-costs. 

The  Pacific  division  also  effected  econ- 
omies. It  drove  the  unit-costs  of  dry 
excavation  with  steam  shovels  down  from 
$1.01  a  cubic  yard  to  71  cents  a  cubic 
yard.  The  unit-costs  of  plain  concrete 
fell  from  $6.67  to  $6.03  at  Pedro  Miguel, 
and  at  Miraflores  it  fell  from  $8.11  to  an 
average  of  $5.01  per  cubic  yard. 

So  it  was  with  every  part  of  the  work. 
Studying  cost-sheets  as  a  doctor  studies 
temperature  and  pulse  records,  analyzing 
expense  tables  as  a  chemist  analyzes  a 
compound,  it  was  easy  to  see  every  bad 
symptom  and  easy  to  detect  every  element 
that  tended  to  keep  unit-costs  from  reach- 
ing a  minimum.  Here  it  was  costing  too 
much  to  operate  a  steam  shovel;  there  it 
was  costing  too  much  to  lay  a  yard  of  con- 
crete; at  another  place  a  dynamite  gang 
was  not  doing  as  well  as  another  group. 
Here  the  repair  bill  for  Lidgerwood  cars 
was  too  high;  there  too  much  time  was 
being  taken  by  spoil  trains  in  getting  a 
load  of  dirt  to  the  dumps  and  back  again. 
When  the  steam  shovel  was  not  making  a 
satisfactory  showing,  the  reason  for  the 
inefficiency  was  ascertained  and  remedied; 
when  the  repair  bills  in  the  Lidgerwood 
dirt  cars  was  too  high,  a  way  was  found  to 
better  center  the  load  and  thus  permit  the 


increase  of  capacity  of  cars.  When  there 
was  too  much  time  consumed  by  the  dirt 
trains  in  making  a  round  trip,  it  was  found 
that  the  cause  was  broken  cables  in  the 
Lidgerwood  unloading  apparatus  and 
broken  couplers  on  the  cars.  A  weak  link, 
which  would  break  just  below  the  parting 
point  of  the  cable,  overcame  one  delay, 
and  a  bridle  that  would  hold  the  cars  to- 
gether, even  if  the  coupling  parted,  over- 
came the  other  difficulty. 

It  was  a  case  of  speeding  up  at  one  place, 
effecting  an  economy  at  another,  and  mak- 
ing an  improvement  somewhere  else.  Now 
it  came  in  the  shape  of  a  request  for  a  little 
more  energy  at  this  point,  now  it  was  to 
save  a  little  cement  by  shaking  the  bags, 
and  now  the  saving  of  lubricating  oil  by 
having  an  inspector  on  the  job.  A  saving 
of  $50,000  by  shaking  cement  bags  was  no 
small  item.  Enginemen  and  steam  shovel 
men  were  somewhat  wasteful  with  their 
lubricating  oil,  and  the  bill  was  moving  up 
into  six  figures.  Colonel  Goethals  detailed 
a  man  to  visit  all  the  engines  and  steam 
shovels  and  see  how  the  oil  was  used. 
Then  he  issued  instructions  that  a  certain 
type  of  engine  should  have  a  certain 
amount  of  oil  and  that  this  oil  should  be 
furnished  in  standard  cases.  The  result 
was  a  saving  of  tens  of  thousands  of 
dollars. 

The  result  of  this  careful  attention  to  de- 
tail was  such  remarkable  efficiency  in  the 
removal  of  174,000,000  cubic  yards  of  ma- 
terial and  in  the  laying  of  4,000,000  cubic 
yards  of  concrete  that,  out  of  the  saving 
effected,  Colonel  Goethals  was  able  to 
finance  the  removal  of  58,000,000  cubic 
yards  of  additional  materials,  and  carry 
to  victory  the  war  against  the  slides,  one  of 
the  mightiest  battles  that  man  ever  waged 
against  Nature. 

It  is  a  remarkable  record,  not  only  in  the 
saving  of  money  but  in  setting  an  example 
of  public  efficiency  the  like  of  which  seldom 
has  been  seen  and  which  never  has  been 
surpassed.  It  shows  why  the  canal  was 
completed  years  ahead  of  expectations. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 


THE  CANAL  ARMY 

INSPIRING  STORY  OF  HUMAN  ACHIEVEMENT — SPLENDID  PERSONNEL — BUILT  IN  SPITE 
OF  LAW  OF  CONGRESS  PROVIDING  FOR  CONSTRUCTION — RESIGNATION  OF 
FIRST  COMMISSION — SECOND  COMMISSION  RESIGNS — NOT  THE  FAULT  OF 
MEMBERS  OF  COMMISSIONS — REVAMPING  THE  SYSTEM — THE  EXECUTIVE 
ORDER  THAT  PULLED  THE  TEETH  OF  THE  LAW — AMERICANS  A  FINE  LOT  OF 
FELLOWS — THE  ELIMINATING  PROCESS — THOUSANDS  CAME  AND  HUNDREDS 
STAYED — WEIGHED  IN  THE  BALANCE — LONG  HOURS  AND  INCONVENIENCES — 
THE  PAY  TRAIN — THE  CANNY  SCOTCHMAN — WHY  WORRY? — WELL  PAID  FOR 
WORK — THE  LABOR  UNIONS — THE  EIGHT-HOUR  LAW — CONTINUING  THE 
OLD  WAGE  SCALE — SETTLING  THE  STRIKES — COLONEL  GOETHALS  TAKES  A 
HAND — ACCUMULATING  DAYS  OF  LEAVE — THE  MAN  WITH  THE  A-i  RECORD 
— Two  SHIFTS — KEEPING  MEN  AT  WORK  AS  ELBOW  ROOM  DECREASES — 
AMERICAN  BRAINS,  FOREIGN  BRAWN — THE  EUROPEAN  LABORERS — How 
THEY  LIVED — FULL  POCKETBOOKS  Too  HEAVY  TO  CARRY  AROUND — THE 
BRITISH  NEGRO — POLITENESS  AND  DEFERENCE — THE  RACES  SEPARATED — 
THE  "GOLD  ROLL"  AND  THE  "SILVER  ROLL" — THE  POSTOFFICE — RECRUIT- 
ING AGENTS — HELP  CONSTANTLY  CHANGING — SPANISH  LABORERS — STAYING 
WITH  THE  JOB. 


IN  ALL  the  history  of  the  race  there  is 
not  to  be  found  a  more  inspiring  story 
of  achievement  that  we  find  at   Pan- 
ama, and  it  is  largely  due  to  the  splendid 
personnel  and  the  wonderful  esprit  de  corps 
of  the  men  who  made  up  the  canal-digging 
force.     Whether  it  was  the  higher  official 
in  the  service  or  the  lowest  switch  tender 
in  the  ranks,  the  individual  efficiency  was 
remarkably  high. 

The  canal  was  brought  to  a  successful 
culmination  in  spite  of  the  law  of  Congress 
providing  for  its  construction.  That  law 
provided  that  the  canal  should  be  dug  by 
a  commission  of  seven  men.  The  first  com- 
mission was  made  up  in  such  a  way  that 
there  were  conflicting  powers  in  which  the 
governor,  the  chief  engineer,  and  the  chief 
sanitary  officer  had  independent  sway, 
each  in  his  particular  field.  So  seriously 
did  this  threaten  to  disrupt  the  whole  work 
that  President  Roosevelt  decided  to  ask 
for  the  resignation  of  the  first  commission 
and  to  appoint  another  in  which  authority 
should  be  centered  in  three  of  the  seven 


members,  these  three  being  the  chairman, 
the  governor,  and  the  chief  engineer. 

This  scheme  did  not  work  much  better 
than  the  one  which  preceded  it.  When  the 
resignations  of  the  members  of  the  second 
commission  were  asked  for  President  Roose- 
velt appointed  his  final  commission,  con- 
centrating the  offices  of  chairman  and  chief 
engineer  in  one  man,  but  leaving  the  power 
of  control  in  the  seven  members  of  the 
commission.  The  result  was  just  about 
what  one  might  expect  if  seven  generals 
of  equal  authority  were  put  in  command 
of  an  army  in  the  field.  Yet  this  was  the 
plan  Congress  had  laid  out,  and  upon  which 
it  insisted.  Two  commissions  had  split 
upon  the  rock  of  equal  authority,  two  chief 
engineers  had  been  driven  away  by  it,  and 
now  a  third  commission  was  about  to  be 
split  and  a  third  chief  engineer  was  about 
to  be  driven  away. 

President  Roosevelt  soon  saw  that  it  was 
not  the  fault  of  the  men  who  made  up  the 
commission,  for  they  were  all  men  of  big 
caliber  and  good  qualifications.  Rather, 


1 60 


SURVIVAL  OF  THE  FITTEST 


161 


it  was  the  system,  and  the  system  he  deter- 
mined to  revamp.  He  ordered  the  con- 
centration of  authority  in  the  chairman 
and  chief  engineer.  Congress  had  not  re- 
pealed the  law  that  threatened  the  third 
disruption  of  the  canal  organization,  but 
President  Roosevelt  pulled  the  teeth  of  it 
by  his  executive  order  concentrating  au- 
thority in  one  man.  This  order  aroused 
a  bitter  feeling  in  some  quarters,  but  it 
built  the  Panama  Canal. 

The  Americans  who  worked  under  the 
commission  were  as  fine  a  lot  of  men  as 
ever  were  banded  together  in  a  great  con- 
structive work.  Loyal  to  the  core,  each 
man  was  ready  to  make  any  sacrifice  that 
the  interests  of  the  undertaking  demanded. 
Hence  the  work  could  not  but  move  for- 
ward with  a  swinging  stride  under  their 
direction.  They  were  the  cream  of  a  long 
process  of  elimination.  Thousands  came 
and  hundreds  stayed.  It  was  a  great  place 
for  trying  out  a  man;  the  weakling  soon 
lagged  behind  and  was  dropped  out.  Only 
the  upstanding,  right  thinking,  energetic 
and  industrious  man  could  make  good  in  a 
country  where  the  climate  bored  itself 
into  the  very  soul  of  every  individual  and 
put  the  acid  test  upon  his  nerves,  where 
diversions  were  few  and  occasions  for 
homesickness  many. 

In  the  course  of  a  year  or  two  of  selec- 
tion there  was  a  body  of  picked  Americans 
on  the  isthmus — a  lot  of  men  who  could 
defy  the  climate,  who  found  surcease  from 
the  pangs  of  homesickness  through  keen 
interest  in  their  work,  who  served  in  the 
canal  army  without  a  backward  look  and 
with  an  "onward"  spirit,  just  as  they 
might  be  expected  to  serve  in  an  army 
called  to  the  defense  of  the  American  flag. 

There  were  about  5,000  Americans  on 
the  job  at  Panama.  Every  man  among 
them  worked  as  many  hours  and  put 
himself  to  as  many  inconveniences  as  the 
exigencies  of  the  situation  demanded. 
They  were  at  it  early  and  late.  The 
pay  train,  for  example,  had  to  be  loaded 
early  in  order  to  get  the  force  paid  off  in 
the  three  days  scheduled,  and  that  meant 


that  the  paymaster  had  to  be  up  and  at 
work  at  4  o'clock  in  the  morning.  During 
the  trip  across  the  isthmus  in  the  pay  train, 
sixteen  hundred  pounds  of  gold  and  twenty- 
four  tons  of  silver  were  handled,  in  pay- 
ment for  a  single  month's  work. 

Upon  one  occasion  Commissioner  Rous- 
seau was  going  over  the  work  on  the  Pacific 
terminals.  He  had  seen  one  engineer  after 
another,  and  finally  came  to  J.  A.  Loulan, 
a  canny  Scotchman  in  charge  of  the  Ancon 
quarry,  of  whom  it  had  been  said  that  "he 
can  get  more  work  out  of  a  rock  crusher 
than  the  man  who  made  the  machine." 
The  night  before  a  Jamaican  negro  hostler 
had  knocked  the  chock  from  beneath  the 
wheels  of  an  engine  and  it  had  run  down 
the  steep  incline,  off  the  end  of  the  rails, 
and  had  sunk  waist  deep  into  the  soft 
earth.  At  2  o'clock  in  the  morning  Loulan 
was  called  up  on  the  telephone  and  advised 
of  the  mishap.  At  half  past  two  he  had  a 
force  of  men  on  the  scene  and  at  work  get- 
ting the  engine  back  on  the  track.  When 
the  commissioner  met  him  he  was  as  full 
of  the  "go  ahead"  spirit  as  though  he  had 
had  nine  hours'  sleep  and  never  a  trace  of 
Jamaican  indifference  to  worry  him.  It 
was  remarked  that  he  did  not  look  like  a 
man  who  had  been  the  victim  of  such 
carelessness,  and  he  replied: 

"Oh,  what's  the  use  to  worry?  That 
does  not  pay.  We  got  the  engine  back  on 
the  track  again,  our  force  was  at  work  at 
the  usual  time,  and  that  hostler  will  be 
more  careful  next  time;  so  why  worry?" 

Why  worry?  That  was  the  philosophy 
heard  everywhere.  A  thousand  and  one 
difficulties  could  thrust  themselves  into  the 
faces  of  the  engineers,  slides  could  pour 
into  Culebra  Cut,  dirt  trains  could  sink 
into  the  seas  of  mud,  sentiment  at  home 
could  distrust  Gatun  Dam,  muckrakers 
could  assail  the  feasibility  of  a  lock 
canal,  but  still  the  force  pushed  forward, 
surmounting  each  difficulty  as  it  arose 
and  cheerfully  disposing  of  it  with  the 
query,  "Why  worry?" 

The  question  of  labor  unions  was  one 
which  threatened  to  handicap  the  work  on 


162 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


the  canal,  but  the  firm  hand  of  the  chief 
engineer  put  an  end  to  that  issue.  Careful 
to  recognize  every  legitimate  right  of  labor 
organizations,  he  reserved  the  right  of 
final  judgment  in  all  matters  pertaining 
to  the  building  of  the  canal.  He  was  glad 
to  have  the  American  workman  given  the 
benefit  of  the  eight-hour  law,  and  was  a 
champion  of  the  plan  to  pay  the  men  wages 
and  a  half  for  their  work.  When  the 
change  from  the  construction  organiza- 
tion to  the  permanent  organization  took 
place  he  came  to  Washington  and  appealed 
to  Congress  to  continue  the  old  wage  scale 
until  the  last  finishing  touch  was  put  on 
the  work. 

When  strikes  were  threatened,  Colonel 
Goethals  said:  "Gentlemen,  decide  for 
yourselves.  Quit  work  if  you  want  to. 
That  is  your  right  and  privilege.  But  if 
you  do  so,  remember  that  under  no  cir- 
cumstances will  you  be  reemployed." 
He  said  this  in  such  a  way  that  they  knew 
that  he  meant  it.  After  the  boiler-makers' 
strike  of  1910,  when  some  of  the  boiler- 
makers  walked  out  because  they  did  not 
get  their  wages  raised  from  $5.20  to  $6 
a  day,  the  jobs  were  filled  and  the  strikers 
were  told  that  the  isthmus  had  no  more 
work  for  them.  There  never  was  another 
strike  among  the  Americans  there. 

As  work  on  the  canal  slowed  down  the 
men  were  permitted  to  accumulate  eighty- 
four  days  of  leave  to  their  credit,  so  that 
when  they  returned  to  the  States  they 
would  have  ample  time,  with  pay,  to  look 
around  for  other  work.  Likewise,  pro- 
vision was  made  that  when  a  man  left  the 
isthmus,  the  record  made  by  him  during 
his  services  on  the  canal  could  be  taken 
from  the  commissioners'  card  index  and  a 
transcript  furnished.  A  man  who  had 
made  an  A-i  record  at  Panama  was  certi- 
fied as  being  entitled  to  be  rated  as  "ex- 
cellent," and  the  man  who  came  back  to 
the  States  with  such  a  record  had  little 
trouble  in  obtaining  work. 

Another  evidence  of  the  interest  of  the 
chief  engineer  in  his  men  came  when  the 
steam  shovel  work  began  to  fall  off  in 


Culebra  Cut,  because  of  the  lack  of  elbow 
room.  Colonel  Goethals  ordered  that  the 
work  be  changed  to  a  two-shift  basis,  and 
thus  the  men  who  would  have  been  dis- 
missed were  able  to  continue  work  for 
many  months,  with  no  disadvantage  to 
the  government. 

It  was  American  brains  that  dug  the 
Panama  Canal,  but  the  brawn  of  British 
subjects  that  did  the  work.  Perhaps  nine- 
tenths  of  all  the  West  Indian  labor  came 
from  British  colonies  of  the  Caribbean 
region.  Jamaica  and  Barbados  were  the 
principal  recruiting  grounds.  Usually  the 
Barbadoan  was  found  out  on  the  canal 
itself,  while  the  Jamaican  preferred  the 
lighter  tasks  around  the  hotels,  the  quar- 
termaster's department,  and  such  places. 

When  the  negro  began  work  on  the  isth- 
mus he  did  not  have  much  of  a  reputa- 
tion for  industry,  and  very  little  more  for 
strength.  He  was  accustomed  to  very 
light  work,  at  the  hardest,  on  his  native 
heath,  and  when  he  got  to  Panama  he  found 
the  pace  a  strenuous  one.  After  a  brief 
experience  with  the  West  Indian,  Chief 
Engineer  Stevens  declared  that  he  found 
that  one  Italian  or  one  Spaniard  could  do 
the  work  of  three  negroes,  and  so  it  was 
decided  that  the  wage  scale  should  be  fixed 
in  proportion  to  the  working  qualities  of 
the  two  races.  The  European  laborer  was 
paid  twenty  cents,  gold,  an  hour  for  his 
work  and  the  negro,  ten  cents  an  hour. 
The  West  Indian  received  ninety  cents  a 
day  and  had  the  choice  of  feeding  and  lodg- 
ing himself  or  of  being  subsisted  and  quar- 
tered by  the  Canal  Commission  for  twenty- 
seven  cents  a  day. 

The  European  laborer  received  $1.80 
a  day  and  was  charged  forty  cents  a  day  for 
subsistence.  The  rations  furnished  the 
negro  were  practically  a  counterpart  of  the 
United  States  field  rations  in  quantity  and 
quality,  yet  the  negroes  preferred,  as  a 
rule,  their  little  thatched  huts  and  their 
meagre  diet  to  the  barracks  and  the  whole- 
some food  of  the  West  Indian  kitchen. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Spaniards  stuck  to 
the  government  quarters  and  the  govern- 


HOW  LABOR  WAS  RECRUITED 


merit  mess  halls.  In  both  cases  the  Canal 
Commission  sought  to  have  their  menus 
made  up  by  cooks  of  the  same  nationality 
as  the  men  and  with  due  regard  for  the 
habits  of  diet  of  these  men  at  home.  The 
Spaniards  patronized  the  commission  quar- 
ters and  the  commission  mess  hall  because 
they  were  so  far  away  from  home  that 
their  wives  could  not  come  with  them. 
The  West  Indian  could  easily  save  up 
enough  to  provide  five  dollars  for  steerage 
passage  for  his  wife,  and  so  he  chose  his 
home  and  its  freedom  and  companionship 
in  preference  to  good  food  and  sanitary 
quarters.  His  little  yam  patch,  his  bean 
plot  and  his  chickens  made  him  perfectly 
happy.  It  mattered  not  that  he  was  under- 
fed; this  system  permitted  him  to  work 
when  he  wanted  to  and  to  loaf  when  he  pre- 
ferred. Colonel  Goethals  once  said  that 
if  the  West  Indian  negro  were  paid  twice 
as  much  he  would  work  only  half  as  long, 
for  a  full  pocketbook  was  too  heavy  for 
him  to  carry  around.  There  were  many 
exceptions  to  this  rule,  but  for  most  of 
them  there  was  a  long  rest  after  pay 
day. 

The  British  negro  is  deeply  religious  and 
most  respectful.  He  has  no  dreams  of 
equality.  He  is  polite  and  deferential  and 
is  generally  liked.  He  reminds  one  of  the 
good  old-time  "darky"  of  the  South. 

The  races  were  separated  at  Panama 
about  as  carefully  as  they  are  in  the  South 
to-day.  The  separation  was  not  on  the 
basis  of  black  and  white,  but  on  that  of 
"gold"  and  "silver"  employees.  As  all 
blacks  were  on  the  "  silver  "  roll  it  amounted 
to  segregation  of  races.  On  the  labor  trains 
there  was  a  separation  between  the  Spanish 
laborers  and  the  negroes.  Some  cars  were 
marked  "for  blacks  only,"  and  others 
"for  European  laborers  only,"  but  for  the 
most  part  it  was  "gold"  and  "silver." 
This  was  the  rule  in  the  railroad  stations 
and  even  in  the  postoffices.  Sometimes 
negroes  coming  down  from  the  States 
would  go  to  the  postoffice  and  to  the  "  gold  " 
window  for  their  mail.  The  clerk  would 
tell  them  to  go  around  to  the  "silver"  win- 


dow. This  they  would  protest  against  do- 
ing, but  the  clerk  would  turn  a  deaf  ear  to 
all  their  protests.  They  would  threaten  to 
take  the  matter  up  with  the  Washington 
government  or  carry  it  to  the  courts,  and 
expose  a  hypocritical  policy  that  would 
make  a  "Jim  Crow"  postal  service  in  Pan- 
ama while  failing  to  do  so  in  the  States. 
But  they  still  had  to  go  to  the  "silver" 
window  for  their  mail. 

The  negroes  at  first  had  to  be  secured 
by  recruiting  agents.  They  were  fearful 
of  the  Panama  Canal,  remembering  what 
had  happened  to  their  brethren  in  the  days 
of  the  French.  But  after  the  first  year  or 
two  the  stories  of  prosperity  that  came  back 
from  Panama  proved  a  strong  drawing 
card,  and  nearly  every  negro  in  Barbados 
and  Jamaica  who  could  raise  tfie  price 
of  a  steerage  passage,  five  dollars,  sooner 
or  later  found  himself  on  board  a  Colon- 
bound  steamer.  The  recruiting  service 
secured  about  26,000  laborers  before  it 
closed  its  work.  The  commission  then 
depended  on  the  natural  inflow  of  labor 
to  supply  its  demands  for  brawn.  Every 
year,  thousands  would  return  to  the  islands 
whence  they  came,  and  other  thousands 
would  be  on  hand  to  take  their  places. 

The  negro  help  was  thus  constantly 
changing,  and  more  than  half  of  the  force 
changed  each  year.  But  the  labor  market 
was  always  well  supplied.  There  was 
always  an  excess  of  arrivals  over  departures, 
the  surplus  in  some  years  amounting  to 
20,000  men. 

The  Spanish  laborers  were  the  best  and 
steadiest  workers  that  ever  came  to  the 
isthmus.  The  government  was  permitted 
to  recruit  them  only  on  condition  that  it 
would  pay  them  in  gold  and  repatriate 
them  when  their  tasks  were  ended.  The 
Spaniard  was  a  very  hard  worker,  and 
saving  of  his  shining  yellow  wages.  He 
was  the  balance  wheel  of  the  labor  situa- 
tion, too.  The  negro  knew  he  must  make 
good,  or  the  Spaniard  would  take  his 
place. 

After  the  Spaniard  had  been  on  the  isth- 
mus for  several  years  he  began  to  grow 


164 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA  CANAL 


somewhat  assertive  of  his  rights  as  he 
construed  them.  When  this  condition 
reached  a  head,  Colonel  Goethals  took  a 
very  decided  stand.  He  told  the  Span- 
iards that  he  was  through  with  their  serv- 
ices under  the  terms  of  the  agreement  and 
was  ready  to  send  them  home.  He  an- 
nounced, however,  that  if  any  of  them 
wanted  to  enter  into  a  new  contract 
with  the  government  on  the  same  terms  as 
others,  he  would  leave  the  way  open  for 
them  to  do  so.  They  saw  the  situation 
and  accepted  the  new  conditions,  with  the 
result  that  they  stuck  to  the  job  to  the 
end  and  were  able  to  go  back  home  with 
enough  money  to  make  them  independent 


for  life,  on  the  basis  of  their  frugal  method 
of  living. 

The  United  States  owes  a  debt  of  grati- 
tude to  the  men  who  bore  the  heat  and 
burden  of  the  great  work  of  laying  low  the 
barrier  that  interposed  itself  between  the 
oceans.  When  we  think  of  the  burning 
heat  of  the  sun  in  the  dry  season,  of  the 
debilitating  atmosphere  of  the  wet  season, 
of  the  tropical  climate  that  caused  clothes 
to  mildew  and  shoes  to  turn  green  with 
mold  overnight,  a  condition  that  kept  up 
for  nine  months  of  the  year,  we  may  well 
imagine  that  the  men  who  tugged  and 
toiled  day  in  and  day  out  under  such 
handicaps  were  made  of  sterling  stuff. 


SECRETARIES  OF  STATE 


i.  John  Hay. 

3.  Philander  C.  Knox. 


2.  Elihu  Root. 

4.  William  J.  Bryan. 


SECRETARIES  OF  WAR 


i.  Luke  E.  Wright. 
3.  Henry  L.  Stimson. 


2.  J.  M.  Dickinson. 

4.  Lindley  M.  Garrison. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 


QUARTERING  AND  FEEDING  THE  CANAL  ARMY 

FIGHTING  HIGH  PRICES — GOOD  MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  COMMISSARY  AND  SUBSIST- 
ENCE DEPARTMENTS — THE  KIND  AND  CHARACTER  OF  THE  FOOD  SUPPLIED — • 
PRAISE  BY  CONGRESSIONAL  VISITORS — CHARACTER  OF  HOUSES  SUPPLIED — 
JEALOUSY  AMONG  THE  WOMEN — PROTESTS  OF  PANAMA  MERCHANTS — ONE 
PRICE  FOR  CANAL  EMPLOYEES  AND  ANOTHER  FOR  OUTSIDERS — THE  GOVERN- 
MENT MADE  A  SUBJECT  OF  EXTORTION — WORK  OF  THE  COMMISSARY  BAKERY — 
HOTELS  AND  BOARDING  HOUSES  RIVALS  OF  THOSE  IN  THE  STATES. 


IT  is  a  military  axiom  that  an  army 
travels  on  its  belly,  and  this  might  be 
applied  to  the  canal  army  as  well.  And 
although  one  head  of  the  commissary  was 
disgraced  for  accepting  gifts  from  people 
interested  in  contracts,  that  does  not  alter 
the  fact  that  the  commissary  and  subsist- 
ence departments  rendered  invaluable  serv- 
ice and  were  instrumental  in  providing 
the  people  with  all  the  necessaries  of  life 
at  rates  unprecedented  in  the  retail  trade. 
Without  the  commissary  and  subsistence 
departments,  the  army  would  have  had  to 
face  prices  as  high  as  the  avarice  of  the 
natives  could  make  them.  With  these 
departments  they  got  supplies  and  food 
at  prices  that  were  usually  lower  than 
those  made  in  price  cutting  sales  by  Ameri- 
can department  stores.  The  supplies  were 
bought  by  the  government  at  the  lowest 
wholesale  rates,  and  were  sold  to  the  people 
at  the  bare  cost  of  handling.  Clothing 
was  much  cheaper  than  in  the  United 
States.  Foodstuffs  could  be  bought  at  a 
bare  margin  over  wholesale  prices.  Meats 
were  good  in  quality  and  very  cheap.  If 
ever  there  was  a  kingdom  around  which  a 
wall  was  built  through  which  the  barbarian 
High  Price  could  not  enter,  it  was  the  Canal 
Zone.  Not  only  did  this  apply  to  the  com- 
missary, where  supplies  were  bought,  but 
to  the  subsistence  department,  where  meals 
were  provided.  The  West  Indian  negro 
got  the  equivalent  of  a  United  States  army 
field  ration  at  nine  cents  a  meal;  the 
Spaniard  got  the  equivalent  of  a  United 
States  army  garrison  ration  at  thirteen  and 


one-third  cents  a  meal;  the  Americans  in 
the  I.  C.  C.  dining  rooms  got  the  equiva- 
lent of  modern  American  hotel  fare  for 
thirty  cents  a  meal.  United  States  Sen- 
ators and  members  of  Congress  said  meals 
were  better  than  they  could  get  in  House 
and  Senate  restaurants  at  any  price. 

Let  us  take  up  in  their  order  the  three 
departments  which  had  to  do  with  the 
physical  comfort  of  the  people  of  Panama — 
the  quartermaster's  department,  tha  com- 
missary department,  and  the  subsistence 
department. 

The  activities  of  the  quartermaster's  de- 
partment covered  many  duties,  chief  among 
them  the  purchase  of  supplies  and  the  main- 
tenance of  quarters.  It  also  looked  after 
the  labor  situation,  the  sanitation  of  the 
Canal  Zone  so  far  as  it  involved  grass  cut- 
ting and  ditch  digging,  maintenance  of  the 
storehouses  where  the  materials  and  sup- 
plies for  the  construction  of  the  canal  were 
kept,  and  the  disposition  of  scrap.  But  we 
are  concerned  with  the  work  of  the  quarter- 
master's department  in  providing  homes  for 
the  people.  There  were  divers  and  sundry 
types  of  houses  provided.  Some  of  these 
were  family  houses,  in  which  the  officials 
lived;  some  were  two  family  houses,  in 
which  the  lesser  officials  and  Americans 
lived;  some  were  four  family  houses,  in 
which  the  American  members  of  the  force 
lived.  All  were  screened  in  and  all  con- 
tained every  necessary  provision  for  com- 
fort and  health.  There  were  quarters  for 
the  European  laborers,  and  barracks  for  the 
negro  laborers.  The  American  bachelors 


165 


166 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA  CANAL 


had  a  special  type  of  house,  a  long  row  of 
rooms  with  verandas  on  two  sides,  with 
one  or  two  men  in  each  room.  These 
quarters  were  light,  airy,  and  cheerful, 
equipped  with  sufficient  furniture  to  make 
them  comfortable. 

Married  Americans  were  furnished  with 
houses  of  such  type  as  their  position  on  the 
isthmus  demanded.  Applications  for  these 
houses  were  filed  in  the  order  of  their  re- 
ceipt, and  there  was  a  constant  waiting 
list  for  prospective  vacancies.  Sometimes 
bachelor  quarters  had  to  be  fitted  up  for 
men  and  their  wives  while  they  waited  for 
suitable  houses.  The  women  took  their 
meals  with  their  husbands  at  the  I.  C.  C. 
hotels  pending  the  opening  of  their  own 
homes. 

All  houses  were  furnished  by  the  govern- 
ment. The  furnishings  corresponded  to 
the  type  of  house,  but  all  the  houses  were 
complete  enough  to  make  the  ordinary 
family  comfortable.  There  was  freedom 
from  the  ordinary  worries  of  the  house- 
holder, for  coal  was  furnished  for  cooking, 
and  ice  for  the  refrigerator.  There  were 
no  electric  light  bills,  no  water  rents  to 
pay,  and  no  drug  stores  accounts  to  meet. 
Free  medical  attendance  was  also  provided, 
and  the  lot  of  the  American  on  the  isthmus 
was  a  happy  one  so  far  as  the  routine  ex- 
penses of  the  householder  were  concerned. 

But  with  all  this  the  women  of  the  Zone 
found  frequent  cause  for  jealousy.  Miss 
Brown  thought  Mrs.  Jones  had  better 
lighting  facilities;  Mrs.  Smith  thought 
Mrs.  White  was  favored  in  the  matter  of 
bedsteads;  and  Mrs.  Johnson  was  in  pos- 
session of  a  vast  amount  of  proof  of  dis- 
crimination against  herself  and  her  family. 
The  district  quartermasters  had  to  prac- 
tice the  gentle  art  of  diplomacy  in  such 
cases  to  so  great  a  degree  that  it  is  certain 
that  any  one  of  them  could  now  qualify 
for  almost  any  diplomatic  post. 

The  housing  problem  was  met  with  satis- 
fying results  to  everybody  except  the  West 
Indian  negro.  The  two  family  flat  for 
Americans  receiving  from  $200  to  $300  may 
not  have  been  quite  as  satisfactory  as  the 


six  or  seven  room  cottages,  of  which  there 
were  a  few  for  this  class,  but  on  the  whole 
the  employees  who  lived  in  two  family  flats 
had  little  to  complain  of.  Employees  who 
received  less  than  $200  a  month  lived  in 
four  family  flats,  which  gave  them  all  the 
comforts  they  could  hope  to  get  in  like 
positions  at  home,  and  rent  was  free  at 
Panama  as  against  $300  a  year  at  home. 

The  Spaniard  was  as  happy  and  con- 
tented in  his  little  bachelor  quarters  as  the 
American  married  man  in  his  house  or 
flat,  since  the  fact  that  he  could  send  so 
much  good  American  gold  back  to  his  peo- 
ple in  Andalusia  or  Galicia  made  up  for  his 
absence  from  those  he  loved.  The  Span- 
iard's quarters  were  like  those  of  the  Amer- 
ican bachelor,  but  on  a  largely  reduced 
scale. 

As  to  the  negro,  his  quarters  were  bar- 
racks, with  bunks  that  probably  reminded 
him  too  much  of  the  bunks  in  a  prison  cell. 
So  it  happened  that  although  here  he  could 
have  free  quarters  he  greatly  preferred  a 
thatched  hut  in  the  "bush."  And  as  trop- 
ical architecture  is  simple,  he  could  provide 
for  himself  with  no  outlay  except  some 
work  with  a  machete  at  odd  moments  for 
a  week  or  so.  Then  he  could  invite  his 
family  from  Jamaica  or  Barbados  to  the 
Canal  Zone,  which  invitation  was  promptly 
accepted  by  wives,  children,  dogs,  chickens, 
and  all.  So  the  commission  quarters  went 
begging,  and  not  more  than  one-fifth  of  the 
negroes  made  use  of  them. 

The  commissary  was  one  of  the  most 
effective  of  all  the  adjuncts  of  the  canal 
building  organization.  When  the  United 
States  started  to  build  the  canal  it  saw  at 
once  that  if  the  canal  army  were  not  pro- 
tected from  the  avaricious  disposition  of 
the  tropical  American,  it  would  result  in 
the  demoralization  of  the  forces.  There- 
fore the  commissary  organization  of  the 
Panama  railroad  was  utilized  for  supplying 
the  canal  army  with  its  day-to-day  needs. 
This  protected  the  canal  forces  from  the 
cut-throat  prices  in  Panama,  at  the  same 
time  leaving  the  canal  diggers  free  to  buy 
where  they  could  buy  to  the  best  advantage. 


OPERATIONS  OF  THE  COMMISSARY 


167 


The  Panama  merchants  protested  ener- 
getically against  the  commissary,  for  they 
saw  in  the  canal  army  a  trade  that  would 
make  them  rich.  But  the  canal  authorities 
stood  firm,  and  the  commissary  continued 
to  the  end.  It  finally  came  about  that 
the  native  merchant  made  two  prices,  one 
for  the  canal  employee  and  the  other  for 
the  outsider.  The  canal  employee  was 
given  a  price  in  keeping  with  those  at  the 
commissary,  else  the  native  merchant 
could  get  none  of  this  trade.  The  outsider 
did  not  have  the  privilege  of  buying  at  the 
commissary,  and  when  he  went  to  the 
native  merchant  he  was  charged  "all  the 
traffic  would  bear." 

The  rapacious  character  of  local  business 
is  shown  by  the  way  the  government  fared 
on  a  number  of  occasions  when  the  com- 
missary supplies  had  to  be  replenished  in 
the  local  markets.  Once  a  ship  bringing 
coffee  to  the  commissary  went  aground  and 
the  commissary  authorities  ran  short. 
They  replenished  their  stock  in  the  local 
wholesale  market,  but  paid  six  cents  a 
pound  more  for  the  coffee  at  wholesale 
than  it  had  been  selling  for  at  retail  before 
the  ship  went  aground.  At  another  time 
a  vessel  carrying  milk  failed  to  arrive 
and  that  commodity  jumped  to  double  its 
ordinary  price  over  night.  High  waters 
in  the  Chagres  River  cut  off  the  train 
service  on  the  Panama  Railroad  at  another 
time,  and  the  price  of  ice  ran  up  the  scale 
from  fifty  cents  a  hundred  pounds  to  one 
dollar  a  hundred  pounds.  In  view  of  such 
instances  as  these,  which  occurred  every 
time  the  commissary  had  to  go  out  into 
the  local  market  for  its  supplies,  the 
United  States  is  to  be  congratulated  that 
Uncle  Sam  decided  to  play  the  r61e  of 
merchant  at  Panama. 

The  main  reason  why  the  commissary 
was  operated  through  the  Panama  Rail- 
road rather  than  through  the  Canal  Com- 
mission itself  was  because  of  the  require- 
ment that  all  moneys  received  by  the 
Commission  should  be  covered  into  the 
Treasury.  With  the  railroad  company  it 
was  different.  It  could  turn  its  money 


over  and  over  again  without  covering  it 
into  the  Treasury  or  having  it  reappro- 
priated.  This  enabled  it  to  act  as  com- 
missary keeper  without  the  embarrass- 
ments which  the  Canal  Commission  would 
have  encountered. 

The  commissary  never  sold  on  credit 
and  yet  never  sold  for  cash.  As  it  was 
established  for  the  benefit  of  the  employees 
only,  the  general  public  could  not  buy. 
Employees  were  furnished  with  coupon 
books  which  were  paid  for  in  cash  if  the 
employee  had  no  wages  coming  to  him,  or 
charged  against  his  account  if  he  had 
already  earned  enough  to  pay  for  the  book. 
When  the  pay  roll  was  made  up  these 
amounts  were  deducted  from  his  monthly 
pay.  The  commissary  detached  coupons 
from  the  books  as  purchases  were  made. 
An  employee  could  buy  a  book  and  de- 
posit it  with  the  commissary  storekeeper 
and  then  telephone  his  order  if  he  desired 
to  do  so. 

The  commissary  did  a  business  of  $7,000,- 
ooo  a  year  during  the  construction  period, 
and  bought  to  good  advantage  because  of 
the  quantity  handled.  It  was  able  to  sell 
porterhouse  steak  for  20  cents  a  pound  at 
a  time  when  round  steak  was  bringing 
24  cents  a  pound  in  Washington.  Round 
steak  was  13  cents  a  pound,  leg  of  lamb 
20  cents,  veal  chops  24  cents,  pork  chops 
1 8  cents,  blue  fish  15  cents,  sugar  cured 
ham  20  cents,  cabbage  4  cents,  white 
potatoes  3  cents.  Everything  else  was 
equally  cheap  in  price. 

Every  morning  there  went  out  of  Colon 
a  train  carrying  perishable  supplies  to  the 
people  along  the  line.  This  refrigerator 
train  supplemented  the  work  of  the  local 
commissary  store  which  was  to  be  found 
in  every  Zone  settlement. 

The  commissary  bakery  baked  over 
6,000,000  loaves  of  bread  a  year,  and  about 
200,000  pounds  of  cake.  The  commis- 
sary laundry  washed  nearly  4,000,000  pieces 
a  year.  The  commissary  ice  cream  freezer 
made  over  a  hundred  thousand  pounds  of 
ice  cream  a  year,  and  the  commissary  egg 
testers  tested  over  30,000  eggs  a  day. 


168 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


The  subsistence  department  managed 
the  hotels  and  boarding  houses.  There 
were  eating  places  provided  for  all  man- 
ners and  conditions  of  men  and  grades 
and  degrees  of  pocketbooks.  First  among 
these  were  the  Tivoli  and  the  Washington 
hotels,  where  one's  fancy  could  be  indulged 
to  about  the  same  extent  as  in  a  first  class 
New  York  hotel.  During  1912  the  Tivoli 
cleared  $53,000.  Approximately  161,000 
meals  were  served,  the  cost  of  food  being 
fifty-one  cents  and  the  cost  of  service  nine- 
teen cents  per  meal. 

The  I.  C.  C.  hotels  were  really  restau- 
rants serving  meals  only  at  the  usual  meal- 
time hours.  The  Americans  employed  in 
the  Zone  could  get  meals  at  these  eating 
houses  at  thirty  cents  each,  and  the  fare 
left  nothing  to  be  desired. 

The  line  hotels  served  over  2,000,000 
meals  during  the  fiscal  year  1912,  at  a  loss 
of  about  $12,000.  If  a  private  contractor 
had  held  the  contract  and  had  made  only 
two  cents  per  meal,  he  would  have  been 
$40,000  ahead  at  the  end  of  the  year. 
The  material  composing  each  meal  cost 
a  little  over  twenty-five  cents  and  the  ser- 
vice one  cent  and  six  and  one-half  mills. 
On  some  days  the  attendance  ran  above 
3,000,  while  the  average  was  2,000. 

The  European  laborers'  messes  gave 
them  rations  at  forty  cents  per  day.  There 
was,  in  1912,  a  small  profit  made  on  these 
messes,  and  some  writers,  with  money 
making  instinct,  have  condemned  this. 
But  the  service  was  worth  all  that  was 


charged  for  it.  The  mess  halls  were  large 
and  airy,  the  men  had  cooks  of  their  own 
nationality,  and  their  appetites  were  ca- 
tered to  in  every  reasonable  way.  Nearly 
all  the  Europeans  on  the  isthmus  took  their 
meals  at  the  mess  halls,  and  without  ex- 
ception acknowledged  that  never  before 
had  they  known  what  it  was  to  have  such  a 
liberal  supply  of  food. 

With  the  negroes  there  was  difficulty. 
At  first  the  Commission  tried  to  compel 
them  to  get  their  meals  at  the  West  In- 
dian kitchens.  These  kitchens  appeared 
spotless  in  every  respect.  Everything  was 
prepared  in  a  very  wholesome  way.  But 
in  spite  of  this,  and  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  the  United  States  was  offering  them 
the  equivalent  of  a  United  States  army 
field  ration  for  twenty-seven  cents  a  day, 
it  was  unsatisfactory  to  them,  and  they 
were  finally  allowed  to  subsist  themselves. 
Many  of  them  became  weak  from  deficient 
nourishment  and,  therefore,  could  not  do  a 
full  day's  work,  but  even  that  was  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  a  continual  shortage  of  negro  labor. 

On  the  whole,  supplying  the  needs  of 
the  canal  army  in  shelter,  food,  and  rai- 
ment was  a  gigantic  task  in  itself.  It  cost 
much  to  do  it,  but  it  was  worth  more  than 
it  cost;  for  the  army,  knowing  that  Uncle 
Sam  was  its  shield  and  buckler  against  the 
high  prices  existing  everywhere  else  in 
the  world,  was  a  contented  and  reason- 
ably happy  body  of  men,  and  never  failed 
in  its  efforts  to  construct  the  canal  in  the 
shortest  possible  time. 


CHAPTER  XXX 


LIVING  CONDITIONS  IN  THE  ZONE 

LACK  OF  RATIONAL  AMUSEMENTS  A  SERIOUS  DRAWBACK — How  COLONEL  GOETHALS 
SOLVED  THE  DIFFICULTY — THE  Y.  M.  C.  A.  TO  THE  RESCUE — CLUB  HOUSES 
ESTABLISHED — A  GREAT  TEMPERANCE  MOVEMENT — THEATRICALS  AND  MOV- 
ING PICTURES  INTRODUCED — BASEBALL  AND  SPECIAL  TRAINS — WOMEN'S 
CLUBS  PROVE  A  GREAT  FEATURE  IN  PROMOTING  CONTENTMENT  AMONG  THE 
FEMALE  RESIDENTS  OF  THE  ZONE — SATURDAY  NIGHT  DANCES. 


O 


UR  most  serious  handicap  is  the 
lack  of  rational  amusements.  The 
people  have  so  few  diversions  that 
they  soon  yearn  for  their  homes  in  the 
States,  and  that  condition  is  followed  by 
the  loss  of  good  men  from  our  force." 
Thus  spoke  Colonel  Goethals,  upon  one 
occasion,  in  discussing  the  needs  of  the 
great  work.  That  was  shortly  after  he 
took  up  the  reins  on  the  isthmus,  and  he 
was  quick  to  meet  the  situation.  Several 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  buildings  had  been  built 
which  were  intended  to  serve  as  club 
houses  for  the  men,  but  the  plan  had  not 
been  developed.  New  buildings  were 
added  at  several  places  and  a  liberal  policy 
adopted  that  made  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  enter 
largely  into  the  every-day  lives  of  the 
men  and  women  of  the  Canal  Zone.  The 
club  houses  were  the  meeting  places  of 
nearly  all  the  organizations  of  Americans. 
Their  large,  spacious  rooms  were  given 
over  to  a  meeting  of  the  women's  club, 
or  devoted  to  a  dance  or  a  concert,  or  be- 
came the  scene  of  amateur  or  even  pro- 
fessional theatricals. 

The  people  liked  the  liberalized  Y.  M. 
C.  A.  idea,  and  the  club  houses  were  most 
beneficial.  One  of  the  first  evidences  of 
their  usefulness  was  the  falling  off  of  liquor 
sales.  Before  they  were  built  the  men  had 
no  place  of  resort  except  the  saloons. 
The  men  drank  and  kept  drinking  largely 
because  there  was  nothing  else  to  do. 

This  and  many  other  causes  made 
for  discontent,  and  during  the  first  two 
years  over  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  Ameri- 
cans returned  home  each  year. 


It  was  perceived  that  if  the  work  was 
to  be  a  success  the  government  itself  would 
have  to  provide  amusements  for  the  men. 
Congress  had  made  no  specific  appropria- 
tion for  such  a  purpose,  so  President 
Roosevelt  decided  to  build  the  club  houses 
and  discuss  the  matter  with  Congress  later. 
But  Congress  never  debated  the  subject. 
The  good  results  were  so  obvious  that  there 
was  no  room  for  argument. 

Each  club  house  contained  billiard  rooms, 
an  assembly  room,  a  reading  room,  bowling 
alleys,  dark  rooms  for  the  camera  clubs, 
gymnastic  equipment,  an  ice  cream  parlor 
and  soda  fountain,  and  a  circulating 
library. 

When  these  club  houses  were  built 
drunkenness  quickly  fell  into  disrepute,  and 
the  saloon  trade  fell  off  at  least  sixty  per 
cent.  Men  who  had  frequented  the  sa- 
loons could  now  be  found  at  the  club 
houses  reading  the  latest  paper  from  home, 
going  through  the  new  magazines,  taking 
part  in  a  game  of  billiards,  or  at  work 
with  their  bowling  teams. 

The  club  houses  were  under  the  manage- 
ment of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  and  trained  men 
were  put  in  charge,  their  salaries  being 
paid  by  the  Commission.  How  useful 
they  made  themselves  in  creating  a  spirit 
of  contentedness,  on  the  part  of  the  Ameri- 
can worker,  is  shown  in  the  history  of  work 
accomplished. 

The  dues  of  the  members  were  only 
ten  dollars  a  year,  and  the  operations 
annually  left  a  deficit  of  about  $7,000  at 
each  of  the  larger  club  houses  which  was 
assumed  by  the  Commission. 


169 


170 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


The  activities  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  club 
houses  are  set  forth  in  the  annual  report  for 
1912.  It  shows  that  during  the  year  seven 
companies  visited  the  Canal  Zone  from  the 
United  States,  giving  eighty-five  enter- 
tainments, with  a  total  attendance  of 
21,000;  and  406  entertainments  given  by 
local  talent  and  moving  pictures  scored  a 
total  attendance  of  96,000.  During  the 
year  the  bowling  alleys  recorded  a  total  of 
104,000  games,  and  278,000  games  of  pool 
and  billiards  were  played.  There  was  a 
total  attendance  of  15,000  at  the  gymna- 
sium classes,  while  420,000  books  were 
withdrawn  from  the  circulating  libraries 
for  home  reading.  Soft  drinks,  light 
lunches,  and  ice  cream  dispensed  yielded 
a  revenue  of  $60,000. 

The  Y.  M.  C.  A.  work  was  only  a  part 
of  the  general  scheme  of  recreation.  The 
commission  maintained  a  band  for  the 
benefit  of  the  people  at  an  annual  expense 
of  about  $12,000;  band  concerts  were 
given  regularly  at  various  points,  and 
special  trains  run  for  the  benefit  of  em- 
ployees and  their  families  who  desired  to 
attend  them. 

Baseball  made  as  strong  an  appeal  to 
the  American  love  of  sport  at  Panama  as 
ever  it  did  at  home,  and  the  commission 
encouraged  this  in  every  way,  furnishing 
grounds,  special  trains,  and  opportunities 
for  practice;  and  no  league  ever  fought 
out  a  more  exciting  series  of  contests  than 
the  isthmian  league.  Usually  the  pennant 
contenders  were  the  teams  of  Empire  and 
Culebra,  and  the  whole  isthmus  became 
engrossed  in  their  fight. 

When  the  Americans  first  went  to  Pan- 
ama there  were  few  who  took  their  wives 
and  children  with  them.  But  after  the 
yellow  fever  germ  was  exterminated  and 
the  malaria  germ  was  denied  admittance 
to  the  precincts  of  the  isthmian  home,  men 
who  had  families  in  the  States  brought 
them  to  the  isthmus,  and  the  bachelors 
began  to  sigh,  each  for  the  girl  he  had  left 
behind.  The  result  was  that  there  was 
soon  a  large  number  of  American  wives 
on  the  Canal  Zone,  and  with  nothing  to 


occupy  their  minds  they  soon  became  the 
victims  of  discontent.  Each  woman 
thought  every  other  woman  was  treated 
better  than  herself  by  the  quartermaster 
and  the  commissary  attendant,  and  the 
petty  little  annoyances  that  in  a  normal 
community  would  be  laughed  away,  flour- 
ished there  even  as  the  vegetation  of  the 
untamed  jungle. 

To  remedy  this  condition  Miss  Helen 
Vanck  Boswell  was  invited  to  visit  the 
isthmus  to  organize  women's  clubs.  She 
went  and  was  welcomed  with  enthusiasm 
by  the  women,  who  set  to  work  with  a 
will  in  all  the  affairs  with  which  such 
clubs  interest  themselves.  Their  lonesome- 
ness  gave  way  to  contentedness,  and  in- 
stead of  dwelling  upon  fancied  wrongs  they 
developed  a  spirit  of  satisfaction  at  being 
able  to  help  along  the  great  work  of  build- 
ing the  canal  by  promoting  the  general 
welfare  among  both  men  and  women. 

The  spirit  of  the  commission  in  provid- 
ing rational  amusements  and  comforts 
for  the  people  may  be  read  in  the  statement 
that  the  cost  of  these  accessories  amounted 
to  more  than  two  and  a  half  million  dollars 
a  year. 

The  Canal  Commission  provided  good 
churches  for  both  white  and  black,  where 
ministers  of  any  denomination  could  meet 
with  their  flocks,  and  several  chaplains 
were  employed  at  its  expense  to  help  with 
the  religious  work  of  the  community. 
The  negro  churches  were  built  so  that 
the  lower  story  could  be  used  for  wor- 
ship and  the  upper  story  for  lodge  pur- 
poses. 

The  social  life  on  the  isthmus  centered 
at  the  Hotel  Tivoli,  which  was  built  with 
a  spacious  ballroom  where  the  fortnightly 
Saturday  night  dances  could  be  held. 
These  dances  were  given  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  Tivoli  Club,  composed  of  repre- 
sentative Americans.  The  youth  and 
beauty  of  the  American  contingent  turned 
out  in  force  at  these  functions. 

During  the  latter  years  of  the  construc- 
tion period  the  new  Hotel  Washington, 
with  its  ballroom  opening  three  sides  to  the 


LIFE  NONE  TOO  BEARABLE  171 

sea,  was  opened,  and  on  alternate  Saturday  big  task  every  year  and  went  back  to  the 

nights  dances  were  held  there.  States. 

From  time  to  time  there  was  a  word  of         Life  on  the  Canal  Zone  was  all  that  a 

criticism  as  to  the  liberality  of  the  Canal  generous  government  could  make  it,  and 

Commission   in   providing  rational  diver-  yet  it  was  not  one  iota  more  pleasant  or 

sion  for  the  people  who  had  to  build  the  more   profitable   than    was    necessary    to 

canal.     With  all  that  was  done,  however,  make  it  bearable  to  a  sufficient  number 

fifty  per  cent,  of  the  Americans  still  grew  to  enable  the  canal  work  to  go  forward  in 

weary  of  the  heat  and  the  stress  of  the  a  satisfactory  way. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 


THE  CANAL  FORTIFICATIONS 

ISTHMIAN  TOPOGRAPHY  SUITED  TO  CANAL  FORTIFICATION — THE  ATLANTIC  DEFENSES — 
THE  FORTIFIED  ISLANDS  OF  THE  PACIFIC — SIZE  AND  CHARACTER  OF  THE  ARM- 
AMENT— DANGER  OF  AN  OPEN  ATTACK  FROM  THE  SEA  ELIMINATED — REMARK- 
ABLE SEARCH  LIGHT  EQUIPMENT — PLENTY  OF  RESERVE  AMMUNITION — THE 
FIRE  CONTROL  STATION — THE  TROOPS  STATIONED  ON  THE  ISTHMUS — WATERS 
SUITABLE  FOR  PLANTING  OF  MINES — NAMING  THE  PANAMA  FORTS — A  GREAT 
MILITARY  RESERVATION — LOCKS  IN  LITTLE  DANGER — RIGHT  OF  THE  UNITED 
STATES  TO  FORTIFY  THE  CANAL. 


THE  topography  of  the  terminal  sec- 
tions of  the  Panama  Canal  lends 
itself  admirably  to  the  purpose  of 
the  military  engineers  to  whom  was  in- 
trusted the  task  of  making  the  canal  im- 
pregnable against  a  sea  attack.  At  the 
Atlantic  side  the  entrance  to  Limon  Bay 
is  somewhat  narrow,  and  the  big  guns 
mounted  at  Toro  Point,  on  one  side  of  the 
mouth  of  the  canal,  and  at  Margarita  Is- 
land, on  the  other  side,  completely  com- 
mand this  entrance  from  the  sea.  But 
this  narrow  opening  from  the  Caribbean 
into  Limon  Bay  has  been  made  much 
narrower  by  the  building  of  two  great 
breakwaters,  one  extending  out  toward  the 
canal  for  a  distance  of  two  miles,  and  the 
other  being  about  a  mile  long  on  the  oppo- 
site side,  but  not  connected  with  the  main- 
land. It  reaches  back,  however,  toward 
the  mainland  to  shallow  water,  and  any 
hostile  ship  which  might  seek  entrance 
would  be  directly  under  the  guns  of  Mar- 
garita Island.  The  powerful  armament 
there  protects  the  canal  against  any  attack 
by  sea,  since  no  ship  would  expose  itself 
to  the  terrific  fire  of  the  land  batteries  and 
the  great  mortars  planted  there. 

At  the  Pacific  end  all  the  defenses  are 
on  the  east  side  of  the  channel.  Several 
islands,  among  them  Naos,  Flamenco,  and 
Perico,  are  situated  a  little  distance  east 
of  the  Panama  Bay  section  of  the  canal, 
and  some  three  miles  from  the  mainland. 
These  islands  rise  precipitously  out  of  the 
sea  and  afford  excellent  sites  for  heavy 


armament.  They  have  been  connected 
with  the  mainland  by  a  breakwater  built 
from  Balboa  to  Naos  Island.  This  island 
has  been  connected  with  Perico  and  Fla- 
menco by  stone  causeways.  A  railroad  and 
a  driveway  provide  military  communica- 
tion between  the  mainland  and  the  forti- 
fications. 

The  heaviest  armament  at  each  end  of 
the  canal  consists  of  a  i6-inch  gun.  These 
are  the  largest  weapons  in  possession  of  the 
United  States,  and  perhaps  the  largest  in 
the  world.  Each  gun  is  fifty  feet  long  and 
weighs  284,000  pounds.  At  an  elevation 
of  forty-five  degrees  the  range  is  over 
twenty-four  miles,  but  as  mounted  the 
range  is  something  over  eleven  miles. 
The  projectile  is  six  feet  long,  weighing 
2,400  pounds,  and  containing  140  pounds 
of  high  explosive.  The  charge  is  670 
pounds  of  smokeless  powder,  the  ex- 
plosion of  which  causes  a  pressure  of  38,000 
pounds  per  square  inch.  The  muzzle 
velocity  of  the  projectile  is  2,250  feet  per 
second,  or  1,500  miles  per  hour,  and  the 
muzzle  energy  is  84,000  foot  tons.  The 
shell  will  penetrate  any  armor  plate  in 
existence  at  eleven  miles  range.  At  this 
distance  the  water  line  of  a  ship  would  be 
ninety  feet  below  the  horizon. 

The  secondary  defenses  on  each  side 
consist  of  six  14-inch  guns,  six  6-inch  guns, 
sixteen  1 2-inch  mortars,  and  eight  4  7/10- 
inch  howitzers.  The  mortar  shells  have  a 
range  of  20,000  yards,  or  over  eleven 
miles;  each  shell  weighs  from  700  to  1,046 


172 


DEFENSES    OF    THE    CANAL 


I.  The  i6-inch  gun. 

4.  Firing  a  1 2-inch  disappearing  gun. 


2.  Type  of  12-inch  mortar. 

3.  Projectile  of  i6-inch  gun,  6  feet  long. 


CHARACTER   OF   ARMAMENT 


173 


pounds,  and  carries  from  60  to  1 20  pounds 
of  high  explosive.  At  extreme  range  the 
shell  reaches  an  altitude  of  over  eight 
miles,  its  target  being  the  deck  of  the 
hostile  warship. 

The  small  guns  and  howitzers  will  come 
into  play  only  when  an  enemy  approaches 
within  a  mile  of  the  fortification  and  at- 
tempts to  effect  a  landing.  These  how- 
itzers may  be  moved  from  place  to  place 
to  meet  the  needs  of  the  mobile  forces  in 
case  of  attack  by  land.  A  battery  of 
eight  howitzers  will  be  stationed  perma- 
nently at  Gatun  locks.  At  both  ends  of 
the  canal  the  twelve-inch  mortars  are  so 
placed  that  they  will  be  useful  in  repelling 
attacks  by  land  as  well  as  holding  the 
enemy  in  check  at  sea.  They  will  be  able 
to  sweep  the  country  on  the  Atlantic  side 
as  far  inland  as  Gatun  locks,  and  on  the 
Pacific  side  as  far  as  the  Miraflores  locks. 
If  called  upon  to  take  part  in  a  land  de- 
fense they  will  be  loaded  with  shrapnel, 
a  most  effective  weapon  against  field  troops. 

The  guns  of  the  permanent  forts  are  all 
mounted  on  disappearing  carriages  of  the 
very  latest  models  known  to  military 
science,  which  were  especially  designed 
and  put  through  a  most  exacting  test 
before  being  adopted. 

With  the  armament  now  in  position  at 
Panama,  the  authorities  at  Washington 
do  not  fear  any  open  attack  upon  the  forti- 
fications. Such  an  attack  would  result  in 
disabling  so  many  battleships  that  no 
enemy  could  afford  to  take  such  a  risk 
unless  it  had  first  met  and  defeated  the 
United  States  navy. 

Surprise  attacks  are  guarded  against  by 
a  complete  searchlight  equipment  at  the 
fortifications.  There  are  14  searchlights, 
each  with  a  sixty-inch  reflector,  capable 
of  sweeping  the  entire  horizon.  Each  of 
these  searchlights  was  built  at  a  cost  of 
more  than  $20,000,  the  mirror  alone  re- 
quiring a  year  for  its  construction.  The 
lights  are  operated  from  electric  plants 
independent  of  the  main  plants  at  Gatun 
and  Miraflores.  The  guns,  also,  are  oper- 
ated by  electricity  generated  at  these  in- 


dependent stations.  A  supply  of  more 
than  $2,000,000  worth  of  ammunition  will 
be  kept  on  the  Isthmus  at  all  times.  Each 
sixteen-inch  gun  has  a  supply  of  seventy 
rounds  of  ammunition.  The  fourteen- 
inch  guns,  carrying  a  shell  weighing  1,400 
pounds,  have  approximately  the  same  num- 
ber of  rounds.  These  guns  use  a  365-pound 
charge  of  smokeless  powder,  and  their 
shells  will  pierce  the  best  of  armor  at  ten 
miles  range. 

The  fire  control  stations  by  which  the 
guns  find  the  range  of  the  enemy  are  as 
complete  as  those  of  any  other  fortress  in 
the  world.  With  lofty  lookouts  and  the 
instrument  known  as  the  range  finder, 
the  approximate  distance  between  the  guns 
and  the  enemy  may  be  readily  determined. 

The  defenses  at  Panama  are  manned  by 
twelve  companies  of  coast  defense  troops. 
Quarters  for  eight  companies  have  been 
established  on  the  Naos  Island  dumps. 
Two  other  companies  are  quartered  at 
Toro  Point,  and  the  remaining  two  at 
Margarita  Island.  These  four  companies 
on  the  Atlantic  side  will  be  reinforced 
by  those  from  the  Pacific  side  in  case  of 
need.  There  are  also  three  regiments  of 
infantry,  one  squadron  of  cavalry,  and  one 
battalion  of  artillery  stationed  on  the 
Isthmus,  for  which  permanent  quarters 
cost  approximately  $3,000,000.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  quarters  provided  for  troops 
stationed  on  the  canal,  field  works  are  pro- 
vided for  the  accommodation  of  20,000 
extra  troops  which  may  be  sent  to  the 
Isthmus  in  case  of  war.  The  works  are 
in  the  form  of  barricaded  positions,  in- 
trenchments,  and  protective  breastworks 
of  such  design  as  to  enable  the  troops  to 
undergo  a  state  of  siege.  These  field  works 
are  placed  principally  around  Gatun  and 
Pedro  Miguel.  All  buildings  for  the  per- 
manent forces  on  the  Isthmus  are  con- 
structed on  the  unit  plan  so  that  any 
necessary  expansion  may  be  easily  made. 

When  it  was  decided  to  fortify  the  canal, 
it  was  generally  agreed  that  the  fortifica- 
tions should  be  impregnable.  The  General 
Board  believed  that  such  fortifications 


174 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


would  be  an  invaluable  aid  in  the  transfer 
of  a  United  States  fleet  from  one  ocean  to 
the  other  in  the  face  of  an  opposing  fleet. 
It  pointed  out  that  guns  mounted  on  shore 
are  on  an  unsinkable  and  steady  platform, 
where  they  can  be  provided  with  adequate 
protection  and  accurate  range  finding  de- 
vices. The  board  suggested  that  the  mere 
statement  of  these  elementary  facts  was 
sufficient  proof  of  the  value  of  seacoast 
guns  in  protecting  the  fleet  while  passing 
out  to  engage  a  waiting  hostile  fleet. 

The  appropriations  committee  of  Con- 
gress took  much  testimony  on  the  question  of 
fortifications  and  their  adequacy.  General 
Weaver,  Chief  of  the  Coast  Artillery  Divi- 
sion, testified  that  in  his  opinion  the  de- 
fenses of  the  canal  would  be  entirely  ade- 
quate. He  remarked  that  the  only  doubts 
expressed  had  been  as  to  the  means  for 
preventing  an  enemy  from  using  Taboga 
Island  as  a  base  of  attack  on  the  Pacific 
fortification,  but  that  he  considered  this  a 
groundless  fear,  because  the  guns  of  the 
Pacific  fortification  would  not  only  cover 
Taboga  Island  but  the  waters  for  some  dis- 
tance beyond  it.  The  mortars  and  the 
sixteen-inch  gun  range  nearly  five  miles  be- 
yond Taboga,  and  the  fourteen-inch  guns 
about  three  miles  beyond. 

In  addition  to  the  defense  provided  by 
permanent  fortifications,  the  waters  at 
both  sides  of  the  Isthmus  can  be  defended 
by  mines.  Provision  has  been  made  for 
this  method  of  defense. 

The  fortifications  at  both  entrances  were 
named  in  advance  of  construction  by  Secre- 
tary of  War  Stimson.  The  Toro  Point 
forts  and  batteries  were  named  in  honor  of 
General  W.T.  Sherman;  those  on  Margarita 
Island,  in  honor  of  General  W.  F.  Randolph ; 
and  those  in  Panama  Bay  in  honor  of  Gen- 
eral U.  S.  Grant  and  Dr.  Amador,  the  first 
president  of  the  Panama  Republic. 


Under  the  plan  of  government  the  whole 
Canal  Zone  is  practically  a  military 
reservation.  Only  such  settlements  are 
allowed  as  are  necessary  for  the  operation  of 
the  canal,  and  the  governor  is  practically  a 
law  unto  himself,  exercising  surveillance 
over  the  canal.  Many  persons  have  ex- 
pressed fears  concerning  the  danger  of  the 
destruction  of  the  locks  by  high  explosives, 
secretly  placed  by  one  or  two  men.  Colo- 
nel Goethals  is  not  one  of  those  who  en- 
tertain such  fears.  In  order  to  accom- 
plish the  destruction  of  the  locks,  it  would 
be  necessary  to  place  the  charge  very 
carefully,  and  even  in  time  of  peace  the 
canal  operators  and  watchmen  are  always 
on  guard.  As  to  airships,  they  could  do 
no  serious  harm  unless  they  were  able  to 
drop  a  huge  explosive  directly  behind  a 
lock  gate.  Aerial  navigation  has  not  yet 
reached  the  degree  of  skill  required  for 
such  accuracy  of  aim. 

The  right  of  the  United  States  to  fortify 
the  canal  was  at  first  disputed,  not  only 
abroad,  but  by  some  Americans.  The  con- 
fusion of  thought  on  this  subject  was 
caused,  in  part,  by  the  ambiguous  language 
of  the  first  and  second  Hay-Pauncefote 
treaties.  While  the  first  treaty  seemed  to 
deny  the  right  to  fortify,  which  in  part  led 
to  the  amendment  of  the  treaty  by  the 
Senate  and  its  consequent  rejection  by 
Great  Britain,  the  second  treaty,  now  in 
effect,  tacitly  recognizes  the  right  of  the 
United  States  to  erect  fortifications.  In 
the  notes  exchanged  between  the  two  gov- 
ernments Great  Britain  explicitly  recog- 
nizes this  right.  The  temper  of  Congress 
was  such,  however,  that  even  if  Great 
Britain  had  not  recognized  this  right,  the 
canal  nevertheless  would  have  been  forti- 
fied, in  the  absence  of  any  stipulation 
binding  the  United  States  to  refrain  from 
defending  its  own  property. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 


TERMINAL  FACILITIES 

SUPPLYING  COAL  TO  GOVERNMENT  SHIPS — SUPPLIES  FOR  COMMERCIAL  VESSELS — 
GOVERNMENT  COAL  PLANTS  AT  EACH  END  OF  THE  CANAL — OIL  STORAGE  TANKS 
— BARGE  AND  LIGHTER  SERVICE — GOVERNMENT  DOES  NOT  SEEK  A  MONOPOLY 
OF  THE  COAL  BUSINESS — BALBOA  DRY  DOCK — DETAILS  OF  ITS  OPERATION — 
CRANES  FOR  HANDLING  CANAL  GATES  AND  HEAVY  GUNS — BUILDING  THE 
FOUNDATIONS  FOR  THE  PERMANENT  STRUCTURES — COMMERCIAL  WHARVES 
AND  PIERS — CHARACTER  OF  CARGO  HANDLING  APPARATUS — ADMINISTRATION 
BUILDING — THE  NEW  CITY  OF  BALBOA — BREAKWATERS  AT  THE  TERMINI  OF 
THE  CANAL. 


THE  most  ample  and  modern  facili- 
ties are  provided  at  the  Panama 
Canal  for  transferring  cargo  from 
one  ship  to  another  and  for  fueling,  dock- 
ing and  repairing.  Under  the  Spooner  Act 
the  President  was  directed,  among  other 
things,  "to  construct  such  safe  and  commo- 
dious harbors  at  the  termini  of  the  said  canal 
as  shall  be  necessary  for  the  safe  and  con- 
venient use  thereof."  When  the  estimates 
of  1908,  fixing  the  total  cost  of  the  canal 
at  $375,000,000,  were  adopted,  authoriza- 
tion was  made  for  the  construction  of 
breakwaters,  but  nothing  was  provided 
for  other  harbor  improvements  or  facilities. 
These  facilities  were  supplied  and  operated 
by  the  Panama  Railroad  Company  in  con- 
nection with  its  commercial  business. 

It  was  early  seen  that  the  canal  would 
require  freight  handling  facilities  of  much 
greater  extent  than  the  Panama  Railroad 
would  be  warranted  in  furnishing.  As 
the  months  lengthened  into  years,  after 
the  estimates  of  1908  had  been  made,  it 
began  to  appear  that  such  terminal  facili- 
ties as  had  not  been  provided  for  could  be 
built  out  of  the  savings  that  were  resulting 
from  efficiency  in  the  construction  of  the 
canal  itself.  Specific  legislation  was  con- 
tained in  the  Panama  Canal  Act  of  August 
24,  1912,  which  authorized  the  President 
to  "establish,  maintain  and  operate, 
through  the  Panama  Railroad  or  otherwise, 
dry  docks,  repair  shops,  yards,  wharves, 
warehouses,  storehouses,  and  other  nec- 


essary facilities  for  providing  coal  and 
other  materials,  labor,  repairs,  and  sup- 
plies of  the  Government  of  the  United 
States,  and  incidentally  for  supplying 
such  at  a  reasonable  price  to  passing 
vessels." 

The  government  intends  to  supply  its 
own  ships  with  coal  and  to  keep  enough 
on  hand  at  all  times  to  supply  such  ships 
of  commerce  as  cannot  replenish  their 
bunkers  at  a  reasonable  cost  from  private 
dealers.  For  this  purpose  a  coaling  plant 
has  been  established  at  each  end  of  the 
canal.  The  main  plant  is  located  at  the 
Atlantic  terminus,  and  has  a  normal 
capacity  for  handling  and  storing  200,000 
tons  of  coal,  with  a  possible  increase  to 
300,000  tons.  One  hundred  thousand 
tons  of  this  will  be  stored  under  water. 
The  plant  is  located  at  the  north  end  of 
the  island  at  Cristobal,  which  is  connected 
with  the  mainland  over  a  bascule  bridge 
crossing  the  French  canal,  and  connecting 
with  the  Panama  Railroad.  The  subsidiary 
coaling  plant  is  located  at  Balboa,  on  the 
outer  end  of  the  south  approach  wall  of 
the  big  dry  dock.  It  has  a  frontage  of 
500  feet  especially  adapted  for  discharging 
vessels,  and  a  frontage  of  500  feet  with 
high  level  bunkers  adapted  for  loading 
vessels  and  barges.  This  plant  is  capable 
of  handling  and  storing  180,000  tons  of 
coal,  with  a  possible  increase  to  300,000 
tons.  In  addition  to  coal,  facilities  are 
provided  at  both  ends  of  the  canal  for 


176 


supplying  ships  and  the  canal  with  fuel 
oil,  there  being  two  tanks  at  each  terminus, 
the  four  having  a  combined  capacity  of 
160,000  barrels  of  oil.  Like  the  coal- 
handling  plants,  the  fuel  oil  plants  may 
be  enlarged  as  the  business  of  the  canal 
expands. 

A  great  deal  of  coal  will  be  handled  by 
barges  or  lighters  that  can  be  brought  up 
alongside  vessels,  and  the  canal  is  equipped 
with  a  large  number  of  them,  as  well  as 
with  fuel  oil  and  fresh  water  lighters.  It 
is  expected  that  a  number  of  steel  barges 
of  large  capacity  that  have  been  used  by 
the  commission  will  be  available  for 
transfer  to  this  service.  A  barge  capacity 
of  16,000  tons  of  coal  has  been  recom- 
mended by  the  Navy  Department  for  the 
Atlantic  terminus  and  one  of  8,000  tons 
for  the  Pacific  terminus. 

It  is  not  the  intention  of  the  government 
to  maintain  a  monopoly  of  the  business 
of  handling  coal.  It  will  lease  to  individuals 
coal  space  in  its  coal-storage  basin,  and 
will  furnish  them  with  a  means  of  handling 
the  coal  at  a  pro  rata  cost.  It  will  give 
them  the  benefit  of  all  its  coal-handling 
machinery,  charging  them  no  more  for 
its  use  than  the  government  itself  must 
pay. 

Docking  facilities  are  found  at  both 
termini,  but  mainly  at  Balboa.  The  main 
dry  dock  is  large  enough  to  accommodate 
any  vessel  that  can  enter  the  canal  through 
the  locks.  Its  length  is  i  ,000  feet,  its  depth 
over  keel  blocks  thirty-five  feet,  and  its 
entrance  width  is  no  feet.  A  suitable  site 
was  found  under  the  protection  of  Sosa 
Hill,  where  it  is  safe  from  bombardment 
from  the  sea.  The  dock  was  founded  on 
rock,  and  its  walls  are  lined  with  concrete. 
Diamond  borings  taken  over  the  entire 
area  proved  the  rock  to  be  solid. 

The  dock  will  open  from  the  canal,  and 
normally  it  will  be  closed  by  a  pair  of 
mitering  gate  leaves  very  similar  to  those 
used  on  the  canal  locks,  and  operated  by 
machines  similar  to  those  operating  the 
lock  gates.  On  the  dock  floor  a  seat 
is  provided  for  a  floating  caisson  at  a 


sufficient  distance  from  the  gate  to  en- 
able it  to  be  painted  and  repaired  when 
the  caisson  is  in  place.-  The  dock  is 
filled  by  means  of  longitudinal  culverts 
in  the  concrete  side  walls,  communicat- 
ing with  the  dock  basin  through  open- 
ings in  the  dock  floor  at  its  intersection 
with  the  side  walls.  The  flow  of  water  is 
controlled  by  four  metal  valves  operated 
by  machinery.  The  time  required  for 
filling  the  dock  at  extreme  high  water  is 
about  twenty  minutes.  The  plant  for 
emptying  it  consists  of  four  centrifugal 
pumps  driven  by  electric  motors.  The 
diameter  of  the  stream  from  these  pumps 
is  approximately  fifty-four  inches.  The 
time  required  for  completely  emptying 
the  dock  by  pumping  will  not  exceed  two 
hours  and  ten  minutes,  under  which  cir- 
cumstances nearly  6,000,000  cubic  feet  of 
water  must  be  removed  from  the  great 
basin,  with  an  average  head  of  approxi- 
mately twenty-two  and  a  half  feet. 

For  smaller  vessels,  an  auxiliary  dry 
dock  is  used,  for  which  a  foundation  on 
similar  hard  rock  was  found.  This  small 
dock  was  built  instead  of  the  marine 
railway  that  was  once  planned  as  a  part 
of  the  canal  equipment. 

In  anticipation  of  probable  requirements, 
it  was  decided  that  two  floating  cranes  of 
largest  size  would  be  necessary  to  handle 
the  lock  and  dock  gate  leaves.  These 
cranes  were  planned  also  to  meet  the  re- 
quirements of  the  Navy  Department. 
They  are  capable  of  handling  the  heaviest 
guns  and  armament  in  connection  with  the 
canal  fortifications,  and,  also,  are  available 
for  handling  heavy  freight.  Likewise 
they  are  useful  in  repairing  commercial 
vessels  as  well  as  for  wrecking  service, 
either  of  a  military  or  commercial  nature. 
Each  of  these  cranes  consists  of  a  large  steel 
pontoon  150  feet  long,  eighty-eight  feet 
wide,  and  sixteen  feet  three  inches  average 
depth.  The  power  is  "steam  electric," 
steam  being  supplied  by  a  Scotch  machin- 
ery boiler.  Electric  energy  is  generated  at 
220  volts  direct  current  by  steam  genera- 
tors. The  pontoon  is  not  self-propelling, 


CONSTRUCTION   OF   PIERS 


177 


but  is  fitted  with  a  powerful  steam  capstan 
at  each  of  the  four  corners  for  warping  the 
crane  into  any  desired  position.  The 
cranes  are  further  fitted  with  suitable 
towing  bits,  cleats,  and  two  3,ooo-pound 
anchors,  handled  by  steam. 

All  of  the  piers  and  quay  walls  are  built 
on  reinforced  concrete  caissons  put  down 
to  solid  rock.  In  making  these  caissons,  a 
concrete  mixing  plant  was  mounted  on  a 
train  of  cars  in  order  to  permit  its  being 
moved  from  one  spot  to  another.  From 
this  mixing  plant  the  concrete  was  poured 
into  the  space  between  two  circular  shells, 
where  it  was  allowed  to  harden.  The 
shells  were  then  removed,  leaving  a  great 
section  of  reinforced  concrete  piping  about 
eight  feet  in  diameter  and  six  feet  long. 
The  first  shell  of  the  caisson,  which  ;was 
ten  feet  in  diameter,  had  its  lower  end 
equipped  with  a  sharp  steel  shoe.  As  it 
cut  down  into  the  earth  of  its  own  weight, 
laborers  inside  removed  the  material  from 
under  the  shoe,  allowing  it  to  sink  deeper. 
The  remaining  sections  were  eight  feet  in 
diameter,  which  permitted  the  full  weight 
of  the  upper  sections  to  fall  upon  the  one 
at  the  bottom.  A  jet  of  water  was  forced 
around  the  lower  section  as  it  sank  down, 
which  served  to  make  its  movement  more 
rapid.  At  times  the  weight  of  the  upper 
sections  was  sufficient  to  force  the  caisson 
rapidly  down  through  the  soft  mud,  while 
at  other  times  material  was  encountered 
which  required  a  pressure  of  twenty-five 
tons  in  addition  to  the  weight  of  the 
imposed  sections  above  to  force  it  down, 
even  very  slowly.  A  stratum  of  material 
encountered  twenty-five  feet  below  the 
surface  at  one  place  yielded  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  gas,  which  affected  the  laborers' 
eyes  so  much  that  some  of  them  were  forced 
to  go  to  the  hospital.  When  the  lower 
caisson  reached  bed  rock  it  was  firmly 
anchored  there,  while  the  sections  above 
were  tied  together  with  heavy  iron  rods. 
After  the  entire  caisson  was  in  place,  con- 
crete reinforced  with  rod  iron  was  put 
into  the  caisson,  practically  making  it  a 
reinforced  concrete  pile  ten  feet  in  diameter 


in  its  bottom  section,  and  eight  feet  in 
diameter  all  the  way  up  to  the  proper 
level  above  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

The  wharves  and  piers  for  commercial 
use  at  Cristobal  are  situated  between  Cris- 
tobal Point  and  the  canal  channel.  They 
are  of  permanent  construction,  about  1,000 
feet  long  and  209  feet  wide,  with  3OO-foot 
slips  between  the  five  piers  for  which  room 
has  been  provided.  On  the  Pacific  side, 
the  piers  for  commercial  use  are  at  Balboa, 
and  are  placed  at  right  angles  to  the  line 
of  the  canal  with  the  ends  of  the  piers 
about  half  a  mile  from  the  center  of  the 
canal  channel. 

The  superstructure  of  the  commercial 
piers  and  wharves  consists  of  one-story 
steel  sheds  having  a  clear  height  of  twenty- 
five  feet.  They  are  of  fire-proof  construc- 
tion with  reinforced  material  used  at  every 
point. 

There  was  some  delay  in  the  provision 
of  cargo  handling  appliances,  since  there 
was  no  certainty  as  to  the  amount  or  char- 
acter of  freight  destined  to  Panama  for 
transshipment.  It  was  found  that  the 
best  type  of  cargo  machinery  could  not  be 
determined  upon  until  the  amount  and 
nature  of  the  business  passing  through  the 
canal  were  more  definitely  known. 

Most  of  the  permanent  buildings  of  the 
canal  are  located  at  the  Pacific  end.  All 
of  them  were  built  of  concrete  blocks  and 
structural  steel.  The  administration  build- 
ing is  located  on  an  eminence  about 
seventy-five  feet  above  the  surrounding 
plain  at  the  base  of  Ancon  Hill.  It  is 
three  stories  high,  with  a  frontage  of  327 
feet  and  a  depth  at  the  end  wings  of  182 
feet.  The  surface  of  the  concrete  blocks 
is  covered  with  cement  stucco  and  the 
roof  is  covered  with  dark  red  vitreous 
tiling.  There  is  a  central  rotunda  forty- 
three  feet  in  diameter  around  which  the 
offices  are  grouped.  The  floor  area,  exclu- 
sive of  halls,  lavatories,  stairways  and 
elevator  shafts,  is  67,000  square  feet.  The 
cost  of  this  building  was  $375,000. 

Below  the  knoll  on  which  the  adminis- 
tration building  stands  there  once  was  a 


178 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


great  marsh.  This  was  filled  in  to  an  eleva- 
tion of  twenty-five  feet  above  sea  level  by 
material  from  the  site  of  the  harbor  works 
and  from  Culebra  Cut.  On  this  the 
white  settlement  has  been  established, 
with  its  public  buildings,  such  as  the  post 
office,  police  station,  fire  station,  hotel, 
lodge  hall,  schoolhouse,  commissary  store, 
church  and  Y.  M.  C.  A.  building.  All 
these  buildings  are  connected  by  a  con- 
tinuous arcade.  There  is  also  a  baseball 
ground,  a  tennis  court  and  a  band  stand. 
The  dwellings  are  arranged  to  provide  for 
one,  two,  three,  and  four  families. 

Perhaps  the  most  beautiful  site  on  the 
whole  Isthmus  overlooks  the  Balboa  ter- 
minal. It  is  the  elevated  plateau  made  by 
cutting  into  the  side  of  Ancon  Hill  for  the 
stone  used  in  building  the  Pacific  locks. 
About  500  marines  will  be  quartered  here 
in  barracks  costing  $40,000. 

The  filled  area  at  Balboa  dump,  made 
by  dumping  30,000,000  cubic  yards  of 
material  from  Culebra  Cut  into  the  shal- 
low waters  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  provided 
a  desirable  site  for  the  eight  companies  of 
coast  artillery  quartered  at  the  Pacific 
end  of  the  canal. 

The  terminal  waters  of  the  canal  are 
well  protected  by  breakwaters.  At  the 
Pacific  terminal  the  Naos  Island  break- 
water is  three  miles  long.  It  lies  nearly 
parallel  with  the  canal  from  900  to  2,700 
feet  east  of  the  channel  and  rises  from 
twenty  to  forty  feet  above  mean  sea- 


level.  Its  top  width  varies  from  fifty  to 
3,000  feet  and  it  contains  nearly  18,000,000 
cubic  yards  of  material  brought  from 
Culebra  Cut.  It  serves  the  double  pur- 
pose of  giving  dry  land  connection  be- 
tween the  forts  on  Naos  and  her  sister 
islands  and  the  mainland,  and  protecting 
the  mouth  of  the  canal  against  the  cross 
currents  which  otherwise  would  bring  into 
it  millions  of  cubic  yards  of  silt.  A  railroad 
track  and  a  driveway  will  extend  along 
its  crest  from  the  mainland  to  the  islands. 
More  than  five  days  were  required  to  com- 
plete this  breakwater. 

At  the  Atlantic  entrance  there  are  two 
great  breakwaters.  The  one  from  Toro 
Point  is  two  miles  long,  with  a  top  width 
of  fifteen  feet  and  a  height  above  sea-level 
of  ten  feet.  It  contains  nearly  3,000,000 
cubic  yards  of  rock,  that  for  the  core  com- 
ing from  the  Toro  Point  quarries,  and  that 
for  the  armor  from  the  Porto  Bello  quarries. 

The  other  breakwater  does  not  join  the 
mainland.  There  is  an  opening  of  2,000 
feet  between  it  and  the  one  from  Toro 
Point,  through  which  ships  will  pass. 
This  breakwater  is  intended  to  prevent 
the  filling  up  of  the  canal  channel  by  silt 
deposits.  The  cost  of  the  two  Atlantic 
breakwaters  was  about  $11,000,000,  of 
which  $7,000,000  was  expended  on  the 
big  one  at  Toro  Point. 

The  work  of  designing  the  terminal 
plants  for  the  canal  was  in  the  hands  of 
Civil  Engineer  H.  H.  Rousseau. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 


THE  CANAL  IN  OPERATION 

DREDGING  IN  CULEBRA  CUT — MIRAFLORES  DIKE  BLOWN  UP — DESTRUCTION  OP  GAM- 
BOA  DIKE — FIRST  OPERATION  OF  THE  LOCKS — DESPERATE  BATTLE  WITH  CUCA- 
RACHA  SLIDE — FIRST  VESSELS  THROUGH  THE  CANAL — PASSAGE  OF  THE  "ANCON" 
FROM  OCEAN  TO  OCEAN — THE  CANAL  OPENED  TO  COMMERCE — REPATRIATION 
OF  LABORERS. 


IN  the  summer  of  1913,  when  the  steam 
shovels  were  getting  down  to  grade  in 
Culebra  Cut,  the  chairman  and  chief 
engineer  began  his  plans  for  opening  the 
canal.  Already  that  stretch  of  the  sea- 
level  channel  between  Gatun  and  the  sea 
was  under  water,  and  the  major  portion  of 
the  Pacific  channel  also  was  navigable. 
There  was  some  water  in  the  twenty-odd 
mile  stretch  between  Gatun  and  Gamboa, 
but  the  nine-mile  stretch  between  Gamboa 
and  Pedro  Miguel  and  the  one-mile  sec- 
tion between  Pedro  Miguel  and  Mira- 
flores  was  dry. 

A  quantity  of  slide  material  and  about 
600,000  cubic  yards  of  earth  other  than 
slide  material  was  yet  to  be  removed. 
Some  of  the  engineers  wished  to  keep  the 
water  out  and  finish  Culebra  Cut  "in  the 
dry."  But  several  considerations  led 
Colonel  Goethals  to  pursue  the  opposite 
course.  First  of  all  was  the  fact  that  the 
date  fixed  for  opening  the  canal  was  Jan- 
uary i,  1915,  and  he  realized  that  if  his 
operating  force  was  to  be  organized  and 
trained  and  the  machinery  put  through 
the  shaking-down  process  before  that  date, 
it  was  necessary  to  get  the  canal  under 
water  as  soon  as  possible.  Experience  at 
Gatun  also  had  indicated  that  the  coun- 
teracting weight  of  water  tended  to  hold 
slides  in  check,  and  it  seemed  wise  to  utilize 
this  force  at  Culebra.  Moreover,  dredging 
had  proven  so  much  cheaper  in  handling 
such  material  as  that  still  remaining 
in  the  cut  that  considerations  of  economy 
were  on  the  side  of  putting  the  dry  sec- 
tions of  the  canal  bed  under  water.  The 
Secretary  of  War  approved  the  recommen- 


dations of  the  chief  engineer,  and  arrange- 
ments were  perfected  for  blowing  away 
the  last  barrier  and  carrying  the  waters  of 
Gatun  Lake  into  Culebra  Cut. 

While  these  arrangements  were  being 
perfected  the  last  dry  sections  seaward  from 
Miraflores  and  Gatun,  respectively,  were 
being  put  under  water.  On  Sunday, 
August  31,  the  last  dike  that  barred  the 
sea  from  Miraflores  was  blown  up.  Great 
well  drills  had  bored  541  holes  in  the  dike, 
and  in  these  holes  was  tamped  home  37,000 
pounds  of  high  percentage  dynamite.  A 
tiny  creek,  possessing  the  pretentious  name 
Rio  Grande,  was  dammed,  and  its  waters 
were  forced  to  flow  into  the  big  ditch  be- 
tween the  dike  and  the  Miraflores  locks. 
By  the  time  the  day  arrived  for  blowing 
up  the  dike,  the  creek  had  carried  enough 
water  into  the  section  of  the  canal  inland 
from  the  dike  to  protect  the  lock  gates 
when  the  barrier  was  destroyed. 

All  the  plans  for  the  explosion  were  under 
the  direction  of  Division  Engineer  H.  O. 
Cole,  an  expert  in  such  work.  He  had 
so  perfectly  proportioned  the  amount  of 
dynamite  to  the  task  it  was  to  perform 
that  the  barrier  was  shattered  exactly  as 
desired.  After  the  gigantic  explosion, 
which  was  attended  by  very  little  noise,  a 
man  with  a  shovel  went  out  on  the  dike 
and  dug  a  trench  across  the  loosened  earth 
of  the  crest.  A  tiny  stream  of  sea-water, 
for  it  was  high  tide,  began  flowing  through 
the  trench.  Forty  minutes  later  the  trench 
had  broadened  to  a  gap  thirty  feet  wide, 
and  a  torrent  of  water  was  madly  leaping 
down  the  dike  and  rushing  toward  the 
locks.  One  hour  and  twenty-five  minutes 


179 


I8o 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


after  the  tiny  stream  trickled  through  the 
trench  there  was  an  opening  in  the  dike 
400  feet  wide,  and  the  water  had  filled  up 
the  channel  to  sea-level. 

About  the  same  time,  suction  dredges 
were  set  to  work  eating  away  the  last  bar- 
rier that  shut  out  Gatun  from  the  sea. 

Steam  shovel  operations  ceased  in  Cule- 
bra  Cut  September  10.  The  last  steam 
shovels  working  on  the  bottom  were  No. 
204,  manned  by  H.  S.  Hayes  and  A.  E. 
Alexander;  and  No.  226,  manned  by 
Albert  H.  Geddes  and  W.  I.  Hudson. 
They  dug  their  last  dipperfuls  of  earth 
about  10:30  A.  M.,  and  immediately 
thereafter  the  last  of  the  quarter  of  a 
million  dirt  trains  that  had  run  out  of 
Culebra  Cut,  in  charge  of  Engineer  E.  C. 
Bean  and  Conductor  E.  A.  Donnelly,  was 
drawn  out  by  faithful  old  engine  No.  260. 
For  another  day  steam  shovel  No.  210 
remained  in  the  cut,  at  the  toe  of  Cuca- 
racha  slide,  fighting  an  unequal  battle  to 
keep  the  tracks  clear. 

With  the  end  of  the  dry  excavation  work 
came  the  clearing  up  of  the  cut.  On 
schedule  time  all  was  in  readiness  for  turn- 
ing water  in  on  October  I.  Four  two- 
foot  pipes  extending  through  the  Gamboa 
dike  from  Gatun  Lake  into  Culebra  Cut 
were  opened  on  that  date,  and  water  began 
to  fill  in  the  section  of  the  cut  between  the 
dike  and  Cucaracha  at  the  rate  of  about 
1.6  feet  a  day. 

October  10  was  the  date  set  for  blow- 
ing up  Gamboa  dike,  which  had  served  a 
long  time  both  as  a  barrier  against  the 
waters  of  the  Chagres  River  and  as  an 
embankment  over  which  the  trains  of  the 
Panama  Railroad  crossed  the  canal.  The 
dike  had  been  drilled  full  of  holes,  a  third 
of  which  had  received  charges  of  dynamite. 
A  cable  connection  through  Galveston  was 
established  between  the  White  House  and 
Gamboa,  and  when  President  Wilson 
pressed  a  button  at  the  White  House  it 
closed  a  circuit  at  Gamboa.  This  tripped 
a  weight  attached  to  the  handle  of  a  switch, 
throwing  the  switch  and  firing  the  enor- 
mous blast.  Half  an  hour  later  a  cayuco, 


or  native  canoe,  passed  through  the  gap. 

The  locks  were  ready  for  operation 
before  water  was  admitted  to  Culebra  Cut. 
Indeed,  the  Gatun  locks  were  operated  for 
the  first  time  two  weeks  before  water  com- 
munication was  established  between  Gatun 
Lake  and  Culebra  Cut.  On  Friday,  Sept.  26, 
the  sea-going  tug  Gatun  presented  herself 
as  a  candidate  for  the  honor  of  being  the 
first  vessel  to  be  lifted  from  the  level  of 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the  level  of  Gatun 
Lake.  Hundreds  of  persons  had  gathered 
to  witness  the  performance.  When  the 
water  in  the  lower  lock  was  brought  to 
sea-level,  the  Gatun,  with  flags  flying  and 
whistles  blowing,  steamed  into  it,  amid  the 
resounding  cheers  of  the  onlookers.  With 
the  lock  mechanism  working  perfectly,  the 
tug  was  lifted  up  its  three  successive 
steps,  twenty-eight  and  one-third  feet  each, 
and  brought  to  the  level  of  Gatun  Lake. 
The  next  day  she  was  let  down  again  with 
equal  success. 

The  day  before  Gamboa  dike  was  blown 
up  a  number  of  dredges  were  lifted  up  from 
the  sea  to  Gatun  Lake,  to  begin  the  final 
act  in  the  conquest  of  Culebra  Cut.  The 
Miraflores  locks  were  first  tried  on  October 
14,  and  here,  also,  all  the  gloomy  fore- 
bodings as  to  unwieldy  gates  and  the 
like  were  quickly  dispelled.  The  Pedro 
Miguel  locks  were  ready  for  their  tryout 
at  the  same  time,  but  they  had  to  await 
a  water  supply  from  Culebra  Cut,  which 
could  be  provided  only  when  the  engineers 
were  able  sufficiently  to  master  Cucaracha 
slide  as  to  permit  the  waters  of  Gatun 
Lake  to  pass  by. 

Cucaracha  fought  a  very  grim  battle. 
The  engineers  tried  to  blast  away  the  end 
of  its  toe,  so  that  the  water  could  creep 
past,  along  the  west  bank  of  the  cut.  A 
ton  and  a  half  of  dynamite  had  no  effect, 
and  successive  smaller  blasts  were  fruit- 
less of  results.  Dynamiting  was  then 
abandoned,  and  men  with  shovels  working 
day  and  night,  in  eight-hour  shifts,  were 
set  to  digging  a  trench.  Hydraulic  sluicing 
was  also  tried,  but  it  was  a  disappointment. 
Then  blasting  was  resumed,  with  a  charge 


1.  Culebra  Cut. 

2.  Steamer  Ancon  passing  through  Culebra  Cut. 


1.  Stretch  of  the  canal  near  Empire  after  excavation  work  was  completed. 

2.  Same  section  after  the  water  was  turned  in. 


FIRST  VESSELS  THROUGH   THE   CANAL 


181 


of  dynamite  so  heavy  that  the  explosion 
shook  the  houses  for  miles  up  and  down 
the  canal,  in  many  cases  throwing  articles 
from  shelves  as  though  there  had  been  an 
earthquake.  Still  Cucaracha  was  uncon- 
quered.  At  last  it  was  decided  to  bring  a 
pipe-line  suction  dredge'  and  pump  water 
across  the  slide.  A  freshet  in  the  Chagres 
helped  matters  considerably,  and  a  few 
days  later  the  water  in  the  section  of  the 
cut  between  Cucaracha  and  Pedro  Miguel 
became  deep  enough  to  permit  the  use  of 
the  locks  at  the  latter  place.  This  enabled 
the  dredging  fleet  on  the  Pacific  side  to  come 
to  the  spot,  as  those  of  the  Atlantic  side 
had  done,  and  Cucaracha,  attacked  on  its 
front,  rear,  and  both  flanks,  began  to  yield. 

As  the  water  rose  in  Gatun  Lake  it  was 
found  that  two  saddles  or  depressions 
between  the  hills  bordering  the  lake  were 
so  low  as  to  present  the  possibility  of  over- 
flow. The  surface  at  the  lowest  point  at 
the  Cano  saddle  was  87.4  feet  above  sea- 
level — about  the  height  of  the  normal  high- 
water-mark  in  the  lake.  It  was  decided 
to  build  embankments  along  the  crests  of 
the  saddles,  which  would  bring  them  up  to 
the  same  height  as  Gatun  Dam.  The  fill 
at  Cano  is  900  feet  long,  15  feet  wide  at 
the  top,  and  45  feet  at  the  base.  The 
other  saddle,  half  a  mile  east  of  Gatun, 
needed  filling  for  a  distance  of  only  350  feet. 

The  first  steam  vessel  to  pass  through 
the  canal  from  end  to  end  under  its  own 
power  was  the  crane-boat  Alex.  LeValley, 
belonging  to  the  dredging  fleet.  It  had 
come  up  from  Cristobal  and  was  engaged 
at  work  in  Culebra  Cut.  On  the  morning 
of  January  7,  1914,  it  was  sent  to  the 
Pacific  entrance,  thus  completing  the  first 
full  transit  of  the  Isthmian  highway  by  a 
steam  vessel. 

January  27,  1914,  was  an  important 
date  in  canal  history.  On  that  day  Presi- 
dent Wilson  signed  the  executive  order  put- 
ting into  effect  the  reorganization  of  the 
canal  government,  to  become  effective  April 
i.  Two  days  later  Colonel  George  W. 
Goethals  was  appointed  the  first  governor 
of  the  Panama  Canal. 


The  first  handling  of  a  ship  by  the  towing 
locomotives  was  on  April  I,  1914.  May  9 
witnessed  the  first  operation  of  the  auto- 
matic control  board,  which  makes  it  next 
to  impossible  for  a  lock  operator  to  fall 
into  error.  The  board  has  a  system  of 
indicators  which  shows  the  position  of  every 
important  part  of  the  lock  mechanism 
throughout  the  operation.  Little  lock 
gates,  drawn  to  scale,  move  over  a  blue 
marble  slab  representing  the  water  in  the 
lock  chamber.  The  valves  that  open  the 
culverts  in  the  side  and  center  walls  are 
represented  by  a  shutter  moving  up  and 
down  behind  a  glass  screen,  and  the  water 
level  is  shown  in  tubes  on  a  scale  of  one 
inch  to  the  foot.  The  operator  is  forced 
by  an  interlocking  system  to  perform  in 
proper  sequence  each  act  required  to  send 
a  vessel  through  the  locks. 

The  first  commercial  business  handled 
by  the  canal  was  a  shipload  of  sugar  from 
Hawaii.  The  American-Hawaiian  steam- 
ship Alaskan  could  not  use  the  Tehuante- 
pec  route  for  the  transfer  of  its  cargo, 
on  account  of  the  war  in  Mexico,  so  it 
went  to  Balboa  instead.  There  it  was 
met  by  the  tug  Mariner,  with  several 
barges  in  tow.  The  tug  and  its  tow 
left  Cristobal  at  6  A.  M.  on  May  igth, 
reaching  Balboa  at  6:40  that  evening. 
This  was  the  first  continuous  ocean-to- 
ocean  trip  through  the  Panama  Canal  by 
any  vessel.  The  entire  i2,3OO-ton  cargo 
of  the  Alaskan  was  thereupon  lightered 
through  the  canal  by  the  Mariner. 

On  August  15,  1914,  the  canal  officially 
opened  for  commerce.  On  that  day  at 
7:10  A.  M.,  according  to  a  prearranged 
schedule,  the  Ancon,  one  of  the  big 
cement-carrying  steamers  of  construction 
days,  left  her  berth  at  Cristobal  with 
about  200  distinguished  guests  aboard, 
and  in  nine  hours  and  forty  minutes  com- 
pleted the  passage  from  sea  to  sea. 

The  cablegram  which  Secretary  of  War 
Garrison  sent  to  Colonel  Goethals  upon  the 
successful  passage  of  the  Ancon  found  an 
echo  in  every  American  heart.  It  was 
as  follows: 


182 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


"On  behalf  of  the  government  and  the 
people  of  the  United  States  I  express  to 
you  and  through  you  to  all  concerned  in 
the  achievement,  the  intense  gratification 
and  pride  experienced  today.  By  the 
successful  passage  of  vessels  through  the 
canal  the  dream  of  the  centuries  has  be- 
come a  reality.  Its  stupendous  under- 
taking has  been  finally  accomplished,  and 
a  perpetual  memorial  to  the  genius  and 
enterprise  of  our  people  has  been  created. 
The  fully  earned  and  deserved  congratu- 
lations of  a  grateful  people  go  out  to  you 
and  your  colaborers." 

The  canal  was  now  formally  open,  and 
ships  in  unexpected  numbers  began  to  come. 
The  honor  of  being  the  first  war  vessel  to 
go  through  the  canal  fell  to  the  little 
torpedo  boat  destroyer  Teniente  Rodriguez, 
of  the  Peruvian  navy,  which  was  returning 
to  home  waters  from  the  Amazon. 

The  first  foreign  vessel  to  go  through 
the  canal  was  the  Daldorch,  a  cargo  steamer 
carrying  wheat  from  Tacoma,  Wash., 
to  England.  The  Daldorch  had  intended  to 
sail  around  South  America,  but  was  or- 
dered to  go  through  the  canal,  owing  to 
the  outbreak  of  the  European  war.  She 
passed  through  the  canal  on  August  22, 
and  saved  about  forty  days  at  sea  thereby. 

The  battle  with  Cucaracha  slide  con- 
tinued through  the  summer  of  1914.  There 
were  dredges  of  all  sizes  and  descriptions 


at  work.  Among  them  were  the  fifteen- 
yard  dipper  dredges  Gamboa  and  Paraiso, 
gathering  up  from  twenty  to  thirty  tons  of 
of  material  at  a  dipperful;  the  ladder 
dredge  Corozal,  with  its  endless  chain, 
carrying  fifty-two  buckets,  each  large 
enough  to  hold  twelve  men;  and  a  num- 
ber of  suction  dredges  handling  twenty- 
inch  streams  of  liquefied  mud.  These 
dredges  made  and  kept  the  channel  clear. 

On  the  1 4th  of  October,  1914,  however,  a 
new  menace  put  in  its  appearance.  Three- 
quarters  of  a  million  cubic  yards  of  ma- 
terial came  sliding  down  into  the  cut  north 
of  Cucaracha,  making  a  rear  attack  on  the 
dredging  fleet.  Fortunately  the  fleet  saw 
what  was  coming  and  quickly  drew  back 
from  Cucaracha  far  enough  to  get  north  of 
the  new  slide.  Timely  action  saved  the 
day,  and  in  less  than  a  week  the  traffic 
that  had  been  interrupted  was  restored. 

During  1914  the  great  task  of  repatriating 
the  common  laborers  that  had  built  the 
canal  was  carried  forward.  In  sixteen 
months  the  net  emigration  from  the  Isth- 
mus was  20,400.  Among  these  emigrants 
were  more  than  16,000  actual  workers  on 
the  canal.  The  common  laborers  who  de- 
sired to  return  home  were  sent  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  United  States.  However,  many 
thousands  of  the  West  Indian  negroes  went 
to  the  banana  plantations  of  the  United  Fruit 
Company,  where  they  are  now  employed. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 


THE  CANAL  GOVERNMENT 

EARLY  FRICTION  WITH  NATIVE  GOVERNMENTS — UNITED  STATES  ACQUIRES  SOVEREIGN 
POWERS — CONFLICT  BETWEEN  CIVIL  ADMINISTRATION  AND  CANAL  ENGINEERS 
— CIVIL  GOVERNOR'S  POWERS  CURTAILED — SELF-GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  CANAL 
ZONE  PROPOSED — CONGRESS  PROVIDES  PERMANENT  GOVERNMENT  WITH  A 
GOVERNOR  EXERCISING  UNUSUAL  AUTHORITY — SCOPE  AND  PLAN  OF  THE  PER- 
MANENT GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL. 


THERE  were  four  forms  of  govern- 
ment in  the  Canal  Zone  during  the 
ten    years    from    April,     1904,     to 
April,    1914.      Of   these,    three    forms    of 
government  have  been  tried  since  American 
occupation  in  1904. 

When  the  Americans  went  to  Panama, 
there  was  no  separate  government  over 
what  is  now  the  Canal  Zone.  The  French 
had  been  sorely  handicapped  by  the  fact 
that  they  were  nothing  more  than  a  cor- 
poration operating  in  the  republic  of 
Colombia,  and  amenable  to  the  civil  and 
military  rule  of  that  country.  They  were 
under  the  direct  rule  of  the  province  of 
Panama  and  the  indirect  rule  of  the  Bogota 
government.  Whenever  either  of  these 
governments  wanted  any  favors  from  the 
French  Company,  their  police  and  other 
powers  over  the  canal  strip  were  used  in 
such  a  way  as  to  enforce  compliance  with 
their  demands. 

When  the  United  States  undertook  the 
work,  the  first  requisite  was  full  control 
of  the  territory.  The  treaty,  therefore, 
granted  to  the  United  States  sovereign 
powers  over  a  five-mile  strip  on  either  side 
of  the  center  line  of  the  canal,  reaching 
from  one  side  of  the  isthmus  to  the  other, 
but  excepting  the  cities  of  Panama  and 
Colon.  Coupled  with  this  exception,  how- 
ever, was  a  provision  that  the  United  States 
should  always  retain  sanitary  control  of 
these  cities,  one  the  capital  and  the  other 
the  second  port  of  the  republic.  A  further 
provision  granted  to  the  United  States 
the  right  to  preserve  order  in  these  cities 
whenever  necessary. 


The  history  of  the  construction  period 
shows  the  wisdom  of  those  who  thus 
profited  by  the  experience  of  the  French 
with  the  Colombian  government.  The 
Panamans  were  friends  of  the  work,  and 
realized  its  importance,  alike  to  the  United 
States  and  to  Panama.  But  in  their  zeal 
to  promote  their  own  immediate  interests 
they  were  sometimes  led  to  lose  sight  of 
more  important  concerns. 

The  first  government  which  the  United 
States  set  up  on  the  isthmus  was  adminis- 
tered by  a  governor  appointed  by  the 
President  of  the  United  States.  It  was  a 
civil  government  financed  and  operated 
by  the  United  States  and  ruled  by  one  of 
its  officials.  The  population  paid  no  taxes 
and  had  no  voice  in  the  government.  The 
governor  of  the  Canal  Zone  was  a  member 
of  the  Canal  Commission,  but  he  was 
independent  of  that  body  to  a  great  extent 
in  administering  civil  affairs. 

As  might  have  been  expected,  with  the 
government  of  the  Canal  Zone  largely 
independent  of  the  commission,  friction 
soon  began  to  develop.  The  engineers 
wanted  all  matters  of  civil  government 
considered  with  prime  reference  to  the 
welfare  of  the  construction  work,  and  when 
it  appeared  that  this  was  not  being  done 
there  was  a  protest.  The  result  was  that 
not  a  great  many  months  passed  before 
there  was  a  new  form  of  government — one 
in  which  the  administrator  was  not  a 
governor,  but  merely  a  member  of  the 
Canal  Commission,  heading  the  depart- 
ment of  civil  administration. 

In  this  way  the  Canal  Zone  was  ruled 


183 


1 84 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA  CANAL 


during  most  of  the  construction  period. 
The  arrangement  worked  very  well.  It  is 
true  that  there  was  once  a  head  of  the 
department,  who,  after  having  been  on  the 
isthmus  for  many  months,  addressed  a 
body  of  engineers,  telling  them  that  the 
day  was  soon  to  dawn  when  "the  Atlantic 
and  the  Pacific  would  mingle  their  waters 
in  Gatun  Lake";  and  it  is  also  true  that 
there  was  once  a  head  of  that  department 
who  inspired  hostile  attacks  upon  the  man 
who  had  been  commissioned  to  build  the 
waterway.  But  in  spite  of  occasional 
incompetence  the  system  of  government 
devised  for  the  Canal  Zone  was  successful. 

Under  this  civil  government  were  placed 
the  postal  establishment,  the  court  system, 
the  police  and  fire  departments,  the  cus- 
toms service,  the  roads,  the  schools,  the 
prisons,  and  other  matters  of  lesser  impor- 
tance. The  United  States  built  the  water 
and  sewerage  systems  of  Panama  and  Colon 
under  an  agreement  that  it  should  be 
repaid  in  water  rents  covering  a  period  of 
fifty  years,  and  the  cost  of  paving  the 
streets  of  the  two  cities  was  to  be  repaid 
in  ten  years.  The  Canal  Zone  government 
was  the  collector  of  these  funds.  The  head 
of  the  department  of  civil  administration 
received  $14,000  a  year  for  his  services. 

When  the  time  came  to  determine  the 
character  of  a  permanent  government  of 
the  zone,  it  was  proposed  by  some  legisla- 
tors that  the  strip  should  be  thrown  open 
to  settlement,  and  that  the  little  colony 
should  possess  the  right  of  local  self- 
government.  They  supposed  that  the 
country  could  be  made  a  prosperous  farm- 
ing community  and  they  minimized  the 
military  necessities  and  strategic  value  of 
the  canal. 

Fortunately  Congress  turned  a  deaf 
ear  to  these  proposals.  It  realized  that 
the  commission  plan  had  been  a  failure, 
and  that  the  canal  had  been  successfully 
built  only  by  the  concentration  of  virtually 
the  whole  power  of  government  in  the 
hands  of  one  man.  Moreover,  a  populated 
Canal  Zone  would  have  required  large 
expenditures  for  sanitation  and  health 


preservation.  A  glance  at  the  cost  sheets 
of  the  canal  reveals  the  fact  that  Uncle 
Sam  spent  nearly  $17,000,000  for  health 
purposes  at  Panama  during  the  first  ten 
years  of  American  occupation.  This  ex- 
penditure included,  of  course,  the  cost  of 
hospitals  and  free  medical  attendance  for 
the  employees  of  the  canal  and  a  few  other 
items,  such  as  employment  of  chaplains 
and  the  disposal  of  the  dead. 

Congress  not  only  decided  against  a 
commission  form  of  government  for  the 
Panama  Canal,  but  it  went  to  the  opposite 
extreme  and  provided  a  one-man  govern- 
ment of  the  strongest  type,  subordinating 
the  governor  of  the  canal  only  to  the  Presi- 
dent and  the  laws;  and  it  gave  the  canal 
authorities  the  right  to  declare  the  zone 
practically  one  great  military  reservation. 

The  law  for  the  permanent  government 
of  the  canal  ratified  and  confirmed  all 
executive  orders  as  valid  and  binding  until 
Congress  should  determine  otherwise.  This 
provision  included  the  famous  executive 
order  concentrating  the  powers  of  the  Canal 
Commission  in  the  chairman  and  chief 
engineer.  After  Mr.  Wilson  came  into 
office,  some  of  the  members  of  the  com- 
mission thought  it  an  opportunity  to  change 
the  organization  on  the  canal  and  secure 
an  equal  voice  in  its  affairs.  They  were 
ready  to  carry  their  fight  to  the  White 
House  when  their  attention  was  called  to 
this  provision.  It  is  barely  possible  that 
there  might  have  been  a  third  chief  engineer 
going  the  way  of  Wallace  and  Stevens  but 
for  that  paragraph. 

The  law  provides  that  the  President  shall 
govern  and  operate  the  canal  through  a 
governor  and  such  other  persons  as  he 
may  deem  competent  to  assist  that  official. 
Upon  the  recommendation  of  Colonel 
Goethals,  the  salary  of  the  governor  was 
fixed  at  $10,000  a  year.  He  had  built  the 
canal  on  a  salary  of  $15,000  a  year,  while 
his  predecessors  had  received  $25,000  and 
$30,000  respectively.  Yet  he  modestly 
suggested  that  his  salary  was  as  large  as 
he  was  entitled  to  ask  for,  and  he  dis- 
couraged a  movement  to  have  the  salary 


GEN.  GOETHALS  APPOINTED   GOVERNOR 


185 


of  the  governor  fixed  at  $15,000  a  year  while 
he  was  the  incumbent. 

The  governor  of  the  Panama  Canal  is 
given  jurisdiction  and  control  over  the 
civil  government,  with  power  to  appoint 
magistrates,  constables  and  notaries,  to 
make  rules  touching  the  right  of  any  person 
to  remain  on  the  Canal  Zone,  and  to 
exercise  other  unusual  functions. 

The  law  significantly  provides  that 
when  war  exists  or  is  imminent,  the  Presi- 
dent shall  designate  an  officer  of  the 
United  States  army  to  assume  and  exer- 
cise exclusive  jurisdiction  over  the  canal 
and  the  Canal  Zone.  It  was  this  provision 
that  saved  the  canal  from  having  its 
military  character  entirely  subordinated 
to  its  commercial  uses.  It  had  been 
almost  decided  to  place  the  canal  in  con- 
trol of  a  civilian  under  the  Department  of 
»  Commerce.  As  the  law  stands,  the  canal 
is  under  the  War  Department;  and, 
while  the  canal  will  be  operated  for  com- 
mercial purposes  in  normal  times,  it  will 
always  be  kept  ready  for  the  fateful  day 
which  every  American  hopes  may  never 
dawn,  but  for  which  the  nation  dares  not 
be  unprepared. 

In  carrying  out  the  law  providing  for  the 
permanent  government  of  the  Panama 
Canal,  President  Wilson,  on  January  24, 
1914,  nominated  George  W.  Goethals  as 
first  governor  of  the  canal.  He  was  con- 
firmed February  4,  and  the  new  government 
went  into  operation  April  I. 

Colonel  Goethals  had  urged  that  the 
change  from  the  construction  government 
to  the  operative  government  should  be 
made  in  such  a  way  as  to  cause  the  least 
possible  friction.  He  proposed  that  the 
change  should  be  an  evolution,  and  that 
the  persons  who  had  "made  good"  during 
the  construction  work  should  be  preferred 
in  filling  positions  under  the  new  regime. 
And  he  practiced,  when  he  became  gov- 
ernor, what  he  had  preached  when  he  was 
at  the  head  of  the  commission.  He 
promptly  assured  the  people  on.  the  Canal 
Zone  that  the  new  government  was  to  be 
a  development  of  the  old,  an  adaptation 


of  the  existing  organization  to  meet  the 
new  needs. 

The  new  government,  in  its  details,  is 
based  upon  an  executive  order  issued  by 
President  Wilson,  January  27,  1914,  and 
embodying  the  recommendations  of  the 
head  of  the  commission.  The  Governor  is 
in  supreme  control,  subject  to  the  super- 
vision of  the  Secretary  of  War.  A  Depart- 
ment of  Operation  and  Maintenance  is 
provided  for,  which  has  charge  of  the 
completion  of  the  canal,  and  its  operation, 
including  the  operation  of  the  terminal 
facilities.  The  Purchasing  Department  is 
charged  with  the  purchase  of  all  supplies, 
which  are  turned  over  to  the  Supply 
Department.  The  latter  department,  also, 
has  charge  of  the  maintenance  of  com- 
missaries, hotels  and  messes;  it  assigns 
quarters,  maintains  the  buildings  of  the 
zone,  and  recruits  and  distributes  the 
unskilled  labor  for  the  canal.  The  Account- 
ing Department,  under  the  immediate 
supervision  of  the  auditor,  has  charge  of 
all  accounting  work.  A  Health  Depart- 
ment succeeds  the  Department  of  Sanita- 
tion. It  takes  over  the  operation  of  the 
quarantine  service,  the  sanitary  control 
of  the  Canal  Zone,  the  sanitary  relations 
between  the  United  States  and  the  cities 
of  Panama  and  Colon  under  the  treaty, 
and  the  operation  of  the  hospitals  and 
charitable  institutions.  The  position  of 
executive  secretary  is  created,  and  he  is 
given  the  administration  of  all  those 
affairs  which  formerly  were  administered 
by  the  head  of  the  Department  of  Civil 
Administration.  He  has  charge  of  the 
time-keeping  system  in  force  on  the  canal; 
of  all  matters  relating  to  post  offices,  cus- 
toms, taxes  and  excises,  except  the  col- 
lection of  moneys;  of  police,  prisons,  fire 
protection  service,  schools,  libraries,  clubs 
and  the  land  office.  The  files  and  records 
of  the  canal  are  under  his  supervision, 
as  are,  also,  matters  pending  between  the 
canal  and  the  Panama  government.  He 
has  custody  of  the  official  seal  of  the 
canal. 

Later    executive    orders    established    a 


1 86 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


Washington  office,  laid  down  the  plan  for 
the  organization  of  the  new  judiciary,  pro- 
vided rules  for  the  collection  of  tolls  and  the 
operation  of  the  terminal  facilities,  etc. 

When  the  work  of  reorganization  began, 
it  was  carried  out  with  the  purpose  of 
causing  the  least  inconvenience  to  those 
who  had  to  leave  the  isthmus  on  account 
of  the  gradual  closing-down  of  the  con- 
struction work.  Employees  were  per- 
mitted to  accumulate  eighty-four  days 
leave  to  their  credit,  and  silver  employees 
were  repatriated  at  the  expense  of  the 
canal.  By  the  first  of  January,  1915, 
affairs  had  been  placed  on  a  permanent 
basis;  the  new  judiciary  system  was  in 
operation;  and  Governor  Goethals  had 
begun  to  look  forward  to  the  day  when  he 


could  pronounce  the  canal  finished  and  in 
successful  operation. 

On  March  4,  1915,  the  President  re- 
sponded to  the  desire  of  the  American 
people  by  recognizing  the  right  of  Colonel 
Goethals  and  his  principal  lieutenants  to 
receive  substantial  promotion  as  a  reward 
for  their  labors.  The  President  nominated 
Colonel  Goethals  to  be  a  major-general; 
Brigadier-General  Gorgas  to  be  a  major- 
general;  Colonel  Harry  F.  Hodges  to  be  a 
brigadier-general;  Lieutenant-Colonel  Wil- 
liam L.  Sibert  to  be  a  brigadier-general; 
and  Civil  Engineer  Harry  H.  Rousseau 
was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  rear-admiral  of 
the  Navy.  The  Senate  confirmed  these 
nominations  on  the  same  day — a  signal 
honor. 


CHAPTER  XXXV 


BUILDING  THE  FOUNDATIONS 

How  MR.  WALLACE  BECAME  CHIEF  ENGINEER — SCOPE  OF  JURISDICTION — SANITATION 
OF  PANAMA  AND  COLON — PROVIDING  LIVING  QUARTERS — OVERHAULING 
FRENCH  EQUIPMENT — COST-KEEPING  SYSTEM  INSTALLED — PLANS  FOR  SECUR- 
ING LABOR — EXPLORATIONS  AT  BOHIO  AND  GATUN — MR.  WALLACE  FAVORS  A 
SEA-LEVEL  CANAL — REORGANIZATION  OF  COMMISSION — WHY  A  LOCK  CANAL 
WAS  SELECTED — YELLOW  FEVER  EPIDEMIC — SOCIETY  AT  PANAMA — FRIC- 
TION OVER  LABOR  SUPPLY — How  COOPERATION  OF  PANAMA  RAILROAD  WAS 
SECURED — EXCESSIVE  RAILROAD  RATES — CIVIL  SERVICE  RESTRICTIONS — 
FOUNDATIONS  FOR  CANAL  FINALLY  LAID — MR.  WALLACE  RESIGNS. 

BY  JOHN  F.  WALLACE. 


THE  first  intimation  I   had  of   my 
name  being  considered  in  connec- 
tion with  the  position  of  chief  en- 
gineer of  the  Panama  Canal  was  the  fol- 
lowing letter  which  I  received  from  Mr. 
William  Barclay  Parsons : 

At  Sea,  between  Cuba  and  Colon, 

April  3,  1904. 
My  dear  Mr.  Wallace: 

On  this  trip  from  New  York  to  the  Isthmus 
the  Commission  has  been  giving  earnest  considera- 
tion to  the  selection  of  a  chief  engineer,  realizing 
that  a  very  great  measure  of  our  success  will  de- 
pend on  that  official. 

The  man  for  this  position  must  possess  excep- 
tional qualifications.  He  must  not  only  be  an 
engineer,  but  must  also  be  an  administrator  and 
executive.  He  must  have  mature  judgment,  and 
yet  energy  of  accomplishment.  He  must  be  well 
known  and  favorably  known.  Among  those  who 
have  been  considered  as  so  qualified  naturally  your 
name  occurs,  and  the  Commission  desires  to  know 
whether  if  a  tender  of  this  position  were  made,  it 
would  be  seriously  considered  by  you.  Owing 
to  a  previous  professional  engagement  with  the 
British  Government  I  will  be  obliged  to  leave  Pan- 
ama in  advance  of  the  other  members  of  the  Com- 
mission and  will  arrive  in  New  York  on  April  igth 
so  as  to  sail  for  England  on  April  26th.  The  other 
members  of  the  Commission  and  I  would  very  much 
like  to  have  you  and  me  to  meet  to  talk  this  matter 
over  so  that  I  could  communicate  with  them  prior 
to  my  leaving  for  Europe.  Would  it  be  possible 
for  you  to  be  in  New  York  some  time  between  the 
dates  mentioned,  on  say  the  2ist  or  22d  of  April? 
If  you  can  do  this  we  can  discuss  the  whole  thing 
and  I  can  give  an  answer  to  my  associates. 

I  can  imagine  that  you  will  be  disinclined  to 
think  of  severing  your  connection  with  the  Illinois 
Central,  but  on  the  other  hand  you  would  attach 


your  name  to  the  greatest  piece  of  construction 
ever  undertaken. 

Hoping  that  you  will  be  able  to  meet  me,  I  am, 
Yours  sincerely, 

WILLIAM  BARCLAY  PARSONS. 

Pursuant  to  the  suggestion  of  Mr.  Par- 
sons, I  had  an  interview  with  him  in  New 
York,  in  which  he  explained  to  me  the  de- 
sire of  the  other  members  of  the  Isthmian 
Canal  Commission  as  well  as  himself  to 
secure  my  services  as  the  principal  repre- 
sentative of  the  commission  on  the  isth- 
mus, in  full  charge  of  all  matters  connected 
with  the  construction  of  the  canal,  with 
the  title  of  chief  engineer. 

Mr.  Parsons  stated  that  as  the  commis- 
sion was  charged  with  the  responsibility 
for  the  construction  of  the  canal  under  the 
direction  of  the  President,  and  as  it  was 
necessary  for  the  commission,  the  duties 
of  which  would  be  largely  administrative 
and  legislative,  to  keep  in  close  touch  with 
the  President  and  the  legal,  financial,  and 
executive  departments  of  the  Government, 
it  was  thought  wise  at  a  recent  meeting  of 
the  commission  on  the  isthmus  to  put 
the  actual  execution  of  the  work  under 
the  charge  of  an  administrator  with  the 
title  of  chief  engineer,  in  order  to  obtain 
that  prompt  action,  unity  of  purpose,  and 
efficient  execution  which  could  only  be 
accomplished  through  a  single  executive 
whose  authority  under  and  responsibility 


187 


188 


to  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  should 
be  properly  balanced. 

Mr.  Parsons  explained  that  on  taking  an 
informal  ballot  I  had  been  the  choice  of 
such  a  large  majority  of  the  commissioners 
that  it  was  decided  to  consider  me  for  the 
position;  and  on  account  of  his  having  to 
go  to  Europe  he  had  left  the  isthmus  a 
week  earlier  than  the  commission  and  had 
been  delegated  to  take  the  matter  up  with 
me  in  a  preliminary  way  and  find  out  if 
I  would  be  willing  to  confer  with  Admiral 
Walker  and  the  commission  on  the  subject 
upon  their  return  to  the  City  of  Washing- 
ton. 

On  the  following  Wednesday,  May  4th, 
I  visited  Washington  and  had  a  conference 
with  Admiral  Walker  and  the  commission, 
in  which  the  communication  made  to  me 
by  Mr.  Parsons  was  confirmed  and  the 
further  explanation  made  that  it  desired 
not  only  the  services  of  a  technical  engineer, 
but  an  administrator  and  executive  with 
engineering  knowledge  and  experience, 
preferring  a  man  of  my  type  and  qualifi- 
cations familiar  with  business  methods  used 
in  the  conduct  of  large  enterprises,  rather 
than  to  select  an  engineer  who  might  have 
better  technical  qualifications  alone. 

At  this  meeting  I  did  not  accept  the 
position,  but  outlined  my  views  in  regard 
to  the  authority  that  should  be  delegated 
to  me  and  my  responsibilities  to  the  work, 
and  laid  particular  stress  on  the  fact  that 
I  could  not  give  satisfactory  service  unless 
I  was  given  an  absolutely  free  hand  in  the 
conduct  of  the  work;  that  I  could  not  be 
expected  to  take  orders  or  instructions 
from  any  individual  member  of  the  com- 
mission, but  that  the  commission  should 
decide  matters  of  policy  and  organization 
relating  to  the  general  plan  and  conduct  of 
the  work,  and  its  instructions  should  come 
to  me,  through  the  chairman,  in  the  form 
of  resolutions  passed  by  the  commission, 
and  that  my  communication  with  the  com- 
mission should  be  through  Admiral  Walker, 
its  chairman. 

In  connection  with  my  employment  I 
want  to  say  that  Admiral  Walker  took 


particular  pains  to  state  that  my  tenure 
of  office  and  obligations  in  undertaking 
the  work  were  as  outlined  in  a  letter  of 
instructions  on  this  point  which  President 
Roosevelt  had  communicated  to  the  com- 
mission, from  which  I  quote  the  following: 

"I  believe  that  each  one  of  you  will 
serve  not  merely  with  entire  fidelity,  but 
with  the  utmost  efficiency.  If  at  any  time 
I  feel  that  any  one  of  you  is  not  rendering 
the  best  service  which  it  is  possible  to 
secure,  I  shall  feel  called  upon  to  disregard 
alike  my  feelings  for  the  man  and  the  man's 
own  feelings,  and  forthwith  to  substitute 
for  him  on  the  Commission  some  other 
man  whom  I  deem  capable  of  rendering 
better  service. 

"  Moreover,  I  shall  expect  if  at  any  time 
any  one  of  you  feel  that  the  work  is  too 
exhausting  and  engrossing  for  him  to  do 
in  the  best  possible  manner  that  he  will 
of  his  own  accord  inform  me  in  order  that 
I  may  replace  him  by  some  man  who  to 
the  requisite  ability  joins  the  will  and  the 
strength  to  give  all  the  effort  needed. 
But  so  long  as  you  render  efficient  service 
of  the  highest  type  in  the  work  you  are 
appointed  to  perform  you  may  rest  assured 
of  my  hearty  support  and  backing  in  every 
way. 

"These  are  the  conditions  under  which 
you  have  been  appointed  and  under  which 
I  shall  expect  you  to  proceed.  I  shall 
furthermore  expect  you  to  apply  precisely 
the  same  principles  in  the  choice  and  re- 
tention of  the  subordinates  who  do  the 
work  under  you  as  I  have  applied  to  your 
choice  and  shall  apply  in  your  retention." 

The  admiral  particularly  impressed  upon 
my  mind  the  fact  that  no  tenure  of  office 
could  be  conferred  upon  me  by  the  com- 
mission except  under  the  conditions  men- 
tioned in  the  President's  letter  above 
quoted,  and  that  at  any  time  I  felt  I  could 
not  perform  my  duties  in  harmony  with 
the  policy  of  the  administration,  or  for 
any  reason  felt  that  I  could  not  fully 
support  that  policy,  the  obligation  rested 
upon  me  to  resign,  in  which  views  I  fully 
concurred. 


1.  Belgian  locomotives  used  by  French,  and  still  serviceable. 

2.  Old  French  dredge. 


1.  In  the  days  of  the  French. 

2.  Culebra  Cut  in  the  latter  days  of  the  Americans. 


THE  PRESIDENT'S  INSTRUCTIONS 


189 


Upon  my  arrival  on  the  isthmus  I  im- 
mediately placed  Mr.  Carleton  E.  Davis 
in  charge  of  all  work  connected  with  water 
supply,  sewerage,  street  paving,  and  other 
physical  work  necessary  to  be  carried  on 
in  connection  with  such  plans  for  sanita- 
tion as  the  commission  might  adopt  as 
the  result  of  recommendations  of  Colonel 
Gorgas  and  myself,  it  being  understood 
that  the  chief  engineer  should  have  charge 
of  the  physical  execution  of  the  larger 
sanitary  work  and  that  Colonel  Gorgas's 
department  should  have  charge  of  the 
sanitary  policing  and  such  other  sanitary 
work  as  could  be  conducted  directly  by 
and  under  his  department.  On  account 
of  the  prevalence  of  yellow  fever  on  the 
isthmus  at  this  time,  preparation  for 
proper  health  protection  was  considered 
essential  and  paramount. 

In  this  connection,  it  was  necessary 
that  an  abundance  of  pure  water  should 
be  provided  for  the  various  towns  and  set- 
tlements along  the  line,  proper  sewerage 
systems  established,  and  in  Panama  and 
Colon  that  the  streets  should  be  properly 
paved. 

Within  three  weeks  after  my  arrival  on 
the  isthmus  a  general  scheme  for  a  water 
supply  at  Panama  was  devised,  and  En- 
gineer Davis  and  his  staff,  under  my  gen- 
eral directions,  immediately  set  to  work 
and  prepared  plans  for  the  water  supply 
for  Panama  and  for  Colon,  also  a  sewerage 
system  for  Panama  as  well  as  street  paving. 

A  site  for  a  reservoir  was  selected  west 
of  the  Panama  Railroad  line  in  the  vicinity 
of  Culebra  Cut,  and  an  old  reservoir  which 
had  been  constructed  under  the  French 
was  enlarged  and  plans  made  for  a  secon- 
dary reservoir  in  the  immediate  outskirts 
of  Panama.  During  August  complete  plans 
and  specifications  for  the  water  supply 
were  submitted  to  the  Isthmian  Canal 
Commission  for  approval. 

This  was  followed  by  plans  for  a  sewer- 
age system,  and  for  the  street  paving  of 
Panama. 

As  soon  as  the  plans  were  approved  by 
the  commission  actual  construction  com- 


menced, and  all  of  the  work  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  street  paving,  the  material 
for  which  had  not  arrived,  was  practically 
completed  during  my  administration. 

General  Davis,  Colonel  Gorgas,  and  my- 
self all  considered  these  sanitary  works  as 
fundamentally  essential  to  enable  Colonel 
Gorgas  to  eliminate  the  plague  of  mos- 
quitoes, which  the  medical  department 
considered  to  be  the  chief,  if  not  the  sole 
method  of  yellow  fever  transmission. 

Coincident  with  these  works,  Colonel 
Gorgas  with  a  force  under  his  immediate 
direction,  started  an  extensive  campaign 
of  fumigation,  the  draining  of  marshes, 
cleaning  up  of  vegetation,  and  other  means 
for  the  elimination  of  mosquitoes. 

The  importance  of  the  water  works, 
however,  consisted  in  the  fact  that  the 
principal  supply  of  water  during  the  dry 
season,  in  both  Panama  and  Colon,  was 
provided  through  the  storage  of  rain  water 
in  cisterns,  most  of  which  occupied  the 
interior  courts  of  residences  and  business 
houses.  In  these  reservoirs  the  species  of 
mosquito  which  transmitted  yellow  fever 
was  constantly  breeding,  and  the  elimina- 
tion of  these  mosquitoes  was  impossible 
as  long  as  these  cisterns  were  maintained. 

At  that  time  Panama  had  absolutely  no 
sewerage  except  a  few  individual  sewers 
that  emptied  directly  into  the  harbor,  and 
a  sewerage  system  could  not  be  established 
and  made  efficient  without  an  abundance 
of  water  supply  to  flush  the  same.  Again, 
the  sanitary  department  found  it  very 
difficult  to  keep  the  streets  free  from  ac- 
cumulations of  filth  and  garbage  without 
a  smooth  surface  that  could  be  readily 
cleaned  and  flushed  with  an  abundance  of 
water. 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  note  that  while 
I  was  assured  by  the  authorities  in  Wash- 
ington that  my  requisitions  would  be 
promptly  filled  for  the  water  and  sewer 
pipe  necessary  to  make  this  installation — 
which  could  have  been  made  within  ninety 
days  after  the  receipt  of  the  material, 
and  might  have  prevented  the  series  of 
epidemics  which  occurred  during  the  fol- 


190 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


lowing  dry  season — they  were  not  filled  in  a 
way  that  enabled  the  principal  water  main 
to  be  laid  and  put  in  use  until  some  eight 
months  later. 

One  of  the  first  difficulties  which  I  met 
in  the  initial  organization  was  the  fact  that 
it  was  necessary  to  provide  suitable  and 
sanitary  living  quarters  for  the  men  be- 
fore any  large  force  was  brought  on  the 
isthmus.  It  was  a  difficult  matter  to  prop- 
erly adjust  the  relation  between  the  new 
forces  necessary  to  start  the  initial  organi- 
zation in  various  parts  of  the  work,  and 
also  to  prepare  sanitary  quarters  for  the 
men  who  were  brought  to  the  isthmus  to 
perform  this  service. 

A  building  department  was  at  once 
organized  and  put  in  charge  of  Mr.  M.  O. 
Johnson,  with  a  staff  of  building  mechanics 
necessary  to  rebuild  the  French  quarters 
and  to  provide  new  quarters. 

Under  his  supervision  the  hotel  at 
Corozal  was  planned  and  constructed  and 
also  the  one  at  Culebra,  and  a  large  num- 
ber of  buildings  for  quarters  for  the  various 
officers,  members  of  the  staffs  and  the  em- 
ployees of  all  grades. 

Another  difficulty  encountered  was  the 
inability  to  get  requisitions  filled  for  the 
proper  wire  netting  which  the  sanitary 
department  considered  necessary  to  pro- 
tect the  men  from  the  attacks  of  mos- 
quitoes. 

Here  it  might  be  well  to  mention  that 
at  Colon  and  Panama  it.  was  necessary  to 
protect  the  employees  from  yellow  fever 
mosquitoes,  whose  radius  of  action  was 
small  and  which  seldom  went  beyond  the 
boundaries  of  the  houses  in  which  they 
bred,  and  in  the  outlying  districts  between 
Panama  and  Colon,  as  well  as  in  Panama 
and  Colon,  to  protect  them  from  the  kind 
of  mosquitoes  which  transmitted  malaria, 
which  was  considered  by  the  sanitary  de- 
partment as  fully  as  important  as  protec- 
tion from  the  yellow  fever  mosquitoes,  the 
malarial  mosquitoes  having  a  larger  radius 
of  movement  and  invading  the  settlements 
from  their  adjoining  breeding  places  in  the 
swamps. 


It  was  not  until  several  successive  epi- 
demics of  yellow  fever  had  occurred  that 
the  authorities  at  Washington  finally  awoke 
to  the  fact  that  our  requisitions  for  the 
material  necessary  for  these  preventive 
measures  must  be  fully  and  promptly  filled, 
the  great  pressure  from  Washington  on  the 
chief  engineer  being  to  commence  active 
operations  in  the  actual  excavation  of 
material,  due  to  the  constant  clamor  of  the 
American  press  to  "make  the  dirt  fly." 

The  first  construction  operations  that 
were  undertaken  were  at  Culebra.  We 
had  come  into  possession  of  a  large  amount 
of  machinery  used  by  the  French  company, 
— dredges,  excavators  of  various  types, 
steam  locomotives,  dump  cars,  and  all 
sorts  of  construction  appliances  and  appa- 
ratus. It  was  the  desire  of  the  commission 
to  experiment  sufficiently  with  this  material 
to  determine  its  economic  efficiency  or 
inefficiency  before  finally  adopting  or  dis- 
carding it. 

As  it  was  impossible  to  provide  the  work 
with  entire  new  equipment  before  active 
operations  commenced  and  as  it  was  de- 
sirable to  gradually  train  and  build  up  a 
force,  the  work  of  excavation  was  at  first 
carried  along  upon  the  lines  followed  by 
the  French  company,  utilizing  the  native 
labor  then  available  and  gradually  organ- 
izing the  work  and  engaging  American  su- 
perintendents and  foremen,  in  order  that 
they  might  be  trained  to  the  utilization  of 
such  labor  as  was  available  and  become 
acclimated  and  familiar  with  the  condi- 
tions that  were  to  be  contended  with. 

At  the  start  I  devised  a  system  of  cost 
keeping  in  order  to  get  a  standard  of  com- 
parison that  would  enable  me  to  gauge 
the  results  of  the  various  men  and  collec- 
tions of  men,  the  preference  as  to  methods 
of  handling  work,  and  the  efficiency  of 
different  kinds  of  machinery.  Therefore, 
all  costs  were  reduced  to  a  cubic  yard 
basis  and  costs  were  carefully  kept  of  every 
detail  of  operation — the  cost  of  explosives, 
cost  of  loosening  and  excavating  material, 
cost  of  loading,  cost  of  transportation, 
cost  of  disposition,  and  the  cost  of  all  the 


DELAY  IN  FILLING  ORDERS 


191 


various  elements  of  supervision  and  the 
maintenance  of  equipment,  track  and  ap- 
pliances, on  the  basis  of  the  cubic  yard. 

This  method,  amplified,  improved  and 
extended,  I  understand  has  been  carried 
on  throughout  the  entire  work. 

This  system  enabled  me  to  gauge  the 
results  of  all  the  elements,  both  personal 
and  material,  connected  with  the  work, 
and  to  determine  the  relative  efficiency  of 
the  different  kinds  of  French  appliances 
with  each  other  as  well  as  with  American 
machinery  and  appliances,  which  were 
later  installed  after  their  superior  efficiency 
was  determined. 

After  a  few  months  of  experimental  work 
the  data  accumulated  enabled  me  to  de- 
cide on  the  superiority  of  the  modern 
American  steam  shovel,  the  use  of  Ameri- 
can flat  and  dump  cars,  the  adoption  of 
the  American  railroad  method  of  unload- 
ing by  machinery,  also  the  employment  of 
machinery  for  the  spreading  of  banks, 
and  so  on. 

Specifications  for  machinery  were  pre- 
pared on  these  lines  and  large  orders  placed 
therefor  in  the  United  States,  but  delivery 
was  slow  and  but  a  small  portion  was  de- 
livered for  some  months  after  I  left  the 
work.  The  slowness  in  getting  requisi- 
tions approved  and  material  furnished,  as 
the  result  of  cumbersome  governmental 
methods  in  vogue,  seriously  hampered  the 
preparatory  work. 

These  data  also  enabled  me  to  determine 
the  relative  economy  of  hauling  excavated 
material  short  distances  up  steep  gradients 
to  nearby  dumping  grounds  as  against 
the  long  haul  with  low  gradients  to  dis- 
tant dumping  grounds,  and  also  as  to  the 
relative  value  and  economy  of  spreading 
over  wide  areas  and  dumping  from  low 
heights,  as  against  concentrating  the  exca- 
vated material  for  high  dump  disposition. 

Various  other  important  factors  in  re- 
gard to  economic  efficiency  were  developed 
by  this  system  of  costs.  Where  the  ex- 
perimental work  was  carried  on  at  a  high 
unit-cost,  the  information  obtained  was 
valuable  in  showing  what  not  to  do  and 


what  appliances  and  methods  were  un- 
economical as  compared  with  others  which 
were  more  economical. 

Even  in  regard  to  such  minor  matters  as 
the  construction  rail  furnished  by  the 
French  company,  which  came  in  very  short 
lengths  on  the  theory  that  these  short 
lengths  were  easily  handled  in  the  con- 
struction of  temporary  tracks,  our  experi- 
ence developed  that  the  American  prac- 
tice of  using  rails  thirty  feet  or  more  in 
length,  on  account  of  their  greater  flexi- 
bility and  the  ease  with  which  they  would 
take  the  necessary  curvature  in  being 
temporarily  shifted  from  one  position  to 
another,  as  against  the  short  kinks  made 
by  the  stiff  rails  used  by  the  French,  due 
to  their  short  length,  and  the  diminished 
derailments  resulting  therefrom,  finally 
justified  us  in  discarding  the  use  of  the 
short  French  rails. 

The  same  thing  applied  to  the  various 
dump  cars,  locomotives,  dredges  and  exca- 
vators that  had  been  used  by  the  French 
company. 

These  preliminary  operations,  while  not 
large  in  quantity,  enabled  us  to  shape  up 
the  work  in  such  a  way  as  to  render  the 
operations  afterward  carried  on  more  eco- 
nomical and  efficient.  They  also  enabled 
me  to  gauge  the  rate  at  which  excavation 
could  be  carried  on  by  the  different  units 
of  machinery  and  the  various  operating 
organizations,  and  were  the  basis  of  esti- 
mates which  were  later  made  as  to  the 
cost  and  time  required  to  complete  the 
work. 

During  this  period  the  force  at  Culebra 
was  gradually  increased  and  organized  and 
eventually  became  the  basis  of  the  ex- 
panded organization  which  was  afterward 
used  by  my  successors.  All  of  this  pre- 
liminary and  experimental  work  had  a 
much  greater  value  than  that  expressed 
by  either  the  quantities  of  material  re- 
moved or  the  cost  thereof. 

In  the  meantime  the  work  of  providing 
quarters  for  men  and  building  up  and 
strengthening  and  getting  a  balance  be- 
tween the  various  departments  of  the  work, 


192 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


was  carried  on.  Also  the  work  engaged  in 
by  various  parties  of  engineers  to  deter- 
mine the  character  of  the  stratification  and 
the  geological  formation  under  the  route 
of  the  canal,  and  to  outline  the  watershed 
of  the  Chagres  and  tributary  valleys,  was 
very  essential  and  important  in  order  to 
arrive  at  final  determinations  that  had  to 
be  made  in  connection  with  the  plans. 

When  I  first  took  charge  of  the  work  on 
the  isthmus  I  had  no  other  thought  in 
mind  than  simply  the  carrying  out  of  the 
plans  as  outlined  by  the  original  Walker 
Commission,  upon  the  estimates  of  which 
the  Spooner  Bill  was  based,  which  provided 
the  authority  and  the  appropriations  for 
the  construction  of  the  canal. 

The  essential  feature  of  this  plan  was  an 
intermediate  lake  confined  above  Bohio 
by  a  dam  at  that  point,  at  which  the  bed 
rock  was  supposed  to  be  approximately 
Ii8  or  1 20  feet  below  sea  level,  the  eleva- 
tion of  this  lake  to  be  about  90  feet  above 
sea  level,  to  be  approached  as  in  the  plan 
finally  adopted  by  three  locks  of  approxi- 
mately 30  feet  lift  on  each  side  of  the  sum- 
mit lake. 

Extensive  diamond  drill  borings  at 
Bohio  developed  the  fact  that  bed  rock 
at  Bohio  was  168  feet  below  sea  level  in- 
stead of  118  or  1 20  feet  as  shown  by  the 
original  borings  made  under  the  first  Walker 
Commission,  and  that  next  to  the  bed  rock 
was  a  continuous  bed  of  open  sand  and 
gravel  through  which  there  was  a  constant 
flow  of  sub-surface  water. 

In  considering  alternate  plans  for  this 
work  my  attention  was  next  directed  to  a 
paper  published  by  Mr.  Charles  Ward, 
which  proposed  a  dam  at  Gatun,  the  site 
finally  adopted  by  the  Isthmian  Canal 
Commission.  I,  therefore,  caused  exten- 
sive borings  to  be  taken  at  the  site  of  this 
dam. 

I  found  two  sub-surface  gorges  at  this 
point,  which  had  evidently  been  scoured 
out  during  past  ages,  one  of  which  extended 
some  250  feet  below  sea  level  and  the  other 
200  feet  below.  The  contents  of  these 
gorges  were  sand,  gravel,  clay  and  quick- 


sand, and  all  sorts  of  detritus,  at  various 
depths,  in  which  there  seemed  to  be  a  free 
movement  of  water. 

The  plan  of  Mr.  Ward,  provided  a  proper 
foundation  could  have  been  found  for 
the  Gatun  dam,  presented  some  very  at- 
tractive features.  One  was  that  his  eleva- 
tion of  sixty  feet  above  sea  level  seemed 
to  me  to  provide  the  most  economical  level 
and  the  best  division  between  the  expense 
of  construction  of  locks  and  dams  and  the 
excavation  of  the  summit  cut. 

Finding  that  the  bed  rock  gradually 
sloped  from  an  unknown  depth  at  Colon 
to  at  least  250  feet  below  sea  level  at  Gatun 
and  1 68  feet  at  Bohio,  and  to  approximately 
sea  level  at  Gamboa,  I  finally  came  to  the 
conclusion  that  I  could  not  consistently 
recommend  to  the  commission  any  plan 
which  would  involve  the  construction  of 
either  locks  or  dams  or  other  structures, 
foundations  for  which  could  not  be  carried 
down  to  bed  rock,  or  which  would  permit 
a  flow  of  water  below  the  foundations  of 
the  structures,  which  might  create  difficul- 
ties that  at  some  future  time  would  be 
disastrous  to  the  enterprise. 

Based  on  this  conclusion,  which  I  con- 
sidered fundamental,  I  gradually  came  to 
a  state  of  mind  in  which  I  was  inclined  to 
recommend  that  no  plan  be  adopted  that 
could  not  be  eventually  transformed  into 
a  sea-level  canal,  provided  the  future  de- 
mands of  traffic  and  future  conditions 
should  justify  it,  but  as  I  realized  the  com- 
plications that  such  a  recommendation 
would  make  and  the  controversies  that 
would  ultimately  grow  out  of  it,  I  refrained 
from  transmitting  my  views  to  the  com- 
mission until  February,  1905,  when  three 
members  of  the  commission,  consisting 
of  Governor  Davis,  Mr.  Wm.  Barclay 
Parsons,  and  Professor  Wm.  H.  Burr, 
were  appointed  a  committee  to  take  the 
matter  up  with  me  on  the  isthmus  and 
obtain  from  me  a  definite  report  and 
recommendations. 

At  this  time  my  views  were  crystallizing 
upon  the  construction  of  a  dam  at  Gamboa, 
where  the  foundations  could  be  carried 


EXPLORING  GATUN  DAM  SITE 


193 


to  solid  rock  in  a  practical  manner  and  at 
reasonable  cost,  and  the  creation  of  a  lock 
canal  having  an  elevation  of  approximately 
sixty  feet  above  sea  level,  fed  by  a  lake  to 
be  confined  by  the  dam  above  Gamboa. 

However,  realizing  that  several  years 
of  work  could  be  carried  on  in  the  excava- 
tion of  the  cut  at  Culebra  and  in  other  pre- 
paratory work,  and  that  no  time  would  be 
lost  by  reserving  a  decision  as  to  the  final 
type  of  canal,  I  was  averse  to  making 
any  positive  recommendations  to  the  com- 
mission until  our  surveys,  examinations 
and  experimental  work  had  been  carried 
on  to  such  a  point  as  to  enable  sufficient 
data  to  be  obtained  so  that  a  wise  decision 
could  be  finally  reached. 

On  account  of  the  large  amount  of  exca- 
vation necessary  to  be  performed  at  Cule- 
bra which  would  be  common  to  any  and  all 
plans,  I  did  not  consider  that  this  line 
of  policy  would  in  any  way  retard  or  delay 
the  completion  of  the  canal  under  any  plan 
that  might  thereafter  be  adopted. 

The  committee  of  the  commission  above 
referred  to  returned  to  Washington,  and, 
based  more  on  the  facts  gathered  by  it 
while  on  the  isthmus  through  my  instru- 
mentality than  on  the  views  or  recom- 
mendations expressed  in  the  preliminary 
reports  and  estimates  which  I  made  to  the 
committee,  recommended  the  construction 
of  a  sea-level  canal. 

Within  a  few  weeks  after  the  com- 
mission made  their  recommendation  to  the 
President  through  the  Secretary  of  War, 
the  members  thereof,  with  the  exception  of 
Major  Benjamin  M.  Harrod,  were  removed 
and  a  new  commission  created,  with  Mr. 
Theodore  P.  Shonts  as  chairman,  and  of 
which  I  was  made  a  member.  Mr.  Charles 
E.  Magoon  was  also  appointed  on  this 
commission  and  was  made  governor  of  the 
Canal  Zone,  and  Chairman  Shonts,  Gover- 
ernor  Magoon,  and  myself  constituted  the 
executive  committee,  to  which  was  dele- 
gated the  full  powers  of  the  commission. 

On  account  of  the  reorganization  neces- 
sitated by  the  appointment  of  a  new  com- 
mission, I  was  temporarily  recalled  to  the 


States,  and  while  in  Washington  was  called 
into  conference  by  General  Peter  C.  Hains 
and  General  Oswald  H.  Ernst,  new  mem- 
bers of  the  commission,  who  endeavored 
to  draw  out  my  ideas  in  regard  to  the  final 
plan  and  tried  to  impress  upon  me  the 
necessity  of  not  recommending  any  plan 
that  would  require  any  change  in  the 
Spooner  Act,  which  was  the  basic  authority 
under  which  the  work  was  being  carried 
on  and  which  contemplated  a  lock  canal 
and  the  use  of  an  intermediate  artificial  lake. 

It  might  be  well  here  to  refer  to  some 
earlier  history,  in  order  to  explain  how  the 
plan  of  an  intermediate  lake  came  to  be 
originally  considered  in  connection  with 
the  project. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  when  the  first 
Walker  Commission  was  formed  it  was  for 
the  purpose  of  considering  the  most  feasible 
of  the  various  canal  routes  across  the  isth- 
mus, and  that  the  two  principal  competi- 
tive routes  at  that  time  were  the  Nicaragua 
route,  which  was  backed  by  what  was 
known  as  the  Maritime  Canal  Company, 
and  the  Panama  route,  which  the  French 
Company  controlling  it  desired  to  dispose 
of  to  the  United  States  Government. 

The  controlling  feature  of  the  Nicaragua 
route  consisted  of  a  natural  lake  about 
ninety  or  ninety-five  feet  above  sea  level, 
which  necessarily  had  to  be  approached  by 
two  sea-level  sections  with  a  series  of  locks 
on  both  the  Pacific  and  Caribbean  slopes. 

It  was  suggested  to  the  Walker  Commis- 
sion that  in  order  to  make  a  proper  com- 
parison between  the  Panama  and  Nicaragua 
routes  and  to  place  the  two  enterprises 
upon  the  same  basis,  some  plan  should 
be  adopted  that  would  enable  the  esti- 
mates to  be  made  with  some  degree  of 
parallelism. 

Out  of  this  grew  the  conception  of  the 
creation  of  an  artificial  lake  at  Panama, 
at  approximately  the  same  level  as  the 
natural  lake  at  Nicaragua,  in  order  to 
place  the  two  enterprises  on  an  equivalent 
basis,  the  same  unit  prices  being  used  for 
excavation  and  for  the  construction  of 
locks  and  dams  and  dredging. 


A  comparative  estimate  of  the  two  enter- 
prises developed  the  fact  that  the  Panama 
route  could  be  constructed  for  approxi- 
mately $50,000,000  less  than  the  Nicaragua 
route. 

When  the  fact  was  considered  that  the 
Panama  route  was  shorter  and  was  par- 
alleled by  an  existing  railroad  line,  the 
comparative  ease  of  constructing  a  canal 
at  Panama  as  against  Nicaragua  was  self- 
evident. 

Therefore  the  Walker  Commission  finally 
recommended  the  Panama  route,  on  the 
condition  that  the  French  Company  would 
sell  their  property  and  rights  to  the  United 
States  for  not  to  exceed  $40,000,000,  which 
would  put  the  cost  of  the  two  enterprises 
on  a  somewhat  similar  basis. 

After  the  interview  above  referred  to 
with  Generals  Ernst  and  Hains  I  was  im- 
pressed with  the  idea  that  the  administra- 
tion for  various  reasons  did  not  desire  to 
have  a  plan  adopted  that  departed  radi- 
cally from  the  original  plan  upon  which 
the  estimates  were  based  and  upon  which 
Congress  had  granted  the  authority  for 
the  construction  of  the  canal,  as  a  reference 
of  this  matter  to  Congress  might  have  re- 
opened the  entire  controversy  in  regard 
to  the  canal  and  might  have  instigated  the 
advocates  of  the  Maritime  canal  route  to 
active  opposition,  as  well  as  the  element 
in  Congress  opposed  to  any  canal  whatever, 
and  also  might  have  resulted  in  an  investi- 
gation as  to  matters  relating  to  the  pur- 
chase of  the  Panama  Canal  from  the  French 
company  by  the  United  States  Government, 
and  as  to  the  facts  connected  with  the  revo- 
lution which  resulted  in  the  separation  of 
Panama  from  Colombia. 

At  least  the  above  theory  explained  in 
my  own  mind  the  preference  of  the  adminis- 
tration to  put  through  some  plan  that 
would  not  require  any  additional  congres- 
sional legislation  rather  than  have  the 
question  again  opened. 

It  should  be  remembered  in  this  con- 
nection that  when  the  original  Spooner 
bill  was  passed  the  President  of  the  United 
States  had  the  discretion  as  to  which  of 


the  two  locations  should  be  selected,  and 
the  endorsement  by  Congress  of  the  selec- 
tion of  the  Panama  route  was  based  upon 
the  United  States  Government  being  able 
to  secure  an  absolutely  clean  title  to  the 
French  rights  and  property,  and  the  nego- 
tiation of  a  proper  treaty  with  Colombia 
or  the  country  through  which  the  canal 
line  passed. 

About  this  time  I  was  informed  that  the 
President  had  decided  to  refer  the  whole 
matter  of  the  final  plan  to  a  commission 
of  international  engineers,  on  the  theory 
that  the  European  engineers  had  more 
knowledge  and  more  experience  in  canal 
construction,  and  on  the  assumption  that 
inasmuch  as  the  United  States  Government 
was  constructing  the  canal  for  the  benefit  of 
the  world's  commerce,  it  was  but  just  and 
proper  that  the  views  of  the  best  talent 
in  the  world  should  be  secured  before  a 
final  decision  was  reached. 

This  commission  did  not  convene  until 
after  my  connection  with  the  enterprise 
had  ceased,  but  during  the  progress  of 
their  investigation  and  labors  I  was  re- 
quested by  that  commission  to  present 
my  views  to  it,  which  I  did  in  the  form 
of  a  series  of  notes  which  I  had  previously 
prepared  on  various  matters  connected 
with  the  plan,  and  after  which  I  was  sub- 
jected to  a  lengthy  cross  examination  by 
the  various  members  of  the  joint  com- 
mission, all  of  which  can  be  found  em- 
bodied in  the  appendix  to  the  report  of 
that  commission,  which  was  published 
under  the  authority  of  Congress  and  is  a 
matter  of  public  record. 

It  may  be  noted  here  that  the  majority 
of  this  commission,  composed  of  all  the 
foreign  engineers  and  three  of  the  Ameri- 
can engineers,  recommended  the  adoption 
of  the  sea-level  plan,  and  that  a  minority 
composed  exclusively  of  American  engi- 
neers, reported  in  favor  of  the  intermediate 
lake  plan,  which  was  also  recommended  by 
the  then  existing  canal  commission  and 
was  finally  approved  by  the  President  of 
the  United  States,  and  in  accordance  with 
this  plan  the  work  has  since  been  carried  out. 


WHY  THE  LOCK  TYPE  WAS  CHOSEN 


195 


A  little  later,  in  February,  1906,  I  was 
called  before  a  committee  of  the  United 
States  Senate,  when  I  again  had  an  oppor- 
tunity to  express  my  views  and  submit 
to  a  cross  examination  thereon,  in  con- 
nection with  other  engineers  who  were 
familiar  with  the  project,  some  of  whom 
held  views  in  accord  with  my  own  and 
others  contrary  thereto. 

As  long  as  I  thought  there  was  any  oppor- 
tunity of  having  the  sea-level  canal  plan 
considered  I  was  its  advocate.  However, 
after  the  administration  had  concluded 
to  adopt  the  present  plan  and  the  decision 
was  finally  made,  I  considered  it  my  duty 
as  a  loyal  citizen  to  avoid  further  agitation 
of  the  subject.  I  simply  note  the  above 
in  order  to  place  my  original  views  on 
record  with  some  of  my  reasons  there- 
for. 

During  my  residence  on  the  isthmus  we 
were  much  embarrassed  by  repeated  out- 
breaks of  yellow  fever.  Although  the 
sanitary  department  introduced  a  thorough 
and  efficient  system  of  quarantine  and 
used  every  possible  effort  to  eliminate  the 
fever,  they  were  hampered  by  a  lack  of 
proper  support  from  Washington  until  the 
fact  was  finally  borne  in  upon  the  author- 
ities there  that  improved  sanitation  and 
the  elimination  of  yellow  fever  was  a 
paramount  necessity  before  the  work  could 
be  successfully  prosecuted. 

When  the  authorities  finally  realized  the 
seriousness  of  this  situation  and  proper 
support  was  given  to  Colonel  Gorgas  and 
the  officials  in  charge  of  the  canal,  the  con- 
ditions were  speedily  remedied. 

Personally  I  was  never  discouraged  by 
the  yellow  fever  situation,  as  I  had  had 
more  or  less  experience  with  it  in  the 
South  during  my  connection  with  the 
Illinois  Central  Railroad. 

During  February  I  had  a  light  attack  of 
fever  which  my  family  and  the  natives 
of  Panama  considered  to  be  yellow  fever, 
and  thereafter  I  considered  myself  immune ; 
but  during  my  administration  we  lost 
quite  a  number  of  important  employees, 
including  Mr.  Johnson,  the  supervising 


architect,  the  effect  of  which  was  very  de- 
pressing on  the  organization  as  a  whole. 

As  it  was  the  policy  of  the  commission 
which  originally  appointed  me  to  preserve 
pleasant  relations  with  the  native  element 
in  Panama  and  Colon,  and  as  it  was  felt 
that  some  social  recognition  should  be 
given  to  encourage  a  friendly  attitude  on 
the  part  of  these  people,  I  occupied  the  resi- 
dence in  the  heart  of  the  City  of  Panama, 
which  had  been  used  by  the  managing 
director  of  the  French  company.  The 
first  night  I  slept  in  Panama  I  occupied 
this  residence  and  continued  to  occupy  it 
until  my  connection  with  the  work  ceased. 

During  the  summer  of  1904  Admiral 
Kenny,  who  was  the  treasurer  of  the  Isth- 
mian Canal  Commission,  occupied  this 
residence  with  me  during  his  stay  on  the 
isthmus.  I  also  had  with  me  Mr.  William 
J.  Karner,  who  was  my  office  engineer. 

My  household  staff  consisted  of  a  butler 
who  had  been  with  the  French  adminis- 
tration, a  Martinique  negress  as  cook,  a 
Spanish  house  boy,  and  a  personal  valet 
who  was  half  Spanish  and  half  Irish. 

During  this  summer  Mr.  Karner  was 
taken  down  with  the  fever  and  taken  to 
the  hospital.  During  his  illness  he  was 
waited  on  by  my  valet,  who  was  later 
removed  to  the  hospital,  and  he  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  cook,  leaving  Admiral  Kenny, 
the  French  butler  and  myself  as  the  re- 
maining occupants  of  the  house. 

Later  we  secured  the  services  of  a  Chinese 
cook  who  had  served  under  Admiral  Walker 
in  Nicaragua.  In  a  few  days  he  was  also 
taken  down  with  the  fever  and  removed. 

However,  all  of  these  patients  finally 
recovered  and  returned  to  their  duties. 

The  residence  I  occupied,  the  old  Casa 
Dingier,  derived  its  name  from  being  the 
residence  of  M.  Dingier,  who  was  considered 
the  most  efficient  of  the  French  chief  en- 
gineers, and  who  occupied  the  residence 
with  his  wife,  a  son  and  a  daughter.  A 
short  time  after  his  arrival  his  son  died  of 
the  fever,  and  later  his  daughter,  and  then 
his  wife.  This  so  depressed  M.  Dingier 
that  he  dropped  into  a  state  of  melancholia. 


196 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA  CANAL 


The  family  had  all  been  enthusiastic 
horsemen  and  each  member  of  the  family 
was  provided  with  mounts  brought  over 
from  France.  After  the  death  of  the  last 
of  the  family,  his  wife,  M.  Dingier  took  his 
horses  up  into  one  of  the  mountain  ravines 
and  shot  them,  then  returned  to  France 
and  later  died  in  an  insane  asylum. 

To  this  house  I  brought  my  wife  in 
November,  1904,  and  set  up  a  social  center 
in  the  heart  of  the  City  of  Panama.  As 
General  Davis,  the  governor  of  the  zone, 
was  a  widower,  and  John  Barrett,  the 
American  minister,  was  a  bachelor,  our 
house  naturally  became  the  social  Ameri- 
can center  of  Panama,  and  throughout 
our  stay  we  cultivated  and  maintained 
social  relations  with  the  leading  families 
on  the  isthmus. 

On  November  27,  1904,  Secretary  and 
Mrs.  Taft  made  a  visit  to  the  isthmus 
and  were  our  guests  for  ten  days.  During 
this  time  the  first  American  reception  was 
given  at  our  residence  that  ever  occurred 
on  the  isthmus. 

At  this  time  Admiral  Goodrich  and  his 
fleet  were  in  Panama  harbor  and  at  this 
reception  were  the  various  naval  officers 
from  the  fleet,  the  marine  officers  from 
Culebra,  and  numerous  army  officers  de- 
tailed in  various  positions  on  the  canal 
work,  also  the  officials  of  the  Panama 
Republic,  the  bishop  of  the  Catholic 
church,  the  consular  representatives  of 
the  various  foreign  governments  with  their 
wives,  and  the  leading  families  of  Panama 
and  Colon.  The  interesting  feature  was 
the  cosmopolitan  characteristics  of  the 
people  in  attendance,  representing  almost 
every  nationality,  at  least  in  that  part  of 
the  world,  and  various  grades  of  official 
rank,  politics  and  religion. 

Secretary  Taft's  visit,  with  the  social 
activities  which  grew  out  of  it,  and  the 
creation  of  an  American  social  center,  did 
much  to  establish  harmonious  relations 
between  the  Panamans  and  the  Ameri- 
can element,  and  I  think  to  some  extent 
made  our  relations  with  these  people 
easier  to  handle. 


One  of  the  greatest  difficulties  we  had 
to  contend  with  was  the  securing  of  the 
necessary  labor,  both  skilled  and  unskilled. 
The  higher  grades  were  of  course  obtained 
by  importing  Americans  from  the  United 
States.  The  backbone  and  sinew  of  the 
force,  however,  had  necessarily  to  be  re- 
cruited from  among  those  people  and  those 
races  that  were  accustomed  to  work  in  a 
tropical  climate. 

It  was  at  first  considered  that  Jamaica 
would  be  the  best  source  of  supply.  In  an 
attempt,  however,  to  secure  a  sufficient 
force  from  there  we  were  met  by  prohibi- 
tory regulations  upon  the  part  of  the 
Government  of  Jamaica,  which  endeavored 
to  impose  a  tax  and  conditions  so  burden- 
some that  they  could  not  be  complied  with. 

On  the  return  of  Secretary  Taft  and  Wil- 
liam Nelson  Cromwell  from  the  isthmus 
the  British  Consul,  Sir  Claude  Mallet, 
a  representative  from  Minister  Barrett's 
office,  Mrs.  Wallace,  and  I,  accompanied 
the  Secretary  on  the  cruiser  Columbia  to 
Jamaica,  where  in  response  to  a  cable  com- 
munication we  were  met  by  the  Governor 
of  Jamaica  and  escorted  to  the  King's 
House,  his  official  residence. 

Secretary  Taft,  after  introducing  me  to 
the  governor  and  explaining  the  object  of 
my  mission  and  after  some  preliminary 
discussion  of  the  conditions,  sailed  for  the 
United  States,  leaving  me  at  Jamaica  to 
endeavor  to  arrive  at  some  understanding 
with  the  governor. 

After  remaining  in  Jamaica  six  days  and 
being  cordially  entertained  by  the  governor 
we  returned  to  Colon  on  the  U.  S.  S.  Dixie, 
which  touched  at  Jamaica  for  coal  on  her 
way  to  Colon,  without  having  accom- 
plished the  full  purpose  of  my  mission, 
finding  that  the  only  way  we  could  secure 
labor  from  Jamaica  without  submitting  to 
burdensome  conditions  was  to  make  such 
gradual  acquisitions  to  our  force  as  might 
voluntarily  come  to  us  from  that  source 
of  their  own  initiative. 

I  then  sent  various  labor  agents  to  other 
adjoining  countries,  but  owing  to  the 
regulations  of  the  Treasury  department 


SOCIETY  AT  PANAMA 


197 


was  not  able  to  advance  them  money  for 
their  own  necessary  expenses  and  the 
transportation  of  the  laborers  which  they 
secured,  without  which  it  was  impossible 
to  obtain  them.  In  some  cases,  however, 
I  advanced  the  money  personally. 

In  this  connection  I  finally  sent  Mr. 
Wm.  J.  Karner  to  Barbados  and  made  an 
arrangement  with  a  British  steamship 
company  to  transport  the  laborers  to 
Colon,  and  then  upon  the  rendition  of  a 
bill  by  the  steamship  company  to  the  Isth- 
mian Canal  Commission,  certified  by  the 
chief  engineer,  Lieutenant  Geo.  C.  Schafer, 
the  disbursing  officer  of  the  Treasury  de- 
partment, arranged  to  pay  for  the  trans- 
portation. 

At  first  this  enabled  me  to  secure  a  mod- 
erate supply  of  labor. 

Unexpectedly,  due  to  some  ruling  of  the 
Treasury  department,  Lieutenant  Schafer 
declined  to  pay  further  bills  for  transpor- 
tation. This  resulted  in  the  British  steam- 
ship company  notifying  their  captains 
touching  at  Barbados  not  to  transport  any 
more  laborers  unless  their  transportation 
was  paid  in  advance,  which,  as  I  had  not 
been  able  to  secure  funds  for  that  purpose, 
cut  off  this  source  of  supply  until  Governor 
Davis  came  to  my  rescue  and  provided 
funds  out  of  the  treasury  of  the  Zone  Gov- 
ernment, over  which  he  had  absolute  con- 
trol, his  treasury  being  afterward  reim- 
bursed by  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission 
upon  properly  approved  bills. 

Upon  a  forcible  presentation  of  the  case, 
however,  being  made  to  the  commission 
and  by  it  to  the  authorities  at  Washing- 
ton, Mr.  Karner  was  finally  appointed  a 
disbursing  officer  of  the  Treasury  depart- 
ment and  was  provided  with  the  necessary 
funds  to  take  care  of  the  transportation  of 
laborers  from  Barbados,  which  from  that 
time  on  was  the  principal  regular  source 
of  supply. 

In  the  meantime  negotiations  were 
carried  on  with  a  view  of  obtaining  a  sup- 
ply of  Chinese  labor.  This,  however,  was 
opposed  by  the  authorities  at  Washington 
on  account  of  political  considerations,  and 


also  by  the  authorities  of  Panama,  as  they 
did  not  desire  an  importation  into  the 
Canal  Zone  of  Chinese,  who  would  after- 
ward drift  into  Panama  and  Colon  and 
become  in  the  opinion  of  the  Panamans 
undesirable  citizens,  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  Chinese  who  had  been  left  on  the 
isthmus  at  the  close  of  the  de  Lessens 
regime  had  gone  into  various  lines  of  trade 
that  were  considered  competitive. 

In  June,  1904,  when  I  arrived  at  Panama, 
the  force  in  the  engineering  department 
consisted  of  165  men  paid  in  gold  and 
1,324  paid  in  silver,  a  total  force  at  that 
time  of  i  ,489  men. 

When  I  left  the  work,  the  force  employed 
in  the  department  of  construction  and  en- 
gineering consisted  of  1,100  men  paid  in 
gold  and  5,500  natives,  negroes  and  others 
paid  in  silver,  a  total  working  force  of 
approximately  6,600. 

When  I  first  arrived  on  the  isthmus  I 
found  it  difficult  to  secure  from  the  authori- 
ties in  charge  of  the  Panama  Railroad,  on 
account  of  its  peculiar  organization  meth- 
ods, that  degree  of  cooperation  that  I 
considered  necessary  to  properly  carry  on 
the  canal  work,  as  the  railroad  was  of  course 
one  of  the  principal  instrumentalities  to 
successful  work. 

Ninety-seven  per  cent  of  the  stock  of 
the  Panama  Railroad  at  that  time  was 
owned  by  the  United  States  Government, 
and  while  the  members  of  the  Isthmian 
Canal  Commission  were  directors  of  the 
railroad,  it  was  directly  controlled  by  a 
vice-president  located  in  New  York  and  by 
a  general  manager  under  him,  also  located 
there.  The  resident  authority  on  the 
isthmus  in  charge  of  the  Panama  Railroad 
was  Colonel  J.  R.  Shaler,  who  at  that  time 
was  over  seventy  years  of  age.  He  was  a 
perfect  type  of  Southern  gentleman,  and 
so  far  as  he  was  concerned  was  anxious  and 
more  than  anxious  to  do  everything  possi- 
ble to  assist  me  in  my  work.  The  execu- 
tive work  under  him  was  under  the  con- 
trol of  Mr.  H.  G.  Prescott,  his  assistant 
superintendent,  who  was  also  desirous 
of  rendering  me  all  assistance  possible. 


198 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA  CANAL 


The  first  difficulty  I  had  with  the  rail- 
road was  when  I  desired  some  frog  and 
switch  apparatus  placed  in  the  line  of  the 
road  in  order  to  connect  with  tracks  that 
led  into  an  engine  house  in  which  were 
stored  a  number  of  Belgian  engines  in  good 
condition,  which  I  desired  to  transport  to 
Culebra  to  be  used  on  the  canal  work. 

The  putting  in  of  this  switch  and  mak- 
ing a  connection  with  the  old  tracks  re- 
quired only  a  few  hours  work. 

I  was  informed  that  Colonel  Shaler  was 
without  authority  to  make  this  change 
without  consulting  New  York,  and  that 
under  his  instructions  he  did  not  desire  to 
request  the  authority  by  cable  and  would 
have  to  take  it  up  by  letter,  which  would 
require  about  three  weeks  to  receive  an 
answer. 

With  the  intimation,  however,  that  if 
the  connection  was  not  made  by  the  rail- 
road force  inside  of  twenty-four  hours  I 
would  do  it  with  my  own  force,  although 
this  might  be  considered  an  unwarranted 
interference  with  the  operations  of  the 
Panama  Railroad,  I  prevailed  upon  Colonel 
Shaler  to  perform  the  service,  and  I  pre- 
sume he  took  the  matter  up  by  cable  and 
received  the  necessary  authority. 

This  incident  is  only  cited  as  one  out 
of  many  where  it  was  difficult  to  secure 
proper  cooperation  from  this  source,  on 
account  of  organization  methods,  which 
while  proper  for  routine  operations  were  not 
suited  to  the  new  situation  and  conditions. 

After  a  vigorous  attempt  to  get  control 
of  the  Panama  Railroad,  I  finally  in  April, 
1905,  secured  a  position  on  the  board  of 
directors  of  the  road  and  was  elected  vice- 
president  and  general  manager  of  the 
Panama  Railroad  and  steamship  line,  and 
thereafter  during  my  continuance  on  the 
work  had  full  and  complete  control  of 
both  the  railroad  and  the  steamship  line 
as  far  as  their  operation  was  concerned. 

During  this  time  I  also  planned  to  re- 
construct the  Panama  Railroad  as  a  double 
track  road  with  improved  dock  and  wharf 
facilities  and  reequip  it  with  proper  equip- 
ment. 


During  my  connection  with  the  work  I 
suggested  the  simplification  of  the  tariffs  of 
the  Panama  Railroad.  Mr.  Jos.  L.  Bris- 
tow,  since  elected  U.  S.  Senator  from  Kan- 
sas, was  detailed  to  visit  the  isthmus  and 
examine  into  the  situation  and  report.  I 
explained  to  him  my  views  in  full  and  in 
detail,  and  they  were  embodied  in  a  report 
which  he  afterward  made  and  which  is 
part  of  the  government  records. 

In  this  report  I  suggested  a  modification 
in  the  rates  of  transportation  across  the 
isthmus,  on  a  basis  that  would  at  least 
approach  the  rate  per  ton  which  would  be 
charged  on  the  world's  commerce  after 
the  completion  of  the  canal;  the  practical 
doing  away  with  classification,  and  the 
collection  of  all  railroad  tariff  charges 
from  the  steamships  which  either  delivered 
freight  to  or  received  freight  from  the 
Panama  Railroad;  and  the  throwing  open 
of  this  avenue  of  transportation  to  the 
world's  commerce  on  some  equal  and  uni- 
form basis. 

The  existing  rates  over  the  Panama 
Railroad  at  that  time  were  almost  pro- 
hibitive, and  were  dependent  not  only  upon 
the  classification  of  the  freight  but  also 
upon  the  origin  thereof  and  the  final  desti- 
nation, the  theory  evidently  being  to  charge 
all  the  traffic  would  bear  for  transporta- 
tion between  the  east  and  west  coast,  based 
on  the  comparative  cost  of  carrying  the 
freight  by  the  route  through  the  Straits  of 
Magellan. 

The  most  striking  example  of  this  was 
the  rate  on  coffee  from  Costa  Rica,  which 
as  I  recall  it  now  was  at  that  time  $6.00 
per  ton  for  the  rail  transportation  of  less 
than  fifty  miles. 

The  theory  upon  which  I  recommended 
this  innovation  in  the  reduction  of  rates  was 
based  on  the  provision  of  improved  methods 
for  the  handling  of  freight,  the  construc- 
tion of  adequate  terminal  facilities,  im- 
proved methods  of  handling  from  cars, 
and  on  the  provision  of  modern  equip- 
ment, so  that  the  number  of  tons  of  freight 
handled  per  train  might  be  increased. 

At   that   time   the   maximum   capacity 


FORCING  RAILROAD  COOPERATION 


199 


of  freight  cars  was  ten  tons,  and  as  the 
freight  was  sorted  on  each  side  according 
to  destination,  a  great  many  loaded  cars 
were  handled  across  the  isthmus  with  only 
one  or  two  tons  of  freight  to  the  car.  This 
reduced  the  amount  of  tonnage  per  train 
so  that  it  increased  the  cost,  which  was 
one  of  the  arguments  the  railroad  traffic 
officials  used  against  the  reduction  of 
rates. 

My  principal  reason,  however,  for  the 
utilization  of  this  means  of  transportation 
before  the  completion  of  the  canal  and 
during  its  construction,  and  reducing  the 
rates,  was  to  encourage  the  opening  up  of 
this  line  of  transportation  to  the  commerce 
of  the  world,  in  order  to  build  up  a  business 
prior  to  the  opening  of  the  canal,  so  as  to 
reduce  the  length  of  time  after  the  canal 
was  completed  in  which  this  tonnage  would 
be  increased  to  such  an  amount  as  would 
place  the  canal  on  a  paying  basis. 

I  recommended  $2.00  a  ton,  without 
regard  to  classification,  as  a  proper  rate. 

One  of  the  objections  raised  to  my  sug- 
gestion was  that  this  would  create  a  dis- 
turbance in  through  transcontinental  rates. 
My  natural  answer  to  this  was  the  inquiry 
as  to  the  purpose  for  which  we  were  con- 
structing the  canal.  The  reply  was  that 
during  the  ten  years  that  would  be  required 
for  the  completion  of  the  canal,  the  trans- 
continental lines  would  have  time  to  meet 
the  new  conditions. 

In  answer  to  this  I  developed  the  fact 
that  while  the  actual  rate  paid  for  freight 
across  the  isthmus  was  concealed  in  the 
proportions  of  the  through  rate  between 
west  and  east  coast  points  and  between 
origin  and  destination,  and  was  not  ex- 
pressed in  so  many  dollars  per  ton,  as 
far  as  traffic  between  New  York  and  San 
Francisco  was  concerned  the  Panama 
Railroad's  proportion  of  the  rate  gave  a 
revenue  that  averaged  less  than  $2.00  per 
ton  considering  all  classes  of  freight. 
This  against  the  fact  that  coffee  from  Costa 
Rica  had  to  bear  a  charge  of  $6.00  a  ton. 

It  was  my  understanding  with  Admiral 
Walker  and  the  Isthmian  Canal  Com- 


mission that  civil  service  rules  would  not 
be  put  into  effect  in  regard  to  the  Panama 
work  until  after  the  preliminary  organiza- 
tion was  made  effective,  and  then  only 
under  such  regulations  as  would  be  prac- 
tically adapted  to  this  work. 

On  November  17,  1904,  I  received  a 
cablegram  advising  me  that  the  Isthmian 
Canal  Commission  had  been  placed  under 
civil  service  rules,  which  was  confirmed  by 
the  following  letter: 

Washington,  D.  C. 

November  17,  1904. 
Mr.  John  F.  Wallace,  Chief  Engineer, 

Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  Aeon,  Canal  Zone. 
Dear  Sir: 

I  beg  to  advise  you  that  under  date  of  Novem- 
ber 15,  1904,  the  President  signed  the  decree  placing 
the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  under  civil  service 
rules,  and  I  enclose  herewith  a  copy  of  the  classifi- 
cation of  this  commission,  with  a  list  of  the  excep- 
tions made  thereto,  for  your  guidance. 
Very  respectfully, 

J.  G.  WALKER, 
Chairman  of  Commission. 

I  remonstrated  with  the  chairman  of 
the  commission  on  this  order  and  requested 
him  to  take  the  matter  up  with  the  Presi- 
dent, which  he  declined  to  do. 

At  that  time  Senator  Kittredge  was  on 
the  isthmus  and  I  explained  this  situation 
to  him  thoroughly  and  suggested  that  I  be 
permitted  to  have  a  conference  with  the 
civil  service  commissioners,  in  order  to 
formulate  such  regulations  as  would  en- 
able the  system  to  work  out  in  a  practical 
way. 

Senator  Kittredge  succeeded  in  securing 
a  suspension  of  the  immediate  application 
of  the  order,  and  when  Commissioner 
Greene  and  Chief  Examiner  Snyder,  of  the 
civil  service  commission,  visited  the  isth- 
mus I  went  over  the  situation  with  them 
on  the  ground  and  a  modification  of  the 
original  order  was  finally  arranged  between 
us,  which,  although  it  did  not  fully  meet 
my  views,  was  a  step  in  the  right  direction; 
but  many  difficulties  afterward  arose  in  its 
application. 

It  is  needless  to  say  that  this  work  was  of 
such  a  peculiar  nature,  in  a  foreign  coun- 
try, and  conducted  under  such  strenuous 


200 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA  CANAL 


conditions,  that  to  whatever  extent  the 
civil  service  rules  were  made  to  apply  to 
it  they  were  to  that  extent  an  impediment 
to  the  efficient  and  economical  conduct 
of  the  work. 

One  incident  that  occurred  in  the  later 
application  of  these  rules  was  in  connec- 
tion with  a  requisition  I  made  for  a  certain 
number  of  track  foremen.  After  several 
weeks  of  waiting  one  foreman  was  finally 
furnished  me,  who,  upon  being  placed  in 
charge  of  a  gang  of  track  laborers  to  put 
in  a  switch,  confessed  that  he  knew  nothing 
about  track  work  and  that  his  only  ex- 
perience as  foreman  had  been  in  a  bicycle 
repair  shop. 

The  utter  impracticability  of  selecting 
expert  technical  or  mechanical  help  quali- 
fied to  render  efficient  and  effective  ser- 
vice in  a  tropical  climate  thousands  of 
miles  away  from  headquarters,  should  be 
apparent  to  every  practical  man. 

While  I  have  always  been  in  accord 
with  a  short  working  day,  the  strict  en- 
forcement of  the  eight-hour  day  under  the 
legal  requirements  in  force  in  the  United 
States  interfered  seriously  and  must  have 
since  added  materially  to  the  estimated 
cost  of  the  work. 

To  those  familiar  with  constructive 
operations  it  will  be  realized  that  a  large 
amount  of  work  was  needed  prior  to  the 
commencement  of  work  hours  and  also 
subsequent  thereto,  in  preparing  for  the 
day's  work  and  in  straightening  matters 
up  thereafter.  This  particularly  applied 
to  work  in  the  transportation  department. 

Without  a  great  loss  of  efficiency,  trains 
could  not  be  permitted  to  stand  at  the 
exact  point  that  they  occupied  on  the 
stroke  of  the  hour,  and  the  cleaning  up  of 
transportation  work  after  the  day's  work 
and  preparation  for  it  before  it  commenced 
necessitated  more  or  less  overtime  work 
upon  the  part  of  employees  in  this  depart- 
ment. Other  parts  of  the  work  were  sim- 
ilarly affected  thereby,  although  the  essence 
of  the  eight-hour  day  for  the  mechanic  or 
the  laborer  employed  at  individual  effort 
could  be  observed. 


The  various  difficulties  and  drawbacks 
enumerated  above  have  not  been  men- 
tioned with  any  view  of  criticism  of  in- 
dividuals, but  simply  to  call  attention  to 
the  difficulties  of  supervision  from  Wash- 
ington, by  officials  of  the  Government 
departments,  of  constructive  work,  par- 
ticularly in  a  foreign  tropical  country,  and 
on  work  of  this  character  where  such  un- 
usual conditions  existed  and  unforeseen 
complications  arose  daily,  which  in  order 
to  secure  efficient  and  economical  results 
had  to  be  handled  and  decided  upon  by 
some  authoritative  agency  on  the  spot. 

Even  in  the  history  of  our  own  Civil 
War  the  immediate  success  of  the  earlier 
and  able  generals  in  charge  of  campaigns 
was  partially  nullified,  not  through  their 
own  acts  or  their  inability  to  understand 
or  cope  with  the  situation,  but  through 
the  lack  of  a  proper  appreciation  of  the 
conditions  and  necessities  surrounding  the 
field  of  operations  and  the  pressure,  through 
the  press  and  otherwise,  of  an  impatient 
public,  as  well  as  the  failure  of  the  adminis- 
tration and  public  to  appreciate  at  the 
start  the  necessity  of  concentrated  author- 
ity and  the  lack  of  patience  to  calmly  wait 
for  the  accomplishment  of  the  necessary 
preparation  in  order  that  the  foundations 
for  more  effective  work  in  the  future  might 
be  accomplished. 

The  foundations  of  all  great  structures 
are  hidden  from  sight,  and  only  the  archi- 
tectural effect  of  an  imposing  building 
resting  thereon  appreciated. 

Nevertheless  without  the  foundations 
the  final  structure  could  not  be  erected, 
and  without  any  expectation  of  public 
appreciation  either  at  present  or  in  the 
future,  I  felt  in  my  own  conscience  that 
my  compensation  would  consist  in  the  per- 
sonal feeling  that  during  the  strenuous 
period  of  preparation  at  least  a  foundation 
of  ideas  in  organization  and  plans  had 
been  made,  and  that  the  misunderstand- 
ings which  I  may  have  had  with  the  ad- 
ministration and  those  above  me  at  least 
made  the  way  easier  for  my  successors. 

I  do  not  feel  it  necessary  to  attempt  to 


FAILURE  OF  LONG-RANGE  SUPERVISION 


2OI 


analyze  or  to  express  to  the  public  the 
complexity  of  causes  which  led  up  to  my 
resignation,  further  than  to  say  that  my 
controlling  motive  was  not  due  to  any 
desire  to  better  myself  in  a  financial  way 
or  to  obtain  through  the  offering  of  my 
resignation  any  personal  consideration. 

While  it  might  have  been  temporarily 
postponed  if  more  frankness  had  been 
exercised  in  the  consideration  of  the  mat- 
ter, both  by  the  administration  and  myself, 
owing  to  certain  irritating  circumstances 
to  which  undue  importance  was  probably 
attached  by  all  concerned,  still  the  con- 


ditions surrounding  the  work  and  the  policy 
of  the  administration  seemed  to  me  then, 
and  still  seem  even  with  the  reflection 
that  has  come  with  the  years  that  have 
since  passed,  to  make  it  necessary  for  me 
to  sever  my  connection  with  the  work,  as 
it  seemed  utterly  impossible  for  the  admin- 
istration, uninfluenced  by  outside  inter- 
ference, to  take  at  that  time  the  proper 
view  which  was  essential  for  the  efficient 
conduct  of  the  work,  an  attitude  to  which 
the  administration  finally  came  and  due 
to  which  the  eventual  successful  comple- 
tion of  the  work  has  been  obtained. 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 


THE  RAILROAD  MEN  AT  PANAMA* 

MR.  SHONTS  BECOMES  CHAIRMAN  OF  THE  COMMISSION — HE  SECURES  JOHN  F.  STEVENS 
AS  CHIEF  ENGINEER — RAILROAD  MEN  AS  HEADS  OF  DEPARTMENTS — DEADLY 
CLIMATIC  CONDITIONS — MAKING  THE  ZONE  HABITABLE — FRENCH  AND  AMERI- 
CAN DEATH-RATES  COMPARED — SOLUTION  OF  THE  LABOR  PROBLEM — HOUS- 
ING AND  FEEDING  THE  TROPICAL  ARMY — WHY  A  LOCK  CANAL  WAS  CONSTRUCTED 
— ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  FORCES. 

BY  THEODORE  P.  SHONTS 


IT  was  toward  the  latter  part  of  March, 
1905,  while   on   a   cruise   among  the 
West    Indies    on    board    the    United 
States  dispatch-boat  Dolphin,  with  Sena- 
tor Hale,  of  Maine,  and  Representatives 
Cannon  of  Illinois  and  Meyer  of  Louisiana, 
as  guests  of  the  late  Paul  Morton,  Secretary 
of  the  Navy,  that  I  received  a  cablegram 
from   President   Roosevelt   asking  me  to 
accept  the  chairmanship  of  the  commission 
then  in  process  of  formation  to  construct 
the  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 
The  president's  message  was  delivered  on 
board  the  Dolphin  at  Guantanamo,   our 
naval  station  on  the  southeastern  coast  of 
Cuba,  and  I  had  time  to  consider  the  propo- 
sition during  the  several  days  that  elapsed 
before    we    went    ashore    at    Fernandina, 
Florida,    to    take    train    for   Washington. 
Knowing  as  little  about  the  big  project 
at  Panama  as  anyone  who  kept  track  of 
current  events  at  all,  I  was  nevertheless 
aware  that  the  first  commission,  of  which 
Rear-Admiral  Walker  was  chairman,  had 
not — to  quote  Secretary  of  War  Taft — "so 
developed  itself  into  an  executive  body  as 
to  give  hope  that  it  might  be  used  success- 
fully as  an  instrument  for  carrying  on  the 
immense  executive  burden  involved  in  the 
construction  of  the  canal."     I  recognized 
the  shrewdness  and  wisdom  of  the  Presi- 
dent in  choosing  a  railroad  man  to  shoulder 
the  "executive  burden,"  for,  after  all,  the 
big  problem  of  the  canal  was  one  of  trans- 
portation— the  moving  of  the  excavated 

•Courtesy  of  the  North  American  Review. 


material  from  the  cut  to  the  spill  banks, 
and  the  moving  of  sand,  rock,  cement,  and 
iron  to  the  points  for  the  location  of  the 
locks  along  the  route.  The  engineering 
problem  was  one  of  magnitude  rather 
than  complexity.  If  the  project  had  been 
to  do  a  similar  job  in  a  developed  country 
and  a  temperate  climate,  it  would  have 
been  attended  with  no  especial  difficulties; 
the  fact  that  conditions  approximating 
modern  development  had  to  be  brought 
into  existence  in  a  tropical  wilderness  two 
thousand  miles  from  the  base  of  sup- 
plies for  the  work  itself  and  the  men  per- 
forming it,  was  what  made  it  interesting. 

While  the  acceptance  of  the  President's 
offer  meant  material  sacrifice,  I  considered 
it  a  patriotic  duty  to  accept,  providing 
only  that  certain  views  I  held,  whereby 
I  believed  I  might  achieve  success,  were 
met.  And  I  own  that  I  felt  some  pride 
in  being  chosen  for  an  important  part  in 
a  historic  enterprise  fraught  with  such 
enormous  potentialities  to  the  entire  world 
and  for  all  time.  The  views  referred  to  I 
set  forth  to  Mr.  Roosevelt  in  his  office  at 
the  White  House,  the  day  after  my  arrival 
in  Washington  from  Fernandina. 

"Mr.  President,"  I  said  to  him,  "I  have 
an  idea  that  when  you  learn  the  conditions 
under  which  I  am  willing  to  become  chair- 
man of  the  Isthmian  Commission  you 
may  withdraw  your  offer.  With  a  body 
composed  of  so  many  different  members 
with  diversified  duties  that  are  likely  to 
conflict  on  occasion,  there  is  bound  to  be 


202 


ORGANIZERS  OF   CANAL  WORK 


203 


friction  so  long  as  responsibility  is  divided. 
I  should  not  care  to  accept  the  chairman- 
ship of  this  commission,  therefore,  unless  it 
is  understood  that  I  am  to  have  absolute 
authority  as  to  both  men  and  measures  in 
the  work  of  the  construction  of  the  canal — 
subject  to  your  approval,  of  course." 

Mr.  Roosevelt's  response  was  charac- 
teristic. He  rose  and  threw  open  the  door 
of  his  office  to  the  newspaper  correspond- 
ents, whom  he  had  summoned  for  the  pur- 
pose of  acquainting  them  with  my  de- 
cision— provided  it  should  be  acceptance 
of  the  post  he  had  offered. 

''Gentlemen,"  he  said,  "allow  me  to  in- 
troduce to  you  the  chairman  of  the  Isth- 
mian Commission,  who  is  to  have  absolute 
control  of  the  construction  of  the  Panama 
Canal." 

It  was  a  propitious  outcome  of  my  ac- 
quaintance among  railroad  officials  that 
I  was  able  to  put  my  hands  upon  men 
especially  fitted  to  become  heads  of  the 
various  departments  of  the  canal  work. 
Following  the  resignation  of  John  F.  Wal- 
lace as  chief  engineer,  I  had  the  good  for- 
tune in  June  to  secure  in  his  place  John 
F.  Stevens.  Mr.  Stevens  had  been  active 
in  the  construction  of  the  Great  Northern 
Railway,  and  afterward  in  its  operation. 
He  severed  his  connection  with  the  Rock 
Island  Railroad  as  vice-president  in  charge 
of  operation  to  accept  the  position  of  chief 
engineer  of  the  canal.  On  his  resigning 
this  position,  after  having  succeeded  me  as 
chairman  of  the  Isthmian  Commission  in 
March,  1907,  he  became  vice-president  in 
charge  of  operation  maintenance  of  the 
New  Haven  lines,  and  subsequently  presi- 
dent of  a  railroad  constructed  by  him 
across  the  state  of  Oregon  for  the  Hill 
system.  Mr.  Stevens's  first  assistant  at 
Panama  was  J.  G.  Sullivan,  who  is  now 
chief  engineer  of  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railroad.  David  W.  Ross,  who  had  been 
purchasing  agent  and  afterward  superin- 
tendent of  transportation  of  the  Illinois 
Central  Railroad,  left  the  latter  position  to 
become  the  head  of  the  canal's  purchasing 
department,  and  is  at  present  vice-presi- 


dent of  the  Interborough  Rapid  Transit 
Company,  of  New  York.  Edward  J. 
Williams,  paymaster  of  the  Chicago  & 
Northwestern  Railroad,  became  disbursing 
officer  on  the  isthmus,  and  up  to  date  has 
paid  out  $250,000,000  without  an  error. 
From  the  Chicago  &  Rock  Island  road, 
where  he  was  assistant  general  manager, 
came  W.  G.  Bierd  to  take  charge  as  general 
superintendent  of  the  operation  of  the 
Panama  Railroad.  The  Oregon  Railway 
&  Navigation  Company,  a  part  of  the 
Harriman  system,  contributed  its  general 
auditor,  E.  S.  Benson,  who  assumed  con- 
trol of  the  accounting  department  of  the 
canal  construction.  W.  G.  Tubby,  for 
years  general  storekeeper  of  the  Great 
Northern  Railroad,  left  that  position  to 
perform  the  same  duties  at  Panama.  Jack- 
son Smith,  who,  as  a  railroad  contractor 
and  in  other  capacities,  had  had  a  very 
extensive  experience  with  construction 
labor,  took  charge  of  the  department  of 
labor  and  quarters.  Richard  Reid  Rogers, 
who  was  general  counsel  to  the  Isthmian 
Commission  and  the  Panama  Railroad, 
still  holds  the  latter  position,  and  is  also 
general  counsel  to  the  Interborough  Rapid 
Transit  Company.  W.  Leon  Pepperman, 
who  had  formerly  been  assistant  chief  of 
the  bureau  of  insular  affairs  at  Washing- 
ton, was  chief  of  the  office  of  administra- 
tion of  the  commission,  and  to-day  holds 
the  position  of  assistant  to  the  president 
of  the  Interborough  Rapid  Transit  Com- 
pany. 

Colonel  W.  C.  Gorgas  was  at  Panama 
when  I  became  chairman  of  the  Isthmian 
Commission,  and  his  splendid  services 
as  sanitation  officer  had  given  him  an  in- 
ternational reputation.  Charles  E.  Magoon 
was  the  civil  governor  of  the  Canal  Zone 
and  a  member  of  the  commission.  The 
other  members  were  Mr.  Stevens,  Rear- 
Admiral  Mordecai  T.  Endicott  of  the 
navy,  General  Peter  C.  Hains,  a  retired 
officer  of  the  army,  Colonel  Oswald  H. 
Ernst,  of  the  engineer  corps  of  the  army, 
and  Benjamin  M.  Harrod,  all  capable  and 
efficient  men. 


2O4 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


The  magnitude  of  our  task  did  not  dimin- 
ish as  we  became  familiar  with  details. 
Our  first  proposition  was  the  creation  of  a 
modern  state  in  a  ten  by  fifty  mile  stretch 
of  tropical  wilderness,  scourged  by  deadly 
fevers  and  pestilence,  and  practically  unin- 
habitable by  natives  of  other  climes.  Ob- 
viously it  would  be  a  criminal  as  well  as 
an  uneconomic  policy  to  begin  the  actual 
construction  of  the  canal  while  conditions 
were  such  that  the  laborer  did  his  work  at 
the  peril  of  his  life;  and,  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  the  Fourth  Estate  of  America 
was  unanimous  in  the  view  that  because 
we  did  not  at  once  begin  to  "make  the 
dirt  fly"  we  were  wasting  time,  we  adhered 
to  the  determination  to  render  the  isthmus 
habitable  before  beginning  to  dig,  rather 
than  bring  men  there  to  die. 

The  commission  was  also  charged  with 
the  making  of  an  investigation  as  to  the 
respective  merits  of  a  sea-level  or  a  lock 
canal  at  Panama;  with  the  designing, 
purchase,  and  installation  of  the  power 
and  machinery  with  which  the  great  ditch 
was  to  be  dug;  with  the  determining 
of  the  character  of  the  labor  to  be  em- 
ployed, and  recruiting  and  carrying  it 
to  the  isthmus;  and  with  the  rehabilitation 
of  the  Panama  Railroad,  which  was  an 
instrument  essential  to  the  construction 
of  the  canal. 

When  the  commission  took  charge  at 
Panama  there  were  almost  as  many  of  the 
white  employees  leaving  the  isthmus  as 
were  coming  there.  In  a  recent  address 
before  the  Oregon  Society  of  Engineers, 
Mr.  Stevens  thus  describes  the  situation: 

"When  I  reached  Panama  in  July,  1905, 
conditions  could  have  been  much  worse, 
but  they  were  bad  enough.  No  real 
start  had  been  made  at  any  effective  work 
on  the  canal  proper,  no  adequate  organiza- 
tion had  been  effected,  sanitary  reforms 
were  really  just  beginning,  little  new  plant 
had  been  provided,  and  little  that  was 
absolutely  necessary  had  been  ordered. 
In  the  organization  that  existed  no  co- 
operation was  apparent,  and  no  systematic 
plans,  as  far  as  I  could  discover,  had  been 


formulated  toward  the  carrying  out  of  the 
work  along  the  lines  promising  any  degree 
of  success.  And — worse  than  all — over 
and  above,  in  the  diseased  imagination  of 
the  disjointed  force  of  white  employees, 
hovered  the  angel  of  death  in  the  shape  of 
yellow  fever,  a  number  of  cases  of  which 
were  then  prevailing,  and  from  which  sev- 
eral deaths  had  occurred.  What  many 
of  the  intelligent  men  seemed  to  expect 
was  an  order  from  Washington  to  abandon 
the  work  and  go  home.  To  provide  hous- 
ing for  this  army,  to  properly  feed,  to  instil 
into  them  faith  in  the  ultimate  success  of 
the  work,  to  weed  out  the  faint-hearted 
and  incompetent,  to  create  an  organization 
fitted  to  undertake  the  tremendous  work, 
and  to  fill  its  ranks  with  the  proper  ma- 
terial was  a  task  of  heroic  proportions. 
No  one  will  ever  know,  no  one  can  realize, 
the  call  on  mind  and  body  which  was  made 
upon  a  few  for  weary  months  while  all  the 
necessary  preliminary  work  was  being 
planned  and  carried  forward,  and  no  at- 
tempt was  or  could  be  made  to  carry  on 
actual  construction  until  such  preliminaries 
were  well  at  hand.  And  the  only  gleams 
of  light  and  encouragement  were  the  weekly 
arrivals  of  newspapers  from  the  States, 
criticizing  and  complaining  because  the 
dirt  was  not  flying." 

In  order  to  make  the  Canal  Zone  a  place 
fit  to  live  and  work  in,  there  were  three 
fundamental  tasks  which  had  to  be  per- 
formed in  advance  of  all  others — the 
thorough  sanitation  of  the  isthmus;  the 
provision  of  suitable  habitations  for  all 
classes  of  employees,  from  heads  of  depart- 
ments to  negro  laborers;  arrangement  for 
a  food-supply  which  would  afford  to  all 
employees  an  opportunity  to  obtain  meat 
and  vegetables  at  reasonable  cost.  When 
the  United  States  began  the  work  of  sani- 
tation there  were  no  systems  of  water- 
works, of  sewerage,  or  of  drainage  on  the 
isthmus.  The  people  depended  for  their 
water  largely  on  unprotected  cisterns  filled 
during  the  rainy  season,  and  on  barrels 
supplied  from  near-by  streams,  all  breed- 
ing places  for  mosquitoes.  The  filth  of 


1.  Steam  drills  at  work  preparing  for  blasting. 

2.  Steam  shovel  loading  a  Lidgerwood  train,  1906. 


1.  Battery  of  well  drills  at  work  in  foreground  and  another  in  the  background,  preparing  for  a  gigantic  blast. 

2.  Battery  of  tripod  drills  at  work. 


THREE  FUNDAMENTAL  PROBLEMS 


205 


ages  had  accumulated  around  the  dwellings 
and  in  the  streets,  undisturbed  except 
when  washed  away  by  torrential  storms. 
Pools  of  stagnant  water  had  existed  for 
years  in  proximity  to  dwellings,  and  insect- 
breeding  swamps  lay  undrained  adjacent 
to  the  cities  and  many  of  the  towns. 

Under  the  direction  of  Colonel  Gorgas 
3,500  men  were  put  at  work  on  sanitation. 
Panama,  Colon  and  the  towns,  villages, 
and  labor  camps  in  the  Canal  Zone  were 
fumigated  over  and  over  again,  at  first 
house  by  house  to  stop  the  spread  of  the 
disease,  and  afterward  as  units,  one  city, 
village,  or  camp  at  a  time.  Yellow  fever 
was  extirpated  in  less  than  four  months, 
and  there  has  been  no  return  of  the  dis- 
ease. In  June,  1905,  there  were  62  cases 
of  yellow  fever  on  the  isthmus;  in  July, 
42;  in  August,  27;  in  September,  6;  and 
in  October,  the  worst  month  of  the  year 
for  the  disease,  3,  not  one  of  these  last 
among  the  employees,  and  all  originating 
many  miles  from  the  line  of  the  canal. 
To  understand  what  was  accomplished  by 
our  sanitary  work  it  is  only  necessary  to 
compare  the  death-rate  on  the  isthmus 
during  the  French  occupancy  with  that 
after  Colonel  Gorgas  began  to  "clean  up." 
In  August,  1882,  the  second  year  of  the 
French  occupancy,  with  a  force  of  1,900 
men,  the  death-rate  was  112  per  thousand. 
In  August,  1905,  with  a  force  of  12,000 
men,  there  were  only  8  deaths,  or  two- 
thirds  of  a  man  per  thousand .  The  average 
daily  sick-rate  among  the  employees  of 
the  commission  during  the  ten  months  from 
January  I,  1906,  to  October  31,  1906, 
was  28  per  thousand,  which  was  no  higher 
than  might  have  been  expected  in  an  equal 
number  of  laborers  engaged  in  construc- 
tion work  in  any  part  of  the  world.  So  far 
as  general  health  conditions  were  con- 
cerned, no  stronger  evidence  for  their 
favorable  character  may  be  adduced  than 
the  fact  that  among  about  6,000  white 
Americans,  including  women  and  children, 
on  the  isthmus  during  the  rainy  season  of 
1906 — August,  September  and  October — 
there  was  not  a  single  death  from  disease. 


Within  our  first  four  months  on  the 
isthmus  we  established  a  hospital  system 
that  included  a  large  hospital  at  Colon, 
another  at  Ancon,  and  a  number  of  smaller 
hospitals  along  the  line  of  the  canal.  The 
one  at  Colon  was  built  on  piers  over  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  and  patients  there  had  at 
all  times  the  benefit  of  cool  and  invigorat- 
ing sea  air.  The  hospital  at  Ancon  was, 
and  is,  one  of  the  largest  and  best  equipped 
in  the  world,  situated  on  the  hill  above 
Panama  and  commanding  a  superb  view  of 
mountains  and  sea.  Colonel  Gorgas  or- 
ganized a  staff  of  physicians  and  nurses 
inferior  to  none  in  civilization.  President 
Roosevelt,  in  a  special  message  to  Con- 
gress written  after  his  personal  inspection 
of  the  isthmus,  said  of  the  sanitary  work 
there  that  "the  results  have  been  astound- 
ing," and  that  "the  conditions  as  regards 
sickness  and  the  death-rate  compare  favor- 
ably with  reasonably  healthy  localities  in 
the  United  States." 

During  the  railroad  men's  regime  on  the 
isthmus  we  converted  the  City  of  Panama, 
which  on  our  arrival  was  without  pave- 
ment, sewers,  or  water  supply,  into  the 
best-paved,  the  best-watered,  and  the  best- 
sewered  city  in  Central  America  or  the 
northern  half  of  South  America.  We 
constructed  for  it  a  great  reservoir  with  an 
abundant  supply  of  pure  water,  and  in- 
stalled for  it  a  fire  service  that  on  two 
occasions  has  saved  the  city  from  destruc- 
tion. We  also  constructed  for  Colon  a 
great  reservoir,  with  a  capacity  of  508,000,- 
ooo  gallons.  We  paved  the  main  street  of 
Colon  with  vitrified  brick,  and  raised  the 
surface  of  other  streets  and  covered  them 
with  crushed  rock.  Before  we  left  the 
Canal  Zone  it  was  as  safe  a  place  to  visit 
as  most  other  parts  of  the  world,  and  much 
safer  than  many  parts  of  the  United  States, 
so  far  as  danger  from  disease  was  concerned. 
Observance  of  sanitary  laws  and  regula- 
tions was  compulsory  and  rigidly  enforced. 
Whenever  an  employee  of  the  commission 
was  discovered  with  too  high  a  tempera- 
ture, he  was  compelled  to  go  to  the  hospi- 
tal, whether  he  wanted  to  or  not.  To 


206 


HISTORY   OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


Colonel  Gorgas  is  due  all  the  praise  for  the 
triumph  of  science  over  disease  on  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  but  he  would  not 
have  accomplished  the  magnificent  results 
achieved  there  without  the  active  and  sym- 
pathetic cooperation  of  the  commission. 
The  United  States  paid  out  something  like 
$4,000,000  in  less  than  a  year  in  the  sani- 
tation of  the  canal  route,  and  Colonel  Gor- 
gas has  said  that  he  would  not  have  dared 
authorize  the  expenditure  of  that  great 
sum  on  his  own  initiative. 

The  problem  of  labor  for  the  construc- 
tion of  the  canal  was  almost  the  paramount 
one.  The  clerical  forces  and  skilled  ar- 
tisans were  recruited  in  the  United  States, 
though  at  first  some  difficulty  was  expe- 
rienced in  securing  the  right  class  of  men, 
owing  to  the  reputation  of  the  Canal  Zone 
as  a  disease  center.  To  supply  the  un- 
skilled labor  was  a  far  more  perplexing 
task.  During  the  twelve  years  the  French 
had  been  operating  on  the  isthmus,  they 
had  depended  upon  the  West  Indian  negro 
for  this  class  of  work.  We  soon  found  that 
if  the  canal  was  to  be  completed  within 
any  reasonable  limit  of  time  or  expense, 
some  other  source  of  obtaining  labor  must 
be  developed,  not  only  to  obtain  a  better 
grade  and  a  surer  supply,  but  to  eliminate 
the  sense  of  security  the  West  Indians 
possessed  in  the  assurance  that  they  con- 
trolled the  situation  by  virtue  of  a  labor 
monopoly.  Agents  were  sent  to  Europe, 
and  they  succeeded  in  directing  to  the  isth- 
mus a  stream  of  Spanish,  Italian,  and 
Greek  laborers,  though  the  negroes  have 
all  along  far  outnumbered  the  others. 
The  erection  of  living-quarters  for  the  em- 
ployees and  supplying  them  with  good 
food  and  pure  water  was  accomplished 
during  the  same  period  that  the  sanitation 
of  the  Canal  Zone  was  carried  on.  Em- 
ployees of  every  grade,  white  and  black, 
were  given,  free  of  rent,  with  free  lights 
and  fuel,  comfortable  furnished  houses. 
While  many  hundreds  of  these  houses,  of 
various  classes  and  capacities,  were  taken 
over  from  the  French,  all  of  them  had  to 
be  rebuilt  and  made  sanitary,  and  in  ad- 


dition new  dwelling-houses  and  living- 
quarters,  hotels,  restaurants,  clubhouses, 
schoolhouses,  courthouses,  postoffices, 
jails,  commissary  buildings,  fire-engine 
houses,  shops  and  railway  buildings  had 
to  be  provided.  Along  the  line  of  the 
canal  we  built  a  succession  of  trim  villages, 
containing  populations  ranging  from  a  few 
hundred  up  to  5,000  each.  At  Gatun,  the 
site  of  the  great  dam  that  now  holds  back 
the  waters  of  an  inland  lake  165  square 
miles  in  extent,  a  village  sprang  into  exist- 
ence within  four  months,  supplied  with 
pure  water  and  a  modern  sewerage  system. 
At  Culebra,  situated  upon  bluffs  over- 
looking the  great  cut  and  surrounded  with 
an  amphitheater  by  the  rising  slopes  of 
beautiful  hills,  a  town  of  5,000  inhabitants 
came  into  being  with  its  modern  sewers  and 
water  supply,  on  a  site  that  a  year  and  a 
half  before  was  covered  by  an  impenetrable 
jungle.  Among  other  towns  and  villages 
we  constructed  along  the  route  of  the 
canal  are  Empire,  Las  Cascadas,  and  Gor- 
gona,  and  in  every  one  of  these  centers  of 
population  there  is,  in  addition  to  the 
quarters  and  mess-halls  for  the  employees, 
a  clubhouse,  or  recreation  building,  •  each 
with  its  gymnasium,  its  reception,  card, 
and  billiard  rooms  and  its  assembly-hall, 
managed  in  conjunction  with  the  Young 
Men's  Christian  Association  by  boards  of 
directors  selected  from  among  the  men 
themselves. 

The  food-supply  proved  a  serious  corol- 
lary of  the  labor  proposition.  If  we  could 
not  feed  the  men,  we  could  not  build  the 
canal.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  Panama 
natives  never  look  beyond  their  present 
necessities,  no  food  ever  accumulates  on 
the  isthmus,  and  in  the  summer  of  1905  this 
disastrous  condition  was  augmented  by 
an  almost  total  failure  of  the  crops  for  the 
two  preceding  years,  by  the  abandonment 
by  agricultural  laborers  of  the  farms  back 
in  the  hills  for  work  on  the  canal  at  better 
pay  for  shorter  hours,  and  by  quarantine 
of  the  port  of  Panama  because  of  bubonic 
plague,  which  prevented  the  delivery  of 
foodstuffs  from  neighboring  provinces.  We 


BUILDING  VILLAGES  AND  TOWNS 


207 


were  thus  brought  face  to  face  with  the 
problem  of  feeding  12,000  men  and  their 
families,  and  our  nearest  available  market 
was  2,000  miles  away.  We  immediately 
arranged  to  open  local  commissary  stores 
at  every  important  labor  camp,  to  provide 
mess-houses,  and  to  furnish  food,  both 
cooked  and  uncooked,  to  all  employees 
at  cost.  Orders  were  cabled  to  have 
our  steamers  equipped  with  refrigerating 
plants ;  a  cold  storage  plant  was  erected  at 
Colon,  and  refrigerator  cars  were  pur- 
chased for  immediate  shipment  to  the 
isthmus,  thus  establishing  a  line  of  refrig- 
eration from  the  markets  of  the  United 
States  to  the  commissary  stations  along  the 
line  of  the  canal.  The  net  result  of  these 
efforts  was  that  all  employees  were  afforded 
opportunity  to  obtain  an  abundant  supply 
of  wholesome  food  at  reasonable  prices. 
We  learned  from  experience  that  no  price 
for  food  was  sufficiently  small  to  induce 
the  West  Indian  laborers  to  eat  enough  to 
keep  them  in  good  physical  condition. 
They  were  offered  cooked  food  at  ten  cents 
per  meal,  and  the  uncooked  material  at  a 
price  reduced  by  the  cost  of  cooking  and 
service.  Both  plans  resulted  unsatisfac- 
torily. -We  even  tried  giving  them  un- 
cooked food  free;  they  declined  to  go  to 
the  trouble  of  cooking  it.  Next  we  had  it 
cooked  and  offered  it  to  them  free,  when 
for  the  first  time  they  ate  heartily.  The 
plan  was  then  adopted  that  is  followed  in 
railway  and  other  construction  work  in 
this  country,  and  we  paid  the  West  Indians 
a  fixed  wage  that  included  three  meals  per 
day. 

Simultaneously  with  the  sanitation  of 
the  isthmus  and  the  erection  of  comfortable 
living-quarters  for  the  employees  and  the 
establishment  of  a  refrigerating  system  to 
supply  them  with  wholesome  food,  we  re- 
constructed the  Panama  Railroad,  the 
most  valuable  instrument  to  the  construc- 
tion of  the  canal  acquired  by  the  United 
States  in  its  purchase  from  the  French  at 
Panama.  However,  the  modernizing  of 
the  road  was  a  tremendous  task.  It  had 
but  a  single  track,  practically  no  sidings 


or  station  buildings,  a  worn-out  telegraph 
line,  no  terminals  worthy  of  the  name,  and 
motive  power  and  rolling  stock  that  were 
obsolete  twenty  years  before.  Canal  and 
commercial  traffic,  local  and  through,  were 
nearly  at  a  standstill;  thousands  of  tons 
of  through  freight  were  piled  in  cars  and 
warehouses  or  on  the  docks,  and  some  of 
these  shipments  had  lain  undisturbed  from 
three  months  to  a  year  and  a  half,  in  many 
instances  even  the  shipping  papers  and 
freight  records  having  been  lost.  Had  the 
docks,  wharves,  warehouses,  terminal  yards, 
locomotives,  and  cars  of  the  Panama  Rail- 
road been  in  good  repair,  they  would  still 
have  been  entirely  inadequate  to  handle 
and  care  properly  for  the  small  commer- 
cial business  the  road  was  transacting. 
The  existing  facilities,  poor  as  they  were, 
were  rendered  less  effective  by  the  entire 
absence  of  any  mechanical  appliances 
on  the  docks  for  receiving  or  discharging 
cargo  from  the  steamships.  The  negro 
laborer  was  the  only  power  employed;  he 
was  at  once  the  hoisting-machine  and  trav- 
eling-crane. Imagine  conditions,  then, 
when  the  accumulated  orders  in  the  States 
for  canal  material  began  to  arrive  in  large 
quantities  on  both  sides  of  the  isthmus. 
The  situation  was  aggravated  while  the 
congestion  was  at  its  densest  by  an  in- 
crease of  fifty  per  cent,  over  the  year  be- 
fore in  the  commercial  business  of  the  road, 
and  at  the  moment  when  we  believed  that 
our  predicament  could  not  possibly  be 
worse  an  outbreak  of  bubonic  plague 
at  La  Boca  resulted  in  two  consecutive 
quarantines,  completely  closing  that  outlet 
for  sixty  days.  Furthermore,  the  personnel 
of  the  Panama  Railroad  as  it  was  turned 
over  to  us  had  not  been  educated  on  mod- 
ern lines,  and  was  completely  paralyzed 
when  confronted  with  the  onerous  condi- 
tions caused  by  the  congestion  of  freight. 
It  was  necessary,  therefore,  to  begin  at 
once  the  construction  of  new  wharves 
equipped  with  modern  mechanical  appli- 
ances and  of  large  terminal  yards  at  both 
ends  of  the  road;  of  extensive  warehouses, 
of  suitable  machine  shops,  and  of  modern 


208 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


coal-hoisting  plants.  New  and  more  power- 
ful locomotives  and  larger  cars  were  pur- 
chased for  both  passenger  and  freight  ser- 
vice. The  personnel  of  the  road  was  re- 
organized, and  into  the  more  important 
positions  we  put  experienced,  energetic, 
up-to-date  railroad  men  from  the  United 
States,  where,  indeed,  we  recruited  our 
entire  complement  of  yard  and  train  mas- 
ters, superintendents  of  transportation, 
train-dispatchers,  and  master  mechanics, 
and  an  army  of  conductors,  engineers,  and 
switchmen.  We  double-tracked  the  road 
with  heavier  steel  rails,  strengthened  the 
bridges  to  enable  them  to  withstand  the 
weight  of  our  heavier  equipment,  and  in 
1907  the  line  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama 
was  in  a  position  to  bear  favorable  compari- 
son with  the  average  of  the  best  railroads 
in  North  America. 

Of  course  the  most  important  question 
before  the  commission  was  as  to  whether 
the  canal  should  be  of  the  so-called  sea- 
level  or  the  lock  type.  The  Act  of  Con- 
gress which  authorized  the  President  to 
proceed  with  the  construction  of  the  canal 
gave  him  almost  unlimited  discretion  as 
to  details  of  route,  type,  and  size,  the 
principal  limiting  clause  being  that  it 
"  shall  be  of  sufficient  capacity  and  depth 
as  shall  afford  convenient  passage  for  the 
vessels  of  the  largest  tonnage  and  greatest 
draft  now  in  use  and  such  as  may  be  rea- 
sonably anticipated."  The  discussion  on 
this  question,  which  was  largely  one  of 
engineering  technicalities,  occupied  many 
months,  and  the  decision  we  arrived  at  is 
summarized  in  the  following  extract  from 
an  address  I  delivered  before  the  chamber 
of  commerce  of  Atlanta,  Georgia,  in  May, 
1906: — 

"The  present  commission  believes  that 
the  type  of  canal  the  people  of  this  country 
want  is  the  one  which  will  provide  adequate 
and  safe  passage  for  the  largest  vessels 
now  on  the  seas,  or  which  can  be  reason- 
ably anticipated,  and  which  can  be  con- 
structed in  the  quickest  time  and  at  the 
least  cost.  It  has,  therefore,  recommended 
the  construction  of  an  eighty-five-foot-level 


lock  canal,  for  the  reasons  that,  first,  in 
its  judgment,  'it  can  be  completed  for 
about  half  the  cost,  and  in  about  half  the 
time,  of  the  so-called  sea-level  canal; 
second,  because  it  will  be  adequate  for  all 
the  commerce  which  can  reasonably  be 
expected  to  seek  that  route  during  the  next 
150  years;  third,  because  if  the  tonnage 
should  increase  beyond  such  expectation 
it  can  be  enlarged  more  cheaply  and  more 
quickly  than  the  so-called  sea-level  canal; 
fourth,  because,  from  the  operating  point 
of  view,  large  ships  can  be  put  through 
more  safely  and  more  quickly  than  the  so- 
called  sea-level;  fifth,  because,  when  the 
construction  is  added  to  the  estimated 
cost  of  operation,  the  saving  to  the  Govern- 
ment every  year  will  be  $2,340,000;  sixth, 
because,  when  built,  it  will  be  a  completed 
canal,  completed  in  every  appointment,  for 
all  requirements  for  generations  to  come.'" 

It  had  been  agreed  between  Mr.  Roose- 
velt and  myself  when  I  accepted  the  chair- 
manship of  the  Isthmian  Commission  that 
I  might  withdraw  from  that  position, 
with  his  sanction,  so  soon  as  the  construc- 
tion of  the  canal  was  under  full  headway. 
I  did  not,  therefore,  sever  all  my  railroad 
connections,  although  for  two  years  I  de- 
voted my  entire  physical  and  mental 
energies  to  the  problems  of  the  big  ditch. 
My  resignation  was  not  handed  in  until 
35,000  men — within  5,000  or  6,000  of  the 
maximum  number  employed — were  on 
the  commission's  pay-rolls;  all  the  ma- 
chinery essential  to  the  completion  of  the 
canal,  except  that  for  the  lock  construc- 
tion, had  been  designed,  constructed, 
assembled  on  the  isthmus  and  put  into 
operation;  the  more  serious  difficulties 
attendant  upon  industrial  operations  in  the 
torrid  zone  overcome,  and  the  entire  proj- 
ect well  under  way. 

Colonel  Goethals's  splendid  achieve- 
ment in  carrying  to  practical  completion, 
without  setback  or  delay,  without  a  hitch 
of  any  kind  or  a  hint  of  scandal,  the  great 
work  of  the  construction  of  the  Panama 
Canal,  while  demonstrating  the  thorough- 
ness with  which  the  railroad  men  pre- 


THE  PROJECT  WELL  UNDER  WAY 


209 


pared  the  way  on  the  isthmus  and  the  care 
and  precision  with  which  their  plans  were 
laid,  is  one  of  which  the  United  States  Army 
may  well  be  proud.  Incidentally  it  may 
be  remarked  that  so  wisely  considered  was 
the  order  of  President  Roosevelt,  issued  to 
the  commission  of  which  I  was  chairman 
in  November,  1905,  that  it  has  not  since 
been  necessary  to  amend  it  in  any  impor- 
tant particular.  The  order  was  as  follows: 

"The  organization  shall  consist  of  the 
chairman  and  the  following  heads  of  de- 
partments: Chief  engineer,  general  coun- 
sel, chief  sanitary  officer,  general  purchas- 
ing officer,  general  auditor,  and  manager  of 
labor  and  quarters.  The  duties  of  each 
shall  be  as  follows : 

"  I.  The  chairman  shall  have  charge 
of  all  departments  incident  and  necessary 
to  the  construction  of  the  canal  or  any  of 
its  accessories. 

"2.     He  shall  appoint  the  heads  of  the 


various  departments,  subject  to  the  ap- 
proval of  the  commission. 

"3.  The  head  of  each  department  shall 
report  to  and  receive  instructions  from  the 
chairman." 

This  order,  with  a  subsequent  minor 
amendment,  is  that  of  the  present  organi- 
zation on  the  isthmus,  except  that  there 
have  been  changes  made  in  the  titles  of 
the  heads  of  departments  to  conform  with 
military  usage.  It  was  this  concentra- 
tion of  supreme  authority  in  one  man  that 
has  enabled  Colonel  Goethals,  as  head  of 
the  military  regime  at  Panama,  to  carry 
on  and  complete  in  such  manner  as  to  com- 
mand the  wonder  and  admiration  of  the 
world  the  work  planned  and  begun  under 
the  railroad  re'gime,  as  to  enable  me — en- 
couraged by  the  loyal  and  able  coopera- 
tion of  the  other  members  of  the  commis- 
sion and  heads  of  departments — to  accom- 
plish such  vast  results  in  so  short  a  time. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII 


THE  TRUTH  OF  HISTORY 

MR.  STEVENS  BECOMES  CHIEF  ENGINEER — FINDS  A  BAD  STATE  OF  AFFAIRS — SANI- 
TATION OF  PANAMA  AND  COLON  ACCOMPLISHED — HERCULEAN  TASK  OF  CREAT- 
ING AN  ORGANIZATION — COMMISSION  GIVES  ITS  COOPERATION — LABOR  PROB- 
LEM SETTLED — THE  FEEDING  CONTRACT — RECONSTRUCTION  OF  PANAMA  RAIL- 
ROAD— HEADS  OF  DIVISIONS — BUILDING  NEW  TOWNS — CHIEF  ENGINEER 
RECOMMENDS  LOCK-TYPE  CANAL — REAL  CONSTRUCTION  BEGUN — THE  CON- 
TRACT PLAN  CONSIDERED  AND  ABANDONED — MR.  STEVENS  OUTLINES  TO 
PRESIDENT  ROOSEVELT  His  PLAN  OF  COMMISSION  ORGANIZATION — THE 
PRESIDENT  SUPPORTS  HIM — No  RED  TAPE — ATTITUDE  OF  THE  PRESS — ARMY 
ENGINEERS  INHERIT  A  WELL-PLANNED  AND  WELL-BUILT  MACHINE. 

BY  JNO.  F.  STEVENS 


MY  connection  with  the  Panama 
Canal  began  on  July,  I,  1905,  my 
appointment  as  chief  engineer  of 
the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  taking 
effect  upon  that  date,  to  succeed  Mr.  John 
F.  Wallace,  who  had  resigned  three  days 
previously.  When  the  position  was  first 
offered  to  me  I  did  not  look  upon  it 
with  favor,  and  had  made  up  my  mind  to 
refuse  it,  but  after  a  conference  solicited 
by  him  I  succumbed  to  the  persuasive 
tongue  of  William  Nelson  Cromwell,  who, 
among  the  many  others,  seemed  to  have 
a  deep  and  heartfelt  interest  in  the  success 
of  the  proposed  work.  And  as  the  matter 
was  presented  to  me,  in  view  of  the  dis- 
couraging condition  into  which  affairs  had 
drifted  during  the  period  of  American  occu- 
pation, as  a  loyal  American  citizen,  and 
as  a  cordial  supporter  of  an  administration 
which  was  represented  as  being  much 
exercised  over  the  situation,  it  became  my 
duty  to  waive  personal  inclinations,  and 
to  accept  the  responsibilities  of  the  posi- 
tion. I  accordingly  did  so,  and  the  ar- 
rangement verbally  agreed  upon  between 
Mr.  Cromwell  and  myself  was  confirmed 
by  the  chairman  of  the  commission,,  on 
the  date  noted. 

As  soon  as  practicable  thereafter,  I 
sailed  for  the  Canal  Zone,  landing  there 
on  July  26,  taking  immediate  and  personal 


charge  of  all  affairs  there  (excepting 
government  and  sanitation),  including  the 
Panama  Railroad,  and  I  believe  I  faced 
about  as  discouraging  a  proposition  as 
was  ever  presented  to  a  construction 
engineer. 

In  any  comments  I  may  make  upon  the 
condition  of  affairs  which  existed  there  at 
that  time,  no  reflection  whatever  is  in- 
tended upon  the  ability  of  my  predecessor. 
I  had  known  Mr.  Wallace  for  many  years, 
as  a  high-class  engineer  and  railway 
operator  of  great  experience,  and  I  was  not 
long  in  deciding  in  my  own  mind,  why 
and  how  the  situation  had  developed  as  it 
existed.  The  ineffective  organization  of 
the  Walker  commission,  the  utter  lack  of 
responsibility  definitely  located,  the  en- 
deavor to  decide  and  act  upon  the  most 
trivial  matters,  at  a  distance  of  two 
thousand  miles  by  a  body  of  seven  men, 
each  of  equal  rank,  who  were  apparently 
unable  to  agree  with  each  other,  or  with 
anybody  else,  would  have  been  sufficient 
reason  for  a  partial,  or  even  a  total  failure, 
no  matter  who  might  have  been  the  chief 
engineer. 

The  retirement  of  this  commission,  and 
the  organization  of  the  new  one,  on  April 
i»  1905.  might  have  bettered  matters,  but 
it  had  not  to  any  great  extent,  during  the 
three  months  the  latter  had  been  in  power. 


210 


SANITATION   BY   CIVILIAN   ENGINEERS 


211 


There  were  probably  several  reasons  for 
this;  it  would  have  taken  a  longer  time 
than  three  months  to  have  recovered  from 
the  deplorable  state  of  affairs  left  by  the 
old  commission  in  any  case,  but  I  have 
always  believed  (and  I  had  a  fairly  good 
opportunity  to  judge),  that  a  lack  of 
harmony  or  sympathy  between  the  chief 
engineer  and  the  chairman  of  the  new 
commission  was  the  greatest  single  con- 
tributing cause  leading  to  a  comparative 
failure  to  produce  results.  But  there  was 
no  time  to  "look  mournfully  back  into 
the  past."  The  problem  of  changing  the 
situation  had  to  be  grappled  with,  without 
delay,  and  in  such  manner  as  human  judg- 
ment could  best  devise  to  meet  the  emer- 
gency, which  was  truly  formidable. 

Under  the  agreement  between  the  United 
States  and  the  Republic  of  Panama  the 
former  was  charged  with  the  regulation  of 
sanitary  matters  in  the  cities  of  Colon  and 
Panama.  To  carry  out  this  obligation  suc- 
cessfully required  the  paving,  sewerage  and 
the  providing  of  an  ample  supply  of  water 
for  both  cities.  At  the  time  of  my  taking 
charge,  plans  had  been  adopted  for  the 
water  plants  of  both  cities  and  considerable 
work  had  been  done  on  them.  Much 
material  for  the  paving  of  Panama  had 
been  ordered,  and  so  far  as  the  arrange- 
ments for  the  sanitation  of  these  two  cities 
had  been  carried,  the  work  was  creditably 
done.  There  remained,  however,  much  yet 
to  do,  not  only  in  Colon  and  Panama,  but 
in  all  of  the  then  existing  towns,  and  others 
soon  to  spring  up  along  the  Canal  Zone. 

From  time  to  time,  during  the  past 
seven  years,  very  flattering  notices  have 
appeared  in  various  newspapers  of  the 
United  States,  of  the  condition  of  Colon 
and  Panama,  as  regards  streets,  sewers 
and  water  supply.  They  were  all  true, 
but  in  justice  to  the  engineers  in  civil  life, 
who  designed  and  built  these  works  and 
wrought  these  changes,  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  all  this  was  accomplished  before 
the  advent  of  the  army  engineers,  and  was 
not  done  by  the  latter,  as  mistakenly 
asserted  by  the  articles  in  question. 


When  I  reached  the  zone,  conditions 
could  have  been  worse,  but  they  were  bad 
enough.  No  real  start  at  any  effective 
work  on  the  canal  proper  had  been  made, 
no  organization  worthy  the  name  had 
been  effected,  sanitary  reforms  were  really 
just  beginning,  little  new  plant  had  been 
provided,  and  little  that  was  absolutely 
needed  had  been  ordered.  And  plant  and 
material  that  had  been  under  requisition 
for  months  was  so  delayed  in  delivery 
as  to  paralyze  the  efforts  of  those  who, 
to  the  best  of  their  ability  and  means, 
were  trying  hard  to  get  results. 

In  such  organization  as  existed,  no 
cooperation  was  apparent — exactly  the 
opposite — and  no  systematic  plans,  as  far 
as  could  be  discovered,  had  been  formu- 
lated toward  carrying  out  the  work  along 
lines  promising  any  degree  of  success. 

And,  worse  than  all,  over  and  above  in 
the  diseased  imaginations  of  the  disjointed 
force  of  white  employees,  hovered  the 
Angel  of  Death  in  the  shape  of  yellow 
fever,  a  number  of  cases  of  which  were 
then  prevailing  and  from  which  several 
deaths  had  occurred.  What  many  of  the 
otherwise  intelligent  men  seemed  to  ex- 
pect was  an  order  to  abandon  the  work 
and  go  home. 

To  provide  housing  for  this  army,  with 
its  future  great  increase;  to  properly  feed, 
to  instill  in  them  faith  in  the  ultimate 
success  of  the  great  project,  to  weed  out 
the  hopeless  doubters  and  incompetents, 
to  create  an  organization  fitted  to  under- 
take the  tremendous  work,  and  to  fill  its 
ranks  with  the  proper  material,  was  a 
task  of  heroic  proportions.  No  one  will 
ever  know,  no  one  can  realize,  the  call  on 
mind  and  body  which  was  made  upon  a 
few  for  weary  months,  while  all  the  nec- 
essary preliminary  work  was  being  planned 
and  carried  forward;  and  no  attempt  was 
or  could  be  made  to  carry  on  actual  con- 
struction until  such  preliminaries  were 
well  in  hand. 

While  the  French  turned  over  to  us 
square  miles  of  engines,  cars,  rails,  dredges, 
tools  and  plant  of  all  descriptions,  very 


212 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


little  of  it  was  of  practical  value,  and  such 
of  it  as  was  used,  was  generally  only  until 
proper  modern  appliances  could  be  sub- 
stituted; but  as  time  wore  on,  as  new 
plant  arrived  and  was  put  into  service, 
as  the  force  increased,  as  proper  food  and 
housing  were  provided,  as  improved  health 
conditions  prevailed,  as  the  majority  saw 
that — unconsciously  perhaps  to  them — a 
real  effective  organization,  working  steadily 
but  surely  towards  a  definite,  intelligent 
end  had  been  made,  the  whole  situation 
changed  for  the  better;  and  that  the 
organization  was  effective,  the  plant  well 
designed,  the  working  plans  rightly  con- 
ceived, is  evident  from  the  fact  that  the 
construction  of  the  canal  since  the  real 
beginning  of  work  early  in  1906,  with  but 
small  addition  to  plant  in  hand,  or  under 
order,  or  material  change  in  organization, 
went  steadily  and  smoothly  on  to  com- 
pletion, with  a  rapidity  and  economy  that 
long  ago  confounded  and  silenced  carping 
criticism. 

The  work  of  the  Sanitary  Department 
was  under  the  direction  of  Colonel  (now 
General)  Gorgas.  And,  as  the  success  or 
failure  of  the  entire  work  of  building  the 
canal  rested  upon  the  underlying  basis  of 
good  health  conditions,  it  may  truthfully 
be  said  that  the  responsibilities  of  that 
department  were  of  the  first  and  prime 
importance.  Disease  and  death  would 
have  conquered  de  Lesseps  even  if  his 
finances  had  held  out.  And  they  would 
have  conquered  us,  if,  in  the  light  of 
latter-day  science,  General  Gorgas  and 
his  staff  of  able,  devoted  assistants  had 
not  so  successfully  handled  the  situation. 

There  seemed  to  exist,  unfortunately,  a 
general  feeling,  outside  of  the  medical  staff, 
that  the  work  being  inaugurated  and  car- 
ried on  by  this  department  was  largely 
experimental,  and  doubts  were  expressed 
on  all  sides  as  to  its  permanent  success. 

General  Gorgas  was  under  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  governor  of  the  zone,  who  was 
a  member  of  the  commission.  But  I  failed 
to  find  the  hearty  cooperation  to  exist 
which  was  so  necessary  to  success.  Large 


amounts  had  to  be  expended  by  the  de- 
partment, prompt  decisions  involving  big 
questions  had  to  be  made,  and  I  judged 
that  the  governor,  being,  as  indeed  we  all 
were,  totally  unacquainted  with  such  a 
problem,  had  a  natural  reluctance  in 
assuming  the  great  responsibilities  involved. 
In  fact,  the  chairman  expressed  the  opinion 
that  much  money  was  being  wasted  by  the 
department  and  seemed  inclined  rather  to 
criticise  than  to  suggest. 

In  line  with  the  policy  I  adopted,  as 
explained  later,  and  knowing  full  well  that 
all  my  efforts  would  end  in  failure,  lacking 
proper  sanitary  conditions,  I  took  the  bull 
by  the  horns,  regardless  of  regulations  or 
red  tape,  and  threw  all  the  weight  of  the 
Engineering  Department  to  the  aid  of 
General  Gorgas,  cooperating  with  him  in 
every  possible  manner. 

Labor  was  scarce  at  that  time,  but  the 
Sanitary  Department  had  the  first  call  and 
its  requisitions  for  laborers  had  preference 
over  all  others.  Without  waiting  for  orders, 
or  even  approval,  the  Engineering  Depart- 
ment built  roads,  sewers,  waterworks, 
hospitals,  and  many  other  essentials,  at 
the  request  of  General  Gorgas,  and  I  am 
certain  that  he  knows  and  appreciates  too, 
that  the  real  success  which  crowned  so 
royally  the  labors  of  his  department  began 
to  date  from  the  autumn  of  1905;  and 
while  I  know  that  the  Engineering  Depart- 
ment— during  the  period  I  was  connected 
with  it — has  justly  to  its  credit  many 
things  of  importance,  there  is  no  single  one 
of  them  all  that  I  take  more  pride  in  as 
time  goes  by  than  that  of  the  aid  and  help 
we  gave  to  the  Sanitary  Department, 
when  it  was  so  sadly  needed. 

With  the  light  of  what  I  could  plainly 
see  had  been  the  experience  of  Mr.  Wal- 
lace, I  determined  from  the  start,  or  as  soon 
as  I  could  grasp  the  significance  of  affairs, 
that  the  only  line  of  policy  that  promised 
success  was  one  of  going  ahead  and  doing 
things  on  my  own  initiative,  without  wait- 
ing for  orders  or  approval.  One  of  the 
terms  I  insisted  upon  before  I  became 
chief  engineer  was  that  I  should  be  un- 


1.  Y.  M.  C.  A.  Clubhouse  Reading  Room  at  Panama. 

2.  Group  of  Spanish  Laborers. 

3.  West  Indian  Kitchen. 


SECURING  COMMON   LABOR 


213 


hampered  in  my  work  in  any  way,  shape 
or  manner,  and  I  am  free  to  say  this  agree- 
ment was  strictly  kept.  The  distance  of 
the  commission  from  the  work  as  well 
as  its  make-up,  did  not  admit  of  any  other 
plan  of  procedure.  As  constituted,  the 
members  of  the  commission,  who  were 
civil  engineers,  were  designated  to  act  in 
an  advisory  capacity.  But  I  knew  full  well 
that  none  of  the  board  had  the  experience 
in  either  such  construction  work  or  trans- 
portation matters  that  would  qualify  them 
to  dictate  to  me  how  matters  should  be 
planned  and  handled,  and  frankly  I  deter- 
mined early  that  they  should  not. 

I  wish  candidly  to  say  that  the  commis- 
sion cheerfully,  as  far  as  I  know,  accepted 
the  situation,  cooperated  with  me  to  the 
utmost,  and  approved  formally  of  all  my 
acts.  I  was  accused  by  busy-bodies  of 
being  a  law  unto  myself,  of  having  cut  the 
cable  and  all  such  nonsense.  Not  a  word 
of  truth  in  such  talk.  The  commission 
was  always  kept  advised  by  me,  in  due 
course  of  time,  as  to  current  events  and 
what  I  had  done.  As  a  rule  I  never 
requested  approval  in  advance  for  detailed 
expenditures  in  any  line  whatever;  on  the 
Isthmus  I  went  ahead,  made  plans,  saw 
they  were  executed,  and  later  on  advised 
the  commission  in  fair  detail  what  I  had 
done,  what  I  had  expended,  and  asked 
approval,  which  was  always  quickly  given. 

In  assuming  such  responsibility  I  felt  I 
was  taking  the  only  sure  course,  although 
I  fully  realized  that  on  me,  primarily,  would 
fall  the  blame,  should  my  plans  not  develop 
into  success.  But  I  had  been  used  all  my 
life  to  accept  responsibility,  and  a  man 
who  will  not  had  better  stay  on  the  old 
farm.  The  only  true  basis  of  successful 
organization  is  the  lodging  of  authority 
and  of  responsibility  for  results.  And 
in  this  case,  after  I  had  in  a  way  under- 
stood the  plans  and  aims  of  the  Sanitary 
Department,  not  a  shadow  of  doubt 
remained  in  my  mind  as  to  ultimate  suc- 
cess of  the  great  project — provided  the 
right  type  for  the  canal  was  adopted. 

Of   the   many   important  matters  that 


pertained  wholly  to  the  Engineering  De- 
partment was  the  securing  of  the  nec- 
essary labor,  both  skilled  and  unskilled, 
to  carry  out  our  plans,  which  were  slowly 
but  surely  being  evolved.  All  common 
labor,  for  years, — for  the  Panama  Rail- 
road, and  in  fact  for  most  of  the  ports  in 
different  countries  along  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  and  Caribbean  Sea, — had  been 
black,  drawn  from  the  islands  of  the  latter. 
Such  supply  had  so  far  proven  insufficient 
in  either  amount  or  quality,  and  I  at  once 
saw  that  it  had  to  be  made  better,  if 
possible,  by  raising  its  standard,  either 
within  itself,  or  by  introducing  a  suf- 
ficient number  of  a  higher  grade  to  leaven 
the  mass. 

My  first  thought  was,  naturally,  China- 
men, as  I  had  observed  their  good  qualities 
for  years  in  railway  and  other  similar 
works  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  But,  after 
due  consideration,  through  the  commission, 
this  idea  was  dismissed  for  good  reasons. 
Then,  attention  having  been  called  to  the 
possibilities  which  Spain  offered  as  a 
source  of  supply,  I  sent  an  agent  to  Madrid 
— a  man  well  versed  in  Spanish  law  and  a 
fluent  linguist — with  orders  to  secure 
several  thousand  men  from  the  Biscayan 
provinces.  This,  after  some  difficulties, 
he  was  able  to  do  through  the  assistance 
of  the  steamship  companies.  Their  intro- 
duction as  expected  resulted  in  such  a 
marked  improvement  in  labor  conditions 
that  altogether  nearly  eight  thousand  of 
them  were  brought  over. 

At  the  same  time,  measures  were  taken 
to  provide  a  systematic  method  for  secur- 
ing an  ample  supply  of  blacks  by  estab- 
lishing agencies  in  the  various  English 
and  French  islands,  and  in  a  comparatively 
short  time  the  problem  of  the  necessary 
amount  of  common  labor  was  solved. 

All  skilled  labor  was  drawn  from  the 
United  States,  agents  for  such  purpose 
having  been  placed  in  several  of  our  large 
cities — those  that  were  centers  of  manu- 
facturing and  railway  activity.  In  spite 
of  handicaps  which  ought  never  to  have 
existed,  we  succeeded  wonderfully  well, 


214 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


and  after  due  course  of  time  were  able  to 
keep  the  ranks  full  of  all  good  classes — 
all  this  work  being  handled  directly  by  and 
through  our  organization  on  the  Isthmus. 
One  of  our  handicaps  in  securing  these 
skilled  laborers  was  the  insidious  and 
disloyal  attitude  displayed  by  some  of  our 
home  newspapers  and  magazines  in  depict- 
ing to  their  readers  the  terrible  health  and 
living  conditions  alleged  to  prevail  on  the 
Isthmus,  long  after  the  zone  had  become 
a  safer  and  healthier  place  of  residence  than 
the  very  cities  in  which  some  of  these 
papers  were  published.  The  words  of 
irresponsible  letter-writers  were  taken  in 
direct  contradiction  of  the  facts,  and 
screeds  were  eagerly  scattered  broadcast, 
poisoning  the  public  mind,  all  probably 
for  the  sake  of  sensationalism.  By  me, 
such  publications  could  only  be  given 
the  name  they  would  be  called,  if  the 
nation  was  engaged  in  a  foreign  war. 

The  system  under  which  food  supplies 
were  handled  to  the  vast  army  of  em- 
ployees was  an  amplification  of  the  plan 
under  which  the  Panama  Railroad  had 
been  supplying  necessities  to  its  men. 
But  the  enormous  expansion  in  the  de- 
mand, and  the  endless  multiplicity  of 
detail  involved,  together  with  the  securing, 
housing  and  care  of  the  force,  made  nec- 
essary the  establishment  of  the  division  of 
labor  and  quarters,  subordinate  to  the 
Engineering  Department.  This  division 
was  placed  in  charge  of  the  late  Jackson 
Smith,  under  whose  able  direction  the 
details  were  all  carefully  worked  out,  and 
the  entire  problem  solved  in  such  a  syste- 
matic manner  that  these  very  important 
matters  became  but  coordinate  parts  of 
a  well-oiled  and  smoothly  running  machine. 

As,  naturally,  the  vast  majority  of  the 
white  employees  were  bachelors,  it  became 
incumbent  on  those  in  charge  of  the  work 
to  provide,  not  only  for  their  ordinary 
living  quarters,  but  also  for  ample,  well- 
cooked  and  served  meals  for  all  classes, 
at  the  lowest  rates  that  could  consistently 
be  given.  To  this  end  hotels  and  eating 
houses  were  built,  equipped  and  put  in 


proper  running  order,  at  the  different 
localities,  wherever  necessary.  As  the 
result  of  experiments  as  to  cost  of  raw  food 
and  preparing  and  serving  it,  a  price  was 
fixed  upon  for  such  meals,  which,  after 
the  natural  discussion  and  criticism  bound 
to  follow,  was  agreed  to  as  being  fair  and 
reasonable,  and  the  system  moved  off 
satisfactorily. 

Previous  to  this  time,  I  had  discussed 
with  the  commission  at  various  times  the 
policy  of  putting  all  the  work  of  feeding 
employees  into  the  hands  of  outside  par- 
ties. We  all  realized  that  next  to  the  all- 
important  matter  of  sanitation  came  the 
problem  of  caring  for  the  material  wants 
of  our  men.  But  as  time  elapsed,  and  we 
began  to  see  light,  through  the  plans  we 
were  putting  into  effect  (those  for  handling 
the  matters  directly,  ourselves)  the  ques- 
tion of  contracting  for  the  food  was  held 
in  abeyance  until  the  success  or  failure  of 
the  experiments  I  was  trying  was  dem- 
onstrated. 

But  at  this  particular  time  the  com- 
mission made  a  contract  with  a  party, 
the  terms  of  this  contract  being  practically 
such  as  would  result  in  turning  over  to 
him  all  of  our  carefully  installed,  elaborate 
plant,  and  practically  the  welfare  of  the 
thousands  of  our  employees,  subject  to 
restrictions  and  supervision  which  in  my 
opinion  would  have  been  impracticable 
to  enforce,  and  would  have  resulted  in 
certain  trouble  and  confusion.  And  in 
addition  to  this,  the  contractor  was  to  be 
allowed  to  charge  employees  much  larger 
prices  than  our  own  system  had  demon- 
strated were  necessary. 

Immediately  I  was  advised  of  the  terms 
of  this  contract  I  registered  a  vigorous 
protest  by  cable,  with  the  effect  that  the 
chairman  and  contractor  came  to  the 
isthmus,  and  after  a  short  conference  with 
the  governor,  the  manager  of  labor  and 
quarters,  and  myself,  the  contract  was 
very  wisely  abrogated,  by  mutual  consent. 
Doubtless  the  commission  in  making  this 
contract  acted  only  for  the  best  interests 
of  the  work  from  its  point  of  view,  but 


REBUILDING  THE   RAILROAD 


215 


the  results  of  such  action,  if  carried  through, 
would  have  precipitated  only  dissatisfac- 
tion and  trouble,  resulting  in  serious  dis- 
ruption and  lowering  of  the  morale  of  the 
force,  and  would  have  certainly  produced 
large  profits  to  the  contractor  at  the 
expense  of  the  employees. 

The  reconstruction  of  the  Panama  Rail- 
road, which  was  under  my  management, 
was  a  serious  problem.  It  was  not,  at  the 
time  I  took  charge,  able  to  handle  its 
commercial  business,  with  the  additional 
traffic  already  thrown  onto  it,  and  a  very 
serious  state  of  congestion  prevailed.  Owing 
to  the  delay  in  deciding  upon  the  type  of 
the  canal,  it  was  not  possible  to  rebuild  it 
upon  a  permanent  location;  at  the  same 
time,  the  extraordinary  amount  and  variety 
of  service  it  was  called  upon  to  render 
made  quick  decision  and  vigorous  action 
necessary.  We  were  very  fortunate  in 
obtaining  the  services  of  Mr.  W.  G.  Bierd 
as  superintendent,  whose  abilities  I  had 
clearly  recognized  while  under  my  juris- 
diction in  railway  work  in  the  States. 
Plans  were  made,  the  work  of  reconstruc- 
tion pushed, — hampered  all  the  while  by 
the  necessity  of  handling  the  constantly 
increasing  traffic — until  in  1906  the  rail- 
road had  been  practically  rebuilt,  double- 
tracked,  supplied  with  all  necessary  acces- 
sories, including  those  demanded  by  food 
and  other  supply  reception  and  distribu- 
tion, and  was  fully  capable  of,  and  did 
handle  satisfactorily,  every  burden  put 
upon  it.  We  were  subjected  to  criticism 
and  fault-finding,  some  of  it  from  high 
sources,  that  should  have  been  a  help 
instead  of  an  attempted  embarrassment; 
but  I  kept  plugging  ahead,  disregarding 
and  defying  possible  consequences  to  my- 
self, until  my  judgment  was  finally  con- 
ceded to  be  confirmed  by  results. 

Meanwhile,  the  commission  had  reor- 
ganized the  very  inefficient  Purchasing  and 
Supply  Department,  placing  at  its  head, 
at  Washington,  Mr.  D.  W.  Ross,  to  whose 
able  management,  hearty  and  prompt  co- 
operation, I  can  give  only  words  of  praise. 
All  requisitions  for  supplies,  material, 


plant,  tools  and  thousands  of  different 
articles  needed  were  promptly  handled, 
and  the  Purchasing  Department  speedily 
became  a  help  of  the  right  sort,  instead 
of  the  hindrance  it  had  been  in  Mr.  Wal- 
lace's time.  In  cases  where,  owing  to 
price  or  time  of  delivery,  possible  changes 
in  specifications  looked  advisable,  the 
matter  was  taken  up  promptly  in  consulta- 
tion and  agreement  arrived  at  without 
friction,  and  in  the  conducting  of  all  busi- 
ness, particularly  through  the  supply 
stores  on  the  zone,  the  greatest  harmony 
prevailed  between  the  departments. 

In  handling  the  enormous  amounts  of 
money  required  for  payment  of  salaries 
and  wages  on  the  Isthmus,  not  only  in  the 
actual  disbursement  of  the  funds  but  the 
methods  of  timekeeping,  identification, 
etc.,  leading  up  to  the  actual  payments,  it 
required  the  skill  and  honesty  of  an  un- 
usual man — such  a  man  as  Mr.  E.  J. 
Williams,  who  was  engaged  by  the  com- 
mission for  this  work.  In  matters  of 
accounts,  etc.,  he  was  nominally  under  the 
direction  of  the  auditor  of  the  commission, 
but  for  the  care  and  legal  expenditure  of 
all  the  funds  he  was  directly  responsible 
in  the  last  analysis  only  to  the  Comptroller 
of  the  Treasury  at  Washington.  Previous 
to  Mr.  Williams  taking  charge  of  the 
disbursement  office,  things  had  not  appar- 
ently moved  smoothly  in  matters  of  detail 
on  the  work,  but  under  the  system  he  put 
in  force  satisfaction  was  given:  and  that 
this  important  feature  of  the  work  was  well 
administered  is  attested  by  the  fact  that 
his  services  were  retained  until  the  com- 
pletion of  the  canal.  Some  of  the  unnec- 
essarily elaborate  plans  for  accounting,  as 
promulgated  by  the  auditor  of  the  com- 
mission at  Washington,  caused  a  little 
friction  with  the  disbursing  office,  but 
annoyances  of  this  kind  were  not  allowed 
to  have  serious  consequences,  and  fairly 
harmonious  action  prevailed  between  the 
auditing  and  the  other  departments. 

The  organization  of  the  Engineering 
Department  was  framed  on  simple  lines, 
and  generally  the  material  of  its  personnel 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


with  few  additions  was  found  already  on 
the  Isthmus.  In  addition  to  the  staff  at 
general  headquarters,  there  was  the  Divi- 
sion of  Building  Construction — Mr.  Beld- 
ing  in  charge — under  which  plans  were 
made  and  construction  of  all  buildings  or 
other  structures  required  by  the  canal 
work  were  carried  out,  and  so  successfully 
that  once  material  began  to  arrive  in  suf- 
ficient quantities  we  were  able,  without 
serious  delay,  to  properly  house  and  care 
for  the  thousands  of  constantly  arriving 
employees.  All  the  numberless  variety  of 
buildings  required — quarters,  hospitals, 
schoolhouses,  churches,  jails,  fire  and  police 
stations,  etc.,  were  promptly  erected  and 
put  into  service.  Including  the  amounts 
used  by  the  Panama  Railroad,  over 
80,000,000  feet  of  lumber  was  brought  in 
from  gulf  ports  and  from  the  Pacific  Coast, 
and  all  used  in  the  work  of  this  division 
in  a  year  and  a  half. 

The  Division  of  Municipal  Engineering, 
under  Mr.  Holcombe,  had  in  its  charge  all 
improvements  in  the  nature  of  sewerage, 
water  supply,  paving,  street  and  road 
making,  not  only  in  Panama  and  Colon  but 
in  all  the  towns  in  the  zone.  Its  work 
covered — like  that  of  all  the  other  divisions 
— a  multitude  of  details,  which  were  well 
planned  and  executed. 

The  Division  of  Meteorology  and  River 
Hydraulics  was  under  the  late  Mr.  Arango, 
a  native  of  Panama,  who  was  technically 
educated  at  one  of  the  prominent  engineer- 
ing schools  in  the  United  States.  He  gave 
excellent  service  and  was  charged  with  the 
duties  of  conducting  all  stream  measure- 
ments, of  the  extensive  system  of  weather 
recording  stations  we  maintained,  not  only 
on  the  zone,  but  far  distant,  up  the  Chagres 
River,  nearly  to  the  Darien  country.  Its 
records  of  temperature,  rainfall,  winds, 
fluctuating  flow  of  streams  and  seismic  dis- 
turbances (which  were  slight,  and  generally 
at  long  distances  away)  were  models  of 
clearness  and  intelligence,  and  will  become 
more  and  more  valuable  as  time  goes  on. 

The  maintenance  and  operation,  as  far 
as  mechanical  features  were  concerned,  of 


all  machinery,  was  placed  under  the  charge 
of  Mr.  Brook,  as  superintendent  of  motive 
power  and  machinery.  Locomotives 
steam-shovels,  rolling  stock,  shops,  drills 
and  field  plant,  were  planned  and  buili 
under  specifications  made  by  this  division 
the  head  of  which  was  held  responsible  foi 
results.  One  interesting  feature  of  the 
work  of  this  division,  which  I  have  nevei 
seen  described  in  public  print,  was  the 
planning  and  building  of  three  immense 
air-compressing  plants,  located  at  aboui 
equal  distances  from  each  other,  fron 
which  plants  was  fed  into  a  pipe  line,  ex 
tending  along  the  entire  length  of  Culebn 
Cut  (nine  miles)  all  the  compressed  air  tha 
was  needed  to  operate  the  hundreds 
of  air  drills  employed  in  the  cut.  Th< 
able  work  of  this  division,  in  planning  th< 
necessary  plant  and  tools,  was  a  great  fac 
tor  in  enabling  the  transportation  systen 
to  be  evolved,  by  which  the  Culebra  Cu 
was  so  quickly  and  economically  taken  out 

The  preparatory  work  and  actual  con 
struction  of  the  canal  proper  was  placec 
under  three  division  engineers.  Mr.  F 
B.  Maltby's  jurisdiction  extended  fron 
deep  water  at  Colon  to  and  including  al 
works  at  Gatun  dam,  spillway  and  locks 
he  also  having  charge  of  the  constructior 
and  maintenance  and  operation  of  al 
marine  plant,  including  dredges,  tugs 
marine  shops,  etc.  He  also  planned  anc 
erected  the  elaborate  plant  which  so  sue 
cessfully  handled  the  enormous  amount  o 
masonry  which  was  used  in  the  construe 
tion  of  Gatun  locks  by  the  army  engineers 

The  work  throughout  the  famous  Cule 
bra  Cut  was  supervised  by  the  divisior 
engineer,  the  late  Mr.  D.  W.  Bolich,  whos< 
authority  extended  to  and  included  th< 
locks  at  Pedro  Miguel,  including  the  exca 
vation  and  disposal  of  all  material  from  th< 
cut,  no  matter  to  what  point  it  was  taken 
This  involved  the  application  of  the  plar 
of  track  installation  which  I  had  devisee 
for  handling  this  material,  and  which  plar 
was  followed  until  the  work  was  com 
pleted.  From  Pedro  Miguel  locks  to  deef 
water  in  the  Bay  of  Panama,  the  work  was 


MEN   WHO   DESIGNED   THE   CANAL 


217 


under  Mr.  William  Gerig  as  division 
engineer,  and  all  matters  in  connection 
with  this  section  were  handled  by  him,  the 
greater  part  being  the  dredging  of  the 
outside  channel,  together  with  the  main- 
tenance and  operation  of  marine  shops 
and  plant  on  his  division  (as  assistant  to 
Mr.  Maltby  in  the  last-mentioned  work), 
in  which  particular  lines  of  employment 
he  was  especially  qualified.  In  addition, 
he  conducted  all  of  the  vast  amount  of 
surveying  and  test  borings,  which  were 
needed  to  arrive  at  a  final  decision  as  to  the 
details  of  the  plan  of  the  canal  at  its 
southern  end. 

These  men — in  details — laid  the  founda- 
tion upon  which  was  built  up  the  structure, 
which  enabled  me  to  demonstrate  that  the 
canal  could  be  built;  and  not  only  our 
success,  but  the  success  of  those  who  fol- 
lowed us  to  the  completion  of  the  gigantic 
work,  is  debtor  to  their  intelligent,  inde- 
fatigable labors,  in  putting  into  effect  the 
general  plans  which  had  been  given  for 
their  guidance. 

I  have  not  touched  upon  the  organization 
for  operation  of  the  Panama  Railroad.  It 
was  reorganized,  and  in  some  ways  by 
drastic  treatment,  not  only  in  personnel 
but  in  methods.  Modern  systems  of 
accounting  and  store-keeping  were  in- 
stalled, and  under  the  experienced  eye  of 
Mr.  Bierd — who  was  later  made  general 
manager, — the  Panama  Railroad  became 
a  wonderfully  efficient  transportation  ma- 
chine. And  it  had  to  be,  for  the  amount 
and  variety  of  service  demanded  of  it 
cannot  be  paralleled  in  the  history  of  the 
railway  world. 

The  general  charge  of  designing  of  the 
dams,  locks  and  spillway  was  placed  in 
charge  of  Mr.  Joseph  Ripley,  whose  long 
experience,  not  only  in  the  construction, 
but  the  operation  of  canals,  made  his 
services  of  immense  value.  This  work  was 
well  inaugurated  during  1906,  and  a  staff 
of  designers,  exceptional  in  ability,  was 
selected  by  Mr.  Ripley,  who  worked  out 
all  plans  of  these  structures  as  they  were 
built,  with  few  changes,  and  which  now 


stand  as  great  monuments  to  their  creative 
genius. 

All  this  time  surveys  were  being  con- 
ducted, not  only  along  the  line  of  the 
canal  proper,  but  elsewhere  in  the  zone 
for  various  necessary  purposes,  such  sur- 
veys being  made  in  some  cases  to  verify 
and  supplement  the  records  left  by  the 
French,  but  more  to  obtain  exact  data 
required  by  our  accession  of  the  strip  of 
land  called  the  Canal  Zone.  This  work 
was  practically  continuous,  and  it  en- 
tailed upon  the  engineers  a  life  of  hard- 
ship and  danger — far  in  the  dense,  tropi- 
cal jungles,  miles  from  the  comforts  of 
zone  life,  and  from  the  protecting  minis- 
trations of  the  Sanitary  Department. 

The  general  direction  of  all  of  the  work 
of  the  Engineering  Department  was  super- 
vised and  directed  from  the  administra- 
tion building  at  Culebra,  to  which  I 
moved  all  headquarters — previously  lo- 
cated in  the  City  of  Panama.  At  Cule- 
bra, Empire,  Gorgona,  Gatun,  Paraiso 
and  Pedro  Miguel,  we  built  new  large 
towns,  supplied  with  modern  improve- 
ments, and  smaller  ones  at  many  other 
points,  of  less  importance.  A  complete 
system  of  telephones  was  installed,  so 
elaborate  that,  sitting  at  my  desk,  I 
could  without  delay  talk  not  only  with 
the  leading  officials  wherever  located  in 
the  zone,  but  also  practically  with  every 
switch  shanty  and  steam  shovel  on  the 
canal.  The  charge  of  all  office  work  at 
headquarters,  of  correspondence,  and 
largely  of  executive  matters  was  in  the 
hands  of  Mr.  E.  P.  Shannon,  my  faith- 
ful and  efficient  secretary. 

Time  and  space  will  not  here  permit 
the  mention  personally  of  the  scores  of 
other  capable,  intelligent,  hard-working 
men  who  made  up  the  staff  of  the  Engi- 
neering Department.  They  were  a  fine 
lot  of  men,  a  surprisingly  large  percent- 
age being  graduates  of  our  best  colleges 
and  high-grade  schools.  Almost  without 
exception  they  seemed  to  feel  that  the 
success  of  the  particular  part  of  the  work 
assigned  to  them  meant  the  success  of 


218 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA  CANAL 


the  whole  project,  and  with  such  a  de- 
voted, loyal  band  of  assistants  there 
could  be  but  one  result. 

It  may,  I  think,  be  fairly  assumed  from 
what  has  already  been  said  that  the 
position  of  Chief  Engineer  was  a  reas- 
onably busy  one,  but  the  conduct  and 


necessary  work  of  preparation  needed  to 
lay  a  solid  foundation  for  the  real  work  of 
building  the  canal,  but  also,  to  a  great 
extent,  the  origination,  coincident  with 
the  task  of  organization,  of  the  plans 
under  which  the  construction  of  the  canal 
itself  was  to  proceed.  ^  1  0 


direction    of    the    work    so    far  outlinedxl-i»l   remarked  previously    that    upon    my 

arrival  on  the  work,  little  of  value  had 
been  done  on  the  canal.  Doubtless  the 
old  commission,  in  deference  to  the  idiotic 
howl  about  "making  the  dirt  fly,"  had 
instructed  Mr.  Wallace  to  try  and  do  so 
with  the  means  at  hand  (for  I  am  con- 
vinced that  he,  of  his  own  volition,  would 
have  done  no  such  thing),  which  meant, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  modern  steam 
shovels,  he  had  to  resurrect  a  lot  of  old, 
small,  and  decrepit  French  plant,  and 
hammer  away  as  best  he  could.  Engines, 
cars  and  track  were  all  pitifully  ludicrous, 
and  no  progress  worth  the  name  could  be 
made.  Standing  on  one  point,  overlooking 
a  part  of  Culebra  Cut,  a  short  time  after 
my  arrival,  I  counted  seven  work  trains 
in  the  ditch,  and  all  visible  shovels  idle. 
And  all  available  forces  of  laborers  were 
trying  to  get  these  trains  on  to  the  tracks, 
an  unwise  proceeding,  for  they  were  of 
more  value  where  they  were. 

I  immediately  issued  orders  suspending 
all  and  every  effort  to  move  material  from 
the  cut,  organized  all  these  forces  into 
track  construction  gangs,  and  as  far  as 
material  was  in  hand,  laid  work  tracks  of 
heavy  rail,  properly  ballasted,  to  conform 
later  to  a  definite  plan  I  had  decided  upon, 
to  enable  the  shovels  to  work  to  the  best 
advantage,  and  the  material  to  be  moved 
most  quickly  and  cheaply.  The  commis- 
sion approved  my  action,  and  it  was 
carried  out,  and  no  more  "dirt  flew"  until 
the  proper  preparation  had  been  made. 
To  quote  from  a  letter  to  a  high  official, 
in  answer  to  a  request  for  information  on 
certain  matters,  I  said  in  relation  to  my 
policy — "that  if  anyone  in  power  realized 
the  absolute  necessity  of  thorough  prepara- 
tion along  all  lines  before  attempting  to 
do  actual  work,  he  did  not  have  the 


was  only  a  part  of  the  requirements. 
The  time  devoted  to  the  discussion  of 
the  type  of  the  proposed  canal,  both  on 
the  Isthmus  and  in  Washington,  seemed 
endless,  but  the  part  I  took  in  it,  which, 
without  conceit,  I  think  had  some  influ- 
ence in  the  decision  made,  will  ever  be 
a  source  of  gratification  to  me  person- 
ally. I  went  to  the  Isthmus  with  a 
fairly  open  mind  on  the  subject  of  type — 
if  anything,  rather  inclined  in  favor  of 
the  sea  level.  But  it  did  not  take  me 
long  to  realize  that  however  rich  and 
powerful  in  men  and  resources  the  United 
States  might  be,  the  idea  of  a  sea-level 
canal,  such  as  proposed,  was  absurd; 
that  a  practical  one  could  not  be  built 
in  any  admissible  length  of  time,  or 
without  the  expenditure  of  a  totally 
unjustifiable  amount  of  money — enough 
to  stagger  even  the  financial  ability  of 
the  nation. 

So  I  became  an  earnest  advocate  of 
the  present  completed  lock-type,  and  re- 
ported to  the  commission  strongly  in  its 
favor,  and  both  before  the  International 
Board  of  Engineers  and  committees  of 
both  House  and  Senate,  and  with  indi- 
vidual members  of  these  bodies,  ear- 
nestly urged  its  merits;  and  felt  then, 
and  do  yet,  that  the  decision  which  was 
made  in  its  favor  was  eminently  wise, 
and  that  time  will  so  fully  demonstrate. 

Visits  to  the  States,  solely  on  canal 
affairs,  took  up  much  valuable  time 
which  I  felt  could  much  better  have  been 
devoted  to  affairs  on  the  Isthmus,  but 
they  seemed  to  be  considered  necessary, 
and  were  made,  although  several  times 
under  protest.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  upon  me  fell  the  burden,  as  well  as 
the  responsibility,  of  not  only  pushing  the 


OVERCOMING   LABOR  TROUBLES 


219 


courage  of  his  convictions,  and  did  not 
put  such  a  policy  into  execution.  I  have 
endeavored  to  do  so,  and  regardless  of 
clamor  and  criticism,  I  propose  to  do  so  as 
long  as  I  am  in  charge  of  the  work.  And 
all  the  criticism,  from  any  source  what- 
ever, of  my  course  in  adopting  such  a 
policy,  will  have  no  effect  upon  me;  and 
I  am  confident  that  if  this  policy  is  adhered 
to,  the  future  will  show  its  absolute 
wisdom." 

The  bulk  of  the  common  labor  being 
of  such  a  low  rate  of  efficiency,  prompt 
consideration  of  ways  and  means  to  in- 
crease the  value  of  these  blacks  was  nec- 
essary. From  the  viewpoint  of  the  white 
man,  the  lack  of  a  sufficiently  nourishing 
diet  seemed  to  be  largely  responsible  for 
their  small  value.  So  the  experiment  was 
tried  of  furnishing  them,  at  fair  prices, 
such  raw  food  as  suited  their  needs,  and 
to  which  their  race  had  for  generations 
been  accustomed.  In  some  individual 
cases  an  improvement  was  apparent,  but 
the  fact  remained  that  the  great  bulk 
of  them  were,  to  put  it  plainly,  too  indo- 
lent to  cook  the  food,  preferring  to  eat  raw, 
such  of  it  as  they  could.  Then  we  estab- 
lished eating  stations,  or  messes,  for  all 
of  them,  at  which  places  every  one,  except- 
ing those  who  were  married  and  living  at 
their  homes,  were  obliged  to  take  their 
cooked  food,  the  cost  of  which  was  de- 
ducted from  their  wages. 

The  good  effect  of  this  move  was  at 
once  noticeable,  and  their  efficiency  in- 
creased to  a  marked  degree,  and  this 
improvement  was  enhanced  by  the  intro- 
duction of  the  Spanish,  by  showing  the 
blacks  that  they  did  not  control  the  labor 
market — as  some  sort  of  such  hazy  idea 
had  gotten  into  their  heads.  These 
negroes  are  a  childlike,  amiable  sort  of 
people,  moral,  according  to  their  standards, 
and  easy  to  control.  Those  from  the 
British  Islands  all  had  a  smattering  of 
education,  and  exhibited  it  on  every 
occasion.  One  old  man  whom  I  had  as  a 
personal  servant  well  illustrated  this 
tendency,  when  he  said:  "Mr.  Stevens  is 


a  fine  man,  we  all  love  him,  but  he  does 
not  use  good  English," — a  fact  which  the 
patient  reader  has  probably  long  since 
discovered. 

No  serious  labor  troubles  ever  occurred 
during  the  period  in  question.  One  class 
of  our  skilled  labor,  which  was  enjoying  a 
wage  scale  that,  in  addition  to  the  many 
privileges  wisely  granted  by  the  commis- 
sion, really  resulted  in  an  advance  of  more 
than  sixty  per  cent,  above  the  wages  paid 
for  similar  work  in  the  States,  demanded 
a  very  large  increase,  coupled  with  the 
usual  threat  of  a  strike,  and  as  a  matter  of 
fact  some  of  them  did  stop  working  for  a 
few  days.  This  was  rather  a  relief  to  me, 
as  we  were  overstocked  at  that  time  with 
this  class  of  men,  waiting  for  necessary 
preparatory  work  to  be  completed. 

I  refused  to  make  the  concessions 
asked,  and  plainly  told  them  that  our 
ships  were  running  light,  north-bound, 
and  would  be  glad  to  fill  up  their  passenger 
lists.  As  the  Secretary  of  War,  who  next 
to  the  President  had  supreme  authority 
over  canal  affairs,  was  on  the  Isthmus,  I 
took  up  the  matter  with  him,  and  after 
due  deliberation  he  sustained  my  position. 
The  men  went  back  to  work,  and  the  inci- 
dent was  closed  and  remained  so  during 
my  term  of  office. 

There  was  a  sporadic  attempt  to  make 
trouble  among  a  fire-eating  few  of  our 
Spanish  laborers,  but  prompt  and  drastic 
action  by  our  zone  police  put  an  end  to 
the  affair  in  an  hour.  Of  course,  there 
were  the  usual  malcontents,  always  present 
and  always  vociferous  among  so  many  men, 
but  their  influence  was  nil,  as  far  as 
results  were  concerned.  The  whole  force 
— of  all  classes  and  races — once  living  and 
health  conditions  became  normally  what 
they  should  be,  settled  down  in  a  business- 
like way,  and  affairs  moved  off  smoothly. 

Practically  an  open  door  was  kept  at 
headquarters  for  all  classes  and  grades  of 
employees.  Complaints  and  suggestions 
were  listened  to  patiently  at  all  times, 
and  adjustments  were  made  as  equably  as 
possible  and  did  exact  justice  to  all.  At 


220 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


least  one-half  of  my  time  during  daylight 
hours  was  spent — generally  on  foot — along 
the  work  and  among  the  labor  camps,  and 
my  knowledge  of  the  situation  was  gained 
very  largely  by  personal  contact,  and  not 
from  routine  reports. 

During  all  the  time  the  work  of  prepara- 
tion was  under  way,  and  coincident  with 
the  consideration  of  the  plans  under 
which  all  phases  of  the  construction  was 
to  be  carried  on,  the  question  of  the 
proper  amount  and  character  of  the  plant 
which  would  be  required  was  a  pressing 
and  vital  matter.  The  delay  in  the  deci- 
sion as  to  the  type  of  the  canal  was  a 
serious  handicap  in  deciding  all  of  these 
problems,  but  once  the  type  was  decided 
upon,  then  quick  action  was  taken.  Vast 
quantities  of  all  sorts  of  machinery  for 
all  classes  of  the  work,  from  locomotives 
to  monkey  wrenches,  track  material,  steam 
shovels,  cars,  and  a  variety  too  great  to 
even  give  a  faint  suggestion  of  here,  were 
requisitioned,  and  for  such  plants  as 
required  special  designs,  plans  and  speci- 
fications were  prepared  and  orders  were 
placed  as  soon  as  the  necessary  data  were 
available;  so  that  in  1906,  enough  plant 
and  material  had  been  assembled  to 
enable  us  to  make  a  real  start,  not  only  in 
Culebra  Cut,  but  also  at  many  other 
points  along  the  line — notably  at  Gatun 
dam  and  locks  and  at  Pedro  Miguel.  And 
the  work  thus  inaugurated  during  that 
year  went  on  without  cessation,  until  the 
completion  of  all  work  in  1914. 

The  relations  of  the  Engineering  Depart- 
ment to  the  various  departments  under 
the  charge  of  the  governor  of  the  zone  were 
pleasing  and  harmonious.  Especially  was 
this  true  as  regards  the  policing  of  the 
zone,  with  which  we  had  much  to  do.  Its 
affairs  were  admjnistered  wisely  and  firmly 
and  the  conduct  of  all  governmental  func- 
tions contributed  much  to  our  progress. 

We  were  thrown  often  into  contact  with 
the  officials  of  the  Panama  Republic, 
and  speaking  for  my  department,  I  can 
truthfully  say  that  we  found  them  a  high- 
grade  lot  of  men,  with  whom,  by  the  ordi- 


nary amenities  of  life,  the  most  cordial 
relations  could  be  maintained,  and  among 
the  many  pleasant  recollections  of  a  busy 
life  are  those  of  the  friendships  formed 
among  these  people. 

It  may  be  thought  that  in  my  references 
to  the  members  of  the  engineering  staff 
I  have  pictured  them  as  a  very  exceptional 
lot  of  men.  They  were  not;  they  were 
simply  a  group,  truly  representative  of  the 
best  type  of  educated  Americans,  who 
needed  only  to  be  shown  the  way,  and  to 
be  provided  with  the  proper  means  to 
accomplish  results;  and  they  did  so  with 
an  eye  single  only  to  the  interests  of  the 
great  project. 

I  have  spoken  of  the  apparent  lack  of  co- 
operation which  existed  between  the  vari- 
ous officials  in  1905.  To  eliminate  this 
discordant  note  I  early  instituted  weekly 
meetings,  at  which  were  present  a  repre- 
sentative of  every  department  of  the  canal, 
of  the  Panama  Railroad,  and  the  divi- 
sion engineers.  At  these  meetings  a 
general  discussion  of  all  work  in  progress 
was  taken  up,  and  whenever  such  work 
was  found  to  interfere  with,  or  to  be  not  in 
line  with  the  best  interests  of  all  depart- 
ments, adjustments  and  changes  were 
made,  so  that  these  interests  were  mutually 
provided  for.  The  same  adjustment  was 
made  of  all  work  planned  to  come  up  in 
the  immediate  future,  each  member  of 
the  council  being  called  upon  to  explain 
his  plans  and  scope  of  work,  and  then  and 
there,  any  criticisms  or  suggested  changes 
necessary  to  conserve  the  welfare  of  the 
work,  as  a  whole,  were  presented,  con- 
sidered and  finally  settled.  In  a  word, 
each  official  was  enabled  not  only  to 
get  a  clear  idea  of  the  work  of  his  asso- 
ciates and  its  relation  to  his  own,  but 
also  to  realize  that  the  interests  of  his 
department,  however  important  in  his 
eyes,  were  but  the  component  parts  of  a 
great  system,  to  the  successful  establish- 
ment of  which  all  were  mutually  interested. 
The  good  results  coming  through  these 
meetings  were  soon  apparent,  and  thence- 
forward perfect  teamwork  became  the 


1.  Lunch  time  in  Culebra  Cut;  laborers  waiting  for  the  work  trains. 

2.  Dining  room  in  one  of  the  "line"  hotels. 


1.  E.  J.  Williams,  Jr.,  paymaster  of  the  canal,  who  handled  over  $250,000,000  in  cash. 

2.  Types  of  canal  workers. 

3.  Interior  of  pay  car,  which  carried  1600  pounds  of  gold  and  24  tons  of  silver  coin  on  each  monthly  trip. 


THE  CONTRACT   PLAN   ABANDONED 


rule,  and  it  was  remarkable  how  much 
assistance  each  could  give  to  the  other 
and  to  the  advancement  of  his  own  work. 

Owing  to  the  difficulties  encountered  in 
securing  men  of  experience  for  subordinate 
positions  in  the  early  stages  of  the  work,  I 
inclined  strongly  to  the  belief  that  to 
secure  the  quickest  and  most  economical 
results  it  would  be  best  to  place  the  purely 
physical  parts  of  it  under  contract,  and 
on  my  expressing  such  views  I  was 
requested  by  the  chairman  to  outline 
formally  such  a  plan  as  I  might  deem 
practicable,  and  accordingly  I  did  so. 

A  careful  study  of  the  conditions  under 
which  any  contract  could  be  entered  into 
and  carried  out  made  me  absolutely  sure 
that,  owing  to  the  multiplicity  and  variety 
of  details  which  were  known  and  which 
must  be  considered,  there  would  enter 
into  the  problem  many  unknown  factors, 
some  of  which  it  would  not  be  practicable 
to  provide  for,  or  even  foresee,  under  any 
system  based  upon  unit  prices.  I,  there- 
fore, reverted  to  the  well-tried-out  plan 
of  contract  by  percentage,  which  plan  on 
the  whole,  when  well  conceived  and 
honestly  executed,  is  as  fair  to  all  interests 
as  can  be  devised. 

My  underlying  idea  was  that  it  might 
be  possible  to  attract  the  attention  and  co- 
operation of  strong  railroad  and  general 
contractors  in  the  United  States,  who  by 
combining  their  strength  and  influence 
could  form  a  powerful  syndicate,  one  that 
not  only  would  command  the  respect  of 
the  business  world,  but  would  easily  be 
able,  by  utilizing  their  own  well-trained 
forces  of  experts  in  all  lines  of  construction, 
to  at  once  make  up  an  organization  com- 
posed of  the  best  material  that  the  world 
afforded.  All  of  these  contractors  have  a 
following  of  such  men,  who  are  reluctant 
to  leave  their  service,  as  I  found  when 
trying  to  build  up  an  independent 
organization. 

After  serious  study  I  drew  up  a  plan 
based  upon  percentage,  under  which  I 
considered  the  interests  of  both  the  gov- 
ernment and  the  contractor  would  be 


carefully  guarded,  and  every  contingency 
possible  to  foresee  would  be  provided  for. 
By  this  plan  all  governmental  and  sanitary 
laws  and  regulations  were  to  be  undis- 
turbed, and  the  commission,  through  its 
chief  engineer,  was  to  be  to  all  intents  and 
purposes  as  much  the  dictator  and  arbiter 
as  though  the  work  was  to  be  carried  out 
by  its  own  forces. 

The  plan  was  cordially  approved  without 
modification  by  the  commission  and  con- 
sideration of  it  by  the  higher  powers  that 
were  was  given  without  delay.  But  on  a 
trip  which  I  made  soon  thereafter  to 
Washington,  I  found  that  such  changes 
and  modifications — mostly  of  a  purely 
technical  character — had  been  made,  that 
in  my  opinion  would  render  it  unattractive 
to  the  class  of  contractors  I  desired  to 
interest.  However,  bids  were  asked  and 
a  few  were  obtained,  none  of  which  were 
satisfactory  in  the  judgment  of  all — in- 
cluding myself. 

Inasmuch  as  the  objects  sought  to  be 
accomplished  had  not  been  attained,  all 
of  the  bids  were  rejected,  and  decision  was 
made  to  go  on  and  complete  the  work  with 
our  own  forces,  which  was  probably  wise. 
The  organization  had  been  so  improved 
and  perfected,  and  such  a  satisfactory 
rate  of  progress  was  being  attained,  that 
it  was  not  thought  advisable  to  incur  the 
certain  delay  and  possible  disappointment 
which  another  call  for  bids  might  entail, 
as  we  knew  we  were  certain  of  success  in 
the  handling  of  the  work,  as  it  was  then 
proceeding. 

Any  present  discussion  which  is  being 
indulged  in  as  to  the  great  superiority  of 
the  plan  under  which  the  work  was  done, 
as  compared  with  what  might  have  been 
the  result  if  it  had  been  done  under  con- 
tract, is  entirely  futile.  The  record  is 
made,  as  far  as  the  one  method  is  con- 
cerned, and  only  hypothesis  and  theory 
can  be  set  forth  in  regard  to  the  other 
method,  and  when  such  speculations  are 
made  by  parties  having  had  no  practical 
experience  in  handling  large  works  by 
percentage  contract,  their  opinion  can 


222 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA  CANAL 


have  little  weight.  I  know — from  actual 
experience  gained  through  the  expenditure 
of  many  millions — that  great  efficiency 
and  economy  will  result  from  such  methods 
properly  handled. 

In  view  of  the  many  complimentary 
remarks  passed  upon  the  organization 
that  was  finally  adopted  governing  the 
whole  work,  I  quote  below  a  letter  which 
speaks  for  itself: 

Culebra,  August  5,  1906. 
Sir:— 

In  compliance  with  your  instructions,  that  I  out- 
line  my  ideas  as  to  a  proper  organization,  that  will 
permit  the  construction  of  the  canal  to  be  carried 
out  in  the  simplest,  quickest,  and  therefore,  best 
manner,  I  have  the  honor  to  report  I  have  given 
much  thought  to  the  matter  and  to  say, — 

I  believe  that  the  power  and  responsibility  should 
be  concentrated,  not  divided;  that  the  commission, 
constituted  in  whatever  way  it  may  be,  must  practi- 
cally be  a  unit,  and  as  such,  must  resolve  itself 
into  what  will  amount  to  a  one-man  proposition. 

That  from  now  on,  everything  should  be  made 
subordinate  to  construction,  and  that, — complying, 
of  course,  with  the  law  governing, — the  members 
of  the  commission  should  be  such  men  as  will  be  in 
direct  charge  of,  and  responsible  for,  the  most  im- 
portant phases  of  the  work,  and  as  far  as  consistent, 
they  should  live  on  the  Isthmus. 

That  so  long  as  a  large  commission  must  be  main- 
tained, the  division  of  duties  to  each  other,  should 
be  clearly  denned,  and  the  chairman  should  be 
the  responsible  head. 

That  purely  Governmental  functions  should  be 
entirely  separated,  in  theory  and  practice,  from  the 
work  of  canal  building,  excepting  so  far  that  all 
officers  representing  the  United  States,  shall  under- 
stand that  the  sole  and  only  object  they  have  in 
holding  office  and  living  on  the  Isthmus,  is  to  enable 
the  United  States  to  build  and  operate  the  canal. 

I  have,  in  consultation  with  Chairman  Shonts, 
thoroughly  threshed  over  these  matters,  and  wish 
to  say  I  am  entirely  in  accord  with  him,  and  that  I 
believe  an  organization  along  the  lines  we  have  drawn 
up,  a  draft  or  outline  of  which  he  takes  to  the  States 
with  him  tomorrow,  is  the  best  and  strongest  that 
can  be  devised. 

While  the  canal  may  be  paid  for  by  the  eighty 
odd  millions  of  the  people  of  the  United  States,  the 
construction  of  it  can  be  successfully  carried  on  only 
under  the  supervision  of  a  very  limited  number  of 
them. 

Respectfully  yours, 

JNO.  F.  STEVENS, 

THE  PRESIDENT,  Chief  Engineer. 

Oyster  Bay, 

N.  Y. 

It  will  be  seen,  I  think,  that  there  is  a 
striking  similarity  in  the  suggestions  out- 
lined in  this  letter,  and  the  plan  that  was 


put  into  effect  at  a  later  date.  And  the 
remark  in  the  letter,  that  I  collaborated 
with  any  one  in  drafting  it,  was  a  polite 
fiction,  excusable  perhaps,  for  reasons  of 
policy,  which  seemed  desirable  to  maintain. 

I  have  heretofore  referred  to  the  fact 
that  I  always  had  the  approval  and  cordial 
support  of  the  commission  in  whatever  I 
undertook  and  carried  out,  and  without 
such  help,  of  course  the  results  achieved 
could  not  have  been  attained.  In  so  far 
as  this,  the  commission  is  entitled  to  great 
credit,  but  I  want  distinctly  to  state  that, 
as  far  as  the  Engineering  Department  was 
concerned,  all  its  plans,  including  the 
securing  of  labor  of  all  classes,  the  housing, 
supplying  and  feeding  of  the  same,  the 
designing  and  the  ordering  of  all  plant,  the 
conception  of  how  the  work,  both  prepara- 
tory and  permanent,  should  be  carried  out, 
were  made  and  executed  on  the  Isthmus,  by 
that  department,  within  itself,  and  not  by 
the  commission.  And  I  fail  to  recall  even 
a  suggestion  in  reference  to  any  important 
matter,  much  less  an  order,  which  was  ever 
given  out  by  that  body,  in  regard  to,  or 
governing  in  any  way,  the  methods  we 
pursued  in  planning  or  carrying  out  the 
work,  with  the  exception  of  the  one  con- 
cerning the  unfortunate  food  contract,  to 
which  I  have  alluded. 

Possibly,  such  a  policy  would  not  have 
succeeded  if  the  personnel  had  been  dif- 
ferent. I  knew  I  had  a  staff  that  could  be 
depended  upon,  not  only  to  loyally  and 
efficiently  carry  out  any  plan  given  to  it, 
but  also  to  suggest  and  originate  plans, 
when  its  members  found  that  they  were 
expected  to  do  so,  as  a  part  of  their  duties. 
And  I  have  always  been  ready,  and  I  am 
yet,  to  assume  the  entire  responsibility 
for  what  we  did,  and  to  smile  at  the 
"damning  by  faint  praise,"  and  the  efforts 
of  interested  parties  to  ignore  the  truth,  and 
to  seize  all  the  glory  that  is  so  liberally 
exhibited  to  the  public. 

During  my  time  as  chief  engineer,  I 
had  much  direct  association  with  both  the 
President  and  Secretary  of  War,  and  never 
for  a  moment  did  either  fail  to  give  me 


THE  ORGANIZATION   COMPLETE 


223 


the  most  whole-hearted  support  and  en- 
couragement. They  both  realized  the 
serious  nature  of  the  problem,  and  the  aid 
they  extended  was  of  the  greatest  service 
to  me. 

President  Roosevelt's  ideas  always  fur- 
nished food  for  thought,  and  the  suggestion 
that  we  place  our  clubhouses  under  the 
management  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  was  one 
of  his  happiest.  It  came  to  me  from  him, 
and  so  I  give  to  him  the  credit. 

Our  relations  were  always  harmonious, 
and  are  yet,  and  all  statements  to  the 
contrary,  which  have  been  published  by 
irresponsible  writers,  are  entirely  erroneous. 
I  am  betraying  no  confidence  when  I  say 
I  knew  that  under  the  plan  of  organization 
I  have  referred  to,  every  interest  would 
have  been  placed  in  my  hands,  should  I 
have  so  desired.  And  when,  for  purely 
personal  reasons,  I  tendered  my  resigna- 
tion as  chief  engineer,  I  did  it  unreservedly, 
and  not  with  any  string,  or  attempted 
bluff,  as  was  reported.  The  President  was 
not  a  man  to  be  bluffed,  even  if  my  respect 
for  his  high  office,  as  well  as  my  regard  for 
him  personally,  would  have  permitted 
any  such  preposterous  action.  My  reasons 
for  resigning  were  purely  personal,  and  for 
nothing  whatever  in  regard  to  the  canal, 
its  organization,  or  any  one  in  any  way  con- 
nected with  it. 

And,  as  to  having  been  hampered  by  so- 
called  red  tape  or  Washington  ways  of 
doing  business,  I  think  I  have  made  it 
clear  that  nothing  of  the  kind  ever  occurred 
in  my  experience.  I  have  explained  the 
relations  I  held  with  the  commission;  and 
with  the  President  and  Secretary  of  War, 
it  was  always  a  case  of  "cut  the  corners," 
to  an  extent  which  made  it  a  positive 
pleasure  to  do  business  with  them. 

The  attitude  of  the  great  majority  of  our 
newspapers  was  very  friendly  toward  us, 
when  represented  by  their  regular  cor- 
respondents, who  were  a  high-grade  class 
of  men,  and  whose  reports  were  always 
made  up  as  the  result  of  their  own  observa- 
tions. To  me  personally  they  were  more 
than  kind,  and  I  feel  that  much  of  our 


success  was  due  to  their  intelligent  work. 
They  were  free  in  criticism  when  occasion 
justified,  and  as  equally  free  in  commenda- 
tion of  methods  and  results  which  proved 
worthy. 

Of  the  work  of  Colonel  Goethals  and  his 
corps  of  efficient  assistants,  of  course 
nothing  but  words  of  praise  can  be  given. 
It  has  always  been  a  source  of  gratification 
to  me  that  the  management  of  canal 
affairs  fell  into  the  hands  of  an  able  man, 
one  who  had  the  breadth  of  mind  which 
enabled  him  to  give  credit  to  those  who 
preceded  him,  which  he  has  done  on 
many  occasions.  The  manner  in  which 
the  completion  of  the  gigantic  work  was 
carried  out  was  a  great  triumph  for 
American  men  and  methods. 

We  handed  over  to  the  army  engineers 
a  well-planned  and  built  machine,  one 
that  was  running  fairly  smoothly,  with 
perhaps  a  squeak  or  a  hot  bearing  here 
and  there,  as  is  always  inevitable  with 
new  machinery.  Improvements  in  detail 
could  be  and  were  made,  as  would  have 
been  the  case  no  matter  who  had  been  the 
engineer.  But  the  fact  remains  that  no 
radical  change  was  made  in  any  of  its 
component  parts,  and  that  it  proved  such 
a  success  was  no  surprise  whatever  to  me. 
It  was  probably  wise  to  place  the  work  in 
1907  in  the  hands  of  the  army  engineers, 
in  order  to  secure  certain  continuity  of 
supervision,  which  as  events  had  proved 
could  not  be  relied  upon  without  so  doing. 
But  it  is  well  known  to  many  that  it  would 
have  been  entirely  possible  to  have  quickly 
secured  men  in  civil  life,  who  could  have 
carried  the  work  on  as  rapidly  and  as 
economically  as  did  the  army  men. 

This  statement  does  not  imply  any  dis- 
paragement of  the  work  of  Colonel  Goe- 
thals, or  of  his  staff.  A  good  executive, 
with  an  ample  experience  in  construction, 
possessed  of  a  clear  head  and  a  strong 
arm,  could  have  turned  the  crank  and 
ground  out  as  finished  and  complete  a 
result  as  has  been  achieved.  If  I  had  not 
been  fully  aware  of  this,  when  I  resigned, 
I  should  have  remained  in  charge. 


224 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


During  the  last  year  of  my  service,  and 
at  times  since,  I  have  received  many  letters 
and  verbal  comments — all  unsolicited,  of 
course, — from  men  of  every  walk  in  life, 
all  very  complimentary  in  character  as  to 
our  work.  And  with  the  certain  penalty 
of  being  accused  of  a  lack  of  modesty,  I 
quote  one  letter  here,  as  showing  that 
occasionally  a  ray  of  light  from  the  out- 
side illumined  the  dark  places.  I  do  this, 
because  I  know  the  kind  words  were 
intended  to  apply,  not  so  much  to  me 
personally,  as  to  the  Engineering  Depart- 
ment, of  which  I  happened  to  be  the  head. 
And  while  it  is  a  voice  from  the  Great 
Beyond,  it  will  appeal  to  many  who  knew 
the  writer  to  be  sincere  in  whatever  he 

oo i/H  • 

Hotel  Tivoli,  Ancon,  Canal  Zone, 

March  16,  1906. 
Mr.  John  F.  Stevens. 

Dear  Sir:  Fearing  I  may  not  see  you  before  we 
sail,  I  want  to  write  a  word  of  appreciation  of  your 
splendid  work  here  on  the  Isthmus.  I  had  not  the 
faintest  conception  of  it  before  I  came  here. 


I  can  imagine  something  of  the  chaos  that  existed 
when  you  came  here;  but  the  order  which  you  have 
brought  out  of  the  confusion  is  marvelous.  Your 
organization  is  most  complete.  You  have  proven 
yourself  not  only  an  engineer  of  the  highest  rank, 
but  an  able  and  thorough  executive.  The  world 
will  some  day  realize  the  debt  of  gratitude  it  owes  to 
John  F.  Stevens. 

With  best  wishes  for  your  future,  I  am, 
Yours  very  truly, 

SERENO  E.  PAYNE. 

In  looking  back  over  the  events  which 
took  place  during  my  time  of  service  with 
the  Panama  Canal,  and  of  which  I  had  a 
hand  in  shaping,  I  can  see  some  which 
could  have  been  better  met,  and  many 
that  satisfy  me  in  their  outcome.  And  I 
know  full  well  that  when  all  motives, 
actions  and  results  are  subjected  to  the 
melting  pot  of  time,  when  "the  tumult  and 
the  shouting  dies,  the  Captains  and  the 
Kings  depart,"  each  and  every  one  who 
had  his  share,  small  or  great,  in  the  won- 
derful enterprise,  will  be  given  the  true  place 
in  history  to  which  his  work  entitles  him. 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII 


HOW   THE   UNITED   STATES   ACQUIRED   THE    RIGHT   TO    DIG   THE 

PANAMA   CANAL* 

FORMER  PRESIDENT  ROOSEVELT'S  OWN  VERSION  OF  His  NEGOTIATIONS  WITH  COLOM- 
BIA— DEALINGS  WITH  THE  FRENCH  COMPANY — COLOMBIA  REJECTS  HAY- 
HERRAN  TREATY — REVOLUTION  AT  PANAMA  A  FOREGONE  CONCLUSION — 
AMERICAN  NAVAL  FORCES  KEEP  TRANSIT  OPEN  AND  PREVENT  COLOMBIAN 
TROOPS  FROM  LANDING — NEW  REPUBLIC  RECOGNIZED  AND  TREATY  CON- 
CLUDED WITH  IT — UNITED  STATES  OFFERS  COMPENSATION  TO  COLOMBIA 
THROUGH  A  TRIPARTITE  TREATY,  WHICH  COLOMBIA  REJECTS. 

BY  THEODORE  ROOSEVELT 


NO  OTHER  great  work  now  being 
carried  on  throughout  the  world  is 
of  such  far-reaching  and  lasting  im- 
portance as  the  Panama  Canal.  Never 
before  has  a  work  of  this  kind  on  so 
colossal  a  scale  been  attempted.  It  is 
worth  while  to  remember  just  how  it  was 
that  America  won  for  itself  and  the  world 
the  right  to  do  a  world-job  which  had  to  be 
done  by  some  one,  and  the  doing  of  which 
by  anyone  else  would  have  been  not  merely 
a  bitter  mortification  but  a  genuine 
calamity  to  our  people. 

On  December  7,  1903,  and  again  on 
January  4,  1904,  as  President  of  the  United 
States,  in  messages  to  the  two  houses  of 
Congress,  I  set  forth  in  full  and  in  detail 
every  essential  fact  connected  with  the 
recognition  of  the  Republic  of  Panama,  the 
negotiation  of  a  treaty  with  that  Republic 
for  building  the  Panama  Canal,  and  the 
actions  which  led  up  to  that  negotiation — 
actions  without  which  the  canal  could  not 
have  been  built,  and  would  not  have  been 
even  begun.  Not  one  important  fact  was 
omitted,  and  no  fact  of  any  importance 
bearing  upon  the  actions  or  negotiations  of 
the  representatives  of  the  United  States 
not  there  set  forth  has  been,  or  ever  will  be, 
discovered,  simply  because  there  is  none 
to  discover.  It  must  be  a  matter  of  pride 
to  every  honest  American,  proud  of  the 


*By  special  permission  of  the  Outlook  Company  and  Theodore 
Roosevelt. 


good  name  of  his  country,  that  the  acquisi- 
tion of  the  canal  and  the  building  of  the 
canal,  in  all  their  details,  were  as  free 
from  scandal  as  the  public  acts  of  George 
Washington  and  Abraham  Lincoln. 

The  facts  were  set  forth  in  full  at  the 
time  in  the  two  messages  to  which  I  have 
referred.  I  can  only  recapitulate  them 
briefly,  and  in  condensed  form.  Of  course 
there  was  at  the  time,  and  has  been  since, 
much  repetition  of  statements  that  I  acted 
in  an  "unconstitutional"  manner,  that  I 
"usurped  authority"  which  was  not  mine. 
These  were  the  statements  that  were  made 
again  and  again  in  reference  to  almost  all 
I  did  as  President  that  was  most  beneficial 
and  most  important  to  the  people  of  this 
country,  to  whom  I  was  responsible,  and 
of  whose  interests  I  was  the  steward.  The 
simple  fact  was,  as  I  have  elsewhere  said, 
that  when  the  interest  of  the  American 
people  imperatively  demanded  that  a  cer- 
tain act  should  be  done,  and  I  had  the 
power  to  do  it,  I  did  it  unless  it  was  spe- 
cifically prohibited  by  law,  instead  of 
timidly  refusing  to  do  it  unless  I  could  find 
some  provision  of  law  which  rendered  it 
imperative  that  I  should  do  it.  In  other 
words,  I  gave  the  benefit  of  the  doubt  to 
the  people  of  the  United  States,  and  not 
to  any  group  of  bandits,  foreign  or  domes- 
tic, whose  interests  happened  to  be  adverse 
to  those  of  the  people  of  the  United  States. 
In  my  judgment,  history  had  taught  the 


225 


226 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


lesson  that  the  President  has  very  great 
powers  if  he  chooses  to  exercise  those 
powers;  but  that,  if  he  is  a  timid  or  selfish 
man,  afraid  of  responsibility  and  afraid 
of  risks,  he  can  of  course  manufacture  in- 
genious excuses  for  failure  to  exercise  them. 
At  a  great  crisis  in  American  history  Mr. 
Buchanan  had  shown  himself  to  belong  to 
the  latter  type  of  President;  Mr.  Lincoln 
had  represented  the  other  type,  the  type 
which  gave  the  people  the  benefit  of  the 
doubt,  which  was  not  afraid  to  take  respon- 
sibility, which  used  in  large  fashion  for  the 
good  of  the  people  the  great  powers  of  a 
great  office.  I  very  strongly  believed  that 
Abraham  Lincoln  had  set  the  example 
which -it  was  healthy  for  the  people  of  the 
United  States  that  other  Presidents  should 
follow. 

For  many  years  prior  to  1903  our  Govern- 
ment had  been  negotiating  with  foreign 
powers  to  provide  for  the  building  of  a 
Panama  Canal.  By  1902,  on  the  con- 
clusion of  the  Hay-Pauncefote  Treaty,  we 
had  cleared  the  way  sufficiently  to  enable 
Congress  to  pass  an  Act  actually  providing 
for  the  construction  of  a  canal  across  the 
isthmus.  By  this  Act  the  President  was 
authorized  to  secure  for  the  United  States 
the  property  of  the  French  Panama  Canal 
Company  and  the  perpetual  control  of  a 
strip  of  territory  across  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama  from  the  Republic  of  Colombia 
within  a  reasonable  time  and  at  a  reason- 
able price,  and,  if  the  endeavor  failed,  the 
adoption  of  the  Nicaragua  route  was 
authorized. 

In  October  and  November,  1903,  events 
occurred  on  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  which 
enabled  me,  and  which  made  it  my  highest 
duty  to  the  people  of  the  United  States,  to 
carry  out  the  provisions  of  the  law  of  Con- 
gress. I  did  carry  them  out,  and  the  canal 
is  now  being  built  because  of  what  I  thus 
did.  It  is  also  perfectly  true  that,  if  I  had 
wished  to  shirk  my  responsibility,  if  I  had 
been  afraid  of  doing  my  duty,  I  could  have 
pursued  a  course  which  would  have  been 
technically  defensible,  which  would  have 
prevented  criticism  of  the  kind  that  has 


been  made,  and  which  would  have  left 
the  United  States  no  nearer  building  the 
canal  at  this  moment  than  it  had  been  for 
the  preceding  half-century.  If  I  had 
observed  a  judicial  inactivity  about  what 
was  going  on  at  the  isthmus,  had  let  things 
take  their  course,  and  had  then  submitted 
an  elaborate  report  thereon  to  Congress, 
I  would  have  furnished  the  opportunity  for 
much  masterly  debate  in  Congress,  which 
would  now  be  going  on — and  the  canal 
would  still  be  fifty  years  in  the  future. 

The  interests  of  the  American  people 
demanded  that  I  should  act  just  exactly 
as  I  did  act;  and  I  would  have  taken  the 
action  I  actually  did  take  even  though  I 
had  been  certain  that  to  do  so  meant  my 
prompt  retirement  from  public  life  at  the 
next  election;  for  the  only  thing  which 
makes  it  worth  while  to  hold  a  big  office 
is  taking  advantage  of  the  opportunities 
the  office  offers  to  do  some  big  thing  that 
ought  to  be  done  and  is  worth  doing. 

Under  the  terms  of  the  Act  the  Govern- 
ment finally  concluded  a  very  advantageous 
agreement  with  the  French  Canal  Company. 
The  French  Company  had  spent  enormous 
sums  on  the  isthmus.  We  felt  justified  in 
paying  the  company  only  a  very  small 
fraction  of  what  it  had  thus  spent.  The 
treaty  we  made  was  advantageous  to  us 
in  a  very  high  degree,  and  we  got  what  in 
value  was  much  more  than  what  we  paid 
for  it;  but  the  French  Company  did  get 
something,  and  if  we  had  not  stepped  in  it 
would  have  gotten  absolutely  nothing. 
Every  step  taken  by  the  Government  in 
connection  with  its  negotiations  with  the 
French  Company  and  the  payment  to  its 
official  representatives  in  accordance  with 
the  agreement  entered  into  was  taken  with 
the  utmost  care,  and  every  detail  has  been 
made  public.  Every  action  taken  was  not 
merely  proper,  but  was  carried  out  in 
accordance  with  the  highest,  finest,  and 
nicest  standards  of  public  and  governmental 
ethics.  Doubtless  in  Paris,  and  perhaps 
to  a  lesser  extent  in  New  York,  there  were 
speculators  who  bought  and  sold  in  the 
stock  market  with  a  view  to  the  varying 


NEGOTIATIONS  WITH  THE  FRENCH 


227 


conditions  apparent  from  time  to  time  in 
the  coarse  of  the  negotiations,  and  with 
a  view  to  the  probable  outcome  of  the 
negotiations.  This  was  precisely  what 
speculators  did  in  England  in  connection 
with  the  outcome  of  the  Battle  of  Waterloo, 
and  in  our  own  country  in  connection  with 
Abraham  Lincoln's  issuance  of  the  Emanci- 
pation Proclamation  and  other  acts  during 
the  Civil  War. 

The  rights  of  the  French  Company 
having  been  acquired,  and  the  difficul- 
ties caused  by  our  previous  treaties 
having  been  removed  by  the  Hay-Paunce- 
fote  Treaty,  there  remained  only  the  negoti- 
ations with  the  Republic  of  Colombia,  then 
in  possession  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 
Under  the  Hay-Pauncefote  Treaty  it  had 
been  explicitly  provided  that  the  United 
States  should  build,  control,  police,  and 
"protect"  (which  incidentally  means  to 
fortify)  the  canal.  The  United  States 
thus  assumed  complete  responsibility  for, 
and  guaranteed  the  building  of,  the  canal. 
Nearly  fifty  years  before,  our  Government 
had  announced  that  it  would  not  permit 
the  country  in  possession  of  the  isthmus 
"  to  close  the  gates  or  interfere"  with  open- 
ing one  of  the  "great  highways  of  the 
world,"  or  to  justify  such  an  act  by  the 
pretension  that  this  avenue  of  trade  and 
travel  belonged  to  that  country  and  that 
it  chose  to  shut  it.  We  had  always  insisted 
upon  the  doctrine  thus  declared,  and  at 
last  the  time  had  come  when  I  could  reduce 
it  to  action.  We  negotiated  with  the 
representatives  of  Colombia  a  treaty  for 
building  the  canal,  a  treaty  which  granted 
to  Colombia  even  greater  advantages  than 
were  subsequently  granted  to  the  Republic 
of  Panama,  a  treaty  so  good  that  after  it 
had  been  rejected  by  Colombia,  and  after 
we  had  recognized  Panama,  Colombia 
clamored  for  leave  to  undo  the  past  and 
enter  into  the  treaty.  But  the  Colombian 
Government,  for  reasons  which,  I  regret 
to  say,  were  apparently  very  bad  indeed, 
declined  to  consummate  the  treaty  to 
which  their  representatives  had  agreed. 
The  Isthmus  of  Panama  was  then  a  part 


of  the  Colombian  Republic,  and  the  repre- 
sentatives of  Panama  in  the  Colombian 
Legislature  at  once  warned  Colombia  that 
the  people  of  Panama  would  not  submit 
quietly  to  what  they  regarded  as  an  utter 
ignoring  of  their  vital  interests.  We  also, 
courteously  and  diplomatically,  but  em- 
phatically, called  the  attention  of  the 
Colombia  representatives  to  the  very 
serious  trouble  they  were  certain  to  bring 
upon  themselves  if  they  persisted  in  their 
action.  I  felt  very  strongly  that  the  posi- 
tion that  the  one-time  Secretary  of  State, 
Cass,  had  taken  nearly  fifty  years  before 
was  the  proper  position,  and  that  the 
United  States  would  be  derelict  to  its  duty 
if  it  permitted  Colombia  to  prevent  the 
building  of  the  Panama  Canal.  I  was  pre- 
pared, if  necessary,  to  submit  to  Congress 
a  recommendation  that  we  should  proceed 
with  the  work  in  spite  of  Colombia's  oppo- 
sition, and  indeed  had  prepared  a  rough 
draft  of  a  message  to  that  effect,  when 
events  on  the  isthmus  took  such  shape  as 
to  change  the  problem. 

The  isthmus  was  seething  with  revolu- 
tionary spirit.  The  central  government  of 
the  Republic  of  Colombia  was  inefficient 
and  corrupt.  Lawlessness  had  long  been 
dominant  in  every  branch.  During  a 
period  of  something  like  seventy  years  there 
had  been  only  one  or  two  instances  in  which 
a  president  had  served  out  his  term.  The 
republic  had  repeatedly  undergone  internal 
convulsions  which  completely  changed  its 
aspect.  Our  Government  first  entered  into 
a  treaty  with  the  possessors  of  the  isthmus 
of  Panama  in  1846.  At  that  time  the  na- 
tion with  which  we  treated  was  known  as 
New  Granada.  After  a  while  New  Granada 
split  up  and  the  Republic  of  Colombia, 
another  confederation,  took  its  place;  and 
Panama  was  at  one  time  a  sovereign  state 
and  at  another  time  a  mere  department  of 
the  consecutive  confederations  known  as 
Colombia  and  New  Granada.  In  addition 
to  scores  of  revolutions  which  affected  suc- 
cessively New  Granada  and  Colombia  as  a 
whole,  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  during  fifty- 
seven  years  saw  fifty-three  revolutions, 


228 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


rebellions,  insurrections,  civil  wars,  and 
other  outbreaks;  some  of  the  revolutions 
being  successful,  some  unsuccessful;  one 
civil  war  lasting  nearly  three  years,  and 
another  nearly  a  year.  Twice  there  had 
been  attempted  secessions  of  Panama,  and 
on  six  different  occasions  the  marines  and 
sailors  from  United  States  war-ships  were 
forced  to  land  on  the  isthmus  in  order  to 
protect  property  and  to  see  that  transit 
across  the  isthmus  was  kept  clear,  a  duty 
we  were  by  treaty  required  to  perform, 
for  by  treaty  we  already  possessed  and 
exercised  on  the  isthmus  certain  proprie- 
tary rights  and  sovereign  powers  which  no 
other  nation  possessed.  On  four  different 
occasions  the  Government  of  Colombia 
itself  requested  the  landing  of  troops  to 
protect  its  interests  and  to  maintain  order 
on  the  isthmus — the  order  which  it  was 
itself  incompetent  to  maintain.  On  sev- 
eral different  occasions  only  the  attitude 
of  the  United  States  prevented  European 
powers  from  interfering  on  the  isthmus.  In 
short,  Colombia  had  shown  itself  utterly 
incompetent  to  perform  the  ordinary  gov- 
ernmental duties  expected  of  a  civilized 
state;  and  yet  it  refused  to  permit  the 
building  of  the  canal  under  conditions 
which  would  have  perpetuated  its  control 
of  the  isthmus,  and  which  would  at  the 
same  time  have  put  a  stop  to  what  can 
legitimately  be  called  government  by  a  suc- 
cession of  banditti.  The  United  States 
would  have  shown  itself  criminal,  as  well  as 
impotent,  if  it  had  longer  tolerated  this 
condition  of  things. 

I  was  prepared  to  advocate  our  openly 
avowing  that  the  position  had  become  in- 
tolerable, and  that,  in  pursuance  of  our 
duty  to  ourselves  as  well  as  to  the  world, 
we  should  begin  the  building  of  the  canal. 
But  my  knowledge — a  knowledge  which, 
as  regards  most  of  the  essential  points,  was 
shared  by  all  intelligent  and  informed 
people — of  the  feeling  on  the  isthmus  was 
such  that  I  was  quite  prepared  to  see  the 
people  of  the  isthmus  themselves  act  in 
such  a  way  as  to  make  our  task  easier. 
They  felt  that  it  was  of  vital  importance 


to  them  to  have  the  canal  built,  for  they 
would  be  its  greatest  beneficiaries;  and 
therefore  they  felt  such  bitter  indignation 
at  Colombia's  indifference  to  their  interests 
and  refusal  to  permit  the  fruition  of  their 
hopes  that  among  them  there  was  a  literally 
unanimous  desire  for  independence.  Not 
only  was  there  not  a  single  man  on  the 
isthmus  who  wished  to  perpetuate  Colom- 
bian control,  but  all  Colombians  sent  hither, 
even  the  soldiers,  after  a  very  short  resi- 
dence grew  to  share  the  desire  of  all  Pana- 
mans  for  the  establishment  of  a  separate 
republic.  Hitherto  the  knowledge  that  the 
United  States  would  interfere  to  stop  all 
disturbances  on  the  isthmus  that  inter- 
rupted traffic  across  it  had  resulted  to  the 
benefit  of  Colombia;  and  it  was  this 
knowledge  that  had  been  the  chief  pre- 
ventive of  revolutionary  outbreak.  The 
people  of  Panama  now  found  themselves  in 
a  position  in  which  their  interests  were 
identical  with  the  interests  of  the  United 
States;  for  the  Government  of  Colombia, 
with  elaborate  care,  and  with  a  short- 
sightedness equal  to  its  iniquity,  had  fol- 
lowed out  to  its  end  the  exact  policy  which 
rendered  it  morally  impossible  as  well  as 
morally  improper  for  the  United  States  to 
continue  to  exercise  its  power  in  the  interest 
of  Colombia,  and  against  its  own  interest 
and  the  interest  of  Panama.  There  was 
no  need  for  any  outsider  to  excite  revolu- 
tion in  Panama.  There  were  dozens  of 
leaders  on  the  isthmus  already  doing  their 
best  to  excite  revolution.  It  was  not  a 
case  of  lighting  a  fuse  that  would  fire  a 
mine — there  were  dozens  of  such  fuses 
being  lit  all  the  time;  it  was  simply  a  case 
of  its  ceasing  to  be  the  duty  of  the  United 
States  to  stamp  on  these  fuses,  or  longer  to 
act  in  the  interest  of  those  who  had  become 
the  open  and  malignant  foes  of  the  United 
States — and  of  civilization  and  of  the  world 
at  large. 

Every  man  who  read  the  newspapers 
knew  that  with  the  failure  of  Colombia  to 
ratify  the  Hay-Herran  Treaty  revolution- 
ary attempts  became  imminent  on  the 
isthmus.  The  papers  published  on  the 


•ill  1 1  IIP 

inn 


-i-  r-  I""1" 

te  L  ... 


1.  Hotel  Washington  at  Colon. 

2.  Panama  Railroad  Station  at  Panama. 

3.  Hotel  Tivoli,  at  Ancon,  social  headquarters  on  the  Isthmus. 


ISTHMUS  RIPE  FOR  REVOLUTION 


229 


isthmus  themselves  contained  statements 
that  these  revolutions  were  about  to  occur, 
and  these  statements  were  published  in  the 
Washington  and  New  York  and  New 
Orleans  papers.  From  these  published 
statements  it  appeared  that,  if  the  canal 
treaty  fell  through,  a  revolution  would  in 
all  probability  follow,  that  hundreds  of 
stacks  of  arms  were  being  imported,  that 
the  government  forces  in  Panama  and 
Colon  were  themselves  friendly  to  the 
revolution,  and  that  there  were  several  dis- 
tinct and  independent  centers  of  revolu- 
tionary activity  on  the  isthmus.  It  was 
also  announced  that  the  government  at 
Colombia  was  hurrying  preparations  to 
send  troops  to  Panama  to  put  down  the 
revolution.  Of  course  I  did  not  have  to 
rely  merely  upon  what  I  saw  in  the  news- 
papers. /  From  various  sources  I  had  gath- 
ered enough  to  satisfy  me  that  the  situa- 
tion was  at  least  as  bad  as  the  papers  de- 
picted it.  Through  two  army  officers  who 
had  visited  the  isthmus  in  September  I 
gained  concrete  and  definite  information. 
They  informed  me  that,  owing  to  the  dis- 
satisfaction because  of  the  failure  of  Colom- 
bia to  ratify  the  Hay-Herran  Treaty,  a 
revolution  was  certain  to  break  out  on  the 
isthmus,  and  that  the  people  were  in  favor 
of  it,  and  that  it  might  be  expected  imme- 
diately on  the  adjournment  of  the  Colom- 
bian Congress  without  ratification  of  the 
treaty.  In  response  to  my  questioning, 
they  said  they  were  certain  that  a  revolu- 
tion— several  different  revolutionary  move- 
ments were  being  planned  independently 
of  one  another — would  occur  immediately 
after  the  adjournment  of  the  Colombian 
Congress  in  October;  while  on  the  isthmus 
they  had  calculated  that  it  would  not  occur 
until  after  October  20,  because  not  until 
then  would  a  sufficient  quantity  of  arms 
and  munitions  have  been  landed  to  supply 
the  revolutionaries.  Acting  in  view  of  all 
these  facts,  I  sent  various  naval  vessels  to 
the  isthmus.  The  orders  to  the  American 
naval  officers  were  to  maintain  free  and  un- 
interrupted transit  across  the  isthmus,  and, 
with  that  purpose,  to  prevent  the  landing 


of  armed  forces  with  hostile  intent  at  any 
point  within  fifty  miles  of  Panama.  These 
orders  were  precisely  such  as  had  been 
issued  again  and  again  in  preceding  years 
— 1900,  1901,  and  1902,  for  instance.  They 
were  carried  out.  Their  necessity  was  con- 
clusively shown  by  the  fact  that  a  body  of 
Colombian  troops  had  landed  at  Colon  and 
threatened  a  reign  of  terror,  announcing 
their  intention  of  killing  all  the  American 
citizens  in  Colon.  The  prompt  action  of 
Captain  Hubbard,  of  the  gunboat  Nash- 
ville, prevented  this  threat  from  being  put 
into  effect;  he  rescued  the  imperiled  Ameri- 
cans, and  finally  persuaded  the  Colombian 
troops  to  reembark  and  peacefully  return 
to  Colombia. 

With  absolute  unanimity  the  people  of  the 
isthmus  declared  themselves  an  independ- 
ent republic,  and  offered  immediately  to 
conclude  with  our  Government  the  treaty 
which  Colombia  had  rejected,  and  to  make 
its  terms  somewhat  more  favorable  to  the 
United  States.  No  bloodshed  whatever 
had  occurred,  and  it  could  not  occur  unless 
we  permitted  Colombian  troops  to  land. 
The  Republic  of  Panama  was  the  de  jacto 
government,  and  there  was  no  other  on  the 
isthmus.  There  were  therefore  two  courses 
open  to  us.  One  was  to  turn  against  the 
people  who  were  our  friends,  to  abandon 
them,  and  permit  the  people  who  were  our 
foes  to  reconquer  Panama  with  frightful 
bloodshed  and  destruction  of  property,  and 
thereby  to  reestablish  and  perpetuate  the 
anarchic  despotism  of  the  preceding  fifty 
years — inefficient,  bloody,  and  corrupt. 
The  other  course  was  to  let  our  foes  pay 
the  penalty  of  their  own  folly  and  iniquity 
and  to  stand  by  our  friends,  and,  as  an 
incident,  to  prevent  all  bloodshed  and  dis- 
turbance on  the  isthmus  by  simply  noti- 
fying Colombia  that  it  would  not  be  per- 
mitted to  land  troops  on  Panama.  Of 
course  we  adopted  the  latter  alternative. 
To  have  adopted  any  other  course  would 
have  been  an  act  not  merely  of  unspeakable 
folly  but  of  unspeakable  baseness;  it  would 
have  been  even  more  ridiculous  than  in- 
famous. We  recognized  the  Republic  of 


230 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


Panama.  Without  firing  a  shot  we  pre- 
vented a  civil  war.  We  promptly  negoti- 
ated a  treaty  under  which  the  canal  is  now 
being  dug.  In  consequence  Panama  has 
for  eight  years  enjoyed  a  degree  of  peace 
and  prosperity  which  it  had  never  before 
enjoyed  during  its  four  centuries  of  troubled 
existence.  Be  it  remembered  that  unless 
I  had  acted  exactly  as  I  did  act  there 
would  now  be  no  Panama  Canal.  It  is 
folly  to  assert  devotion  to  an  end,  and  at 
the  same  time  to  condemn  the  only  means 
by  which  the  end  can  be  achieved.  Every 
man  who  at  any  stage  has  opposed  or  con- 
demned the  action  actually  taken  in  acquir- 
ing the  right  to  dig  the  canal  has  really  been 
the  opponent  of  any  and  every  effort  that 
could  ever  have  been  made  to  dig  the  canal. 
Such  critics  are  not  straightforward  or 
sincere  unless  they  announce  frankly  that 
their  criticism  of  methods  is  merely  a  mask, 
and  that  at  bottom  what  they  are  really 
criticising  is  having  the  canal  dug  at  all. 

The  United  States  has  done  very  much 
more  than  its  duty  to  Colombia.  Although 
Colombia  had  not  the  slightest  claim  to 
consideration  of  any  kind,  yet,  in  the  inter- 
ests of  Panama,  and  so  as  to  close  all  pos- 
sible grounds  of  dispute  between  Panama 
and  Colombia,  the  United  States  some 
time  ago  agreed  to  a  tri-party  treaty  be- 
tween herself,  Colombia,  and  Panama,  by 
which,  as  a  simple  matter  of  grace  and  not 
of  right,  adequate  and  generous  compensa- 
tion would  have  been  given  Colombia  for 
whatever  damage  she  had  suffered;  but 
Colombia  refused  to  agree  to  the  treaty. 
On  this  occasion,  in  my  judgment,  the 
United  States  went  to  the  very  verge 
of  right  and  propriety  in  the  effort  to 
safeguard  Panama's  interests  by  making 
Colombia  feel  satisfied.  There  was  not 
the  slightest  moral  obligation  on  the 
United  States  to  go  as  far  as  she  went ;  and 
at  the  time  it  seemed  to  me  a  grave  ques- 
tion whether  it  was  not  putting  a  premium 
upon  international  blackmail  to  go  so  far. 
Certainly  nothing  more  should  be  done. 
There  is  no  more  reason  for  giving  Colombia 
money  to  soothe  her  feelings  for  the  loss 


of  what  she  forfeited  by  her  misconduct  in 
Panama  in  1903  than  for  giving  Great 
Britain  money  for  what  she  lost  in  1776. 
Moreover,  there  is  always  danger  that  in 
such  cases  an  act  of  mere  grace  and  gener- 
osity may  be  misinterpreted  by  the  very 
people  on  whose  behalf  it  is  performed,  and 
treated  as  a  confession  of  wrongdoing. 
We  are  now  so  far  away  from  1776  that 
this  objection  does  not  apply  in  that  case, 
and  there  would  be  no  particular  reason 
why  any  sentimental  persons  who  feel  so 
inclined  should  not  agitate  to  have  Great 
Britain  paid  for  the  nervous  strain  and 
loss  of  property  consequent  upon  our  ac- 
tion in  that  year  and  the  immediately  sub- 
sequent years.  But  we  are  still  too  near 
the  Panama  incident  to  be  entirely  certain 
that  base  people  would  not  misunderstand 
our  taking  such  action  in  her  case;  and 
as  there  was  literally  and  precisely  as  much 
moral  justification  for  what  we  did  in 
Panama  in  1903  as  for  what  we  did  in  our 
own  country  in  1776 — and  indeed  even 
more  justification — it  is  as  foolish  now  to 
claim  that  Colombia  is  entitled,  or  ever 
has  been  entitled,  to  one  dollar  because 
of  that  transaction  as  to  claim  that  Great 
Britain  is  entitled  to  be  compensated  be- 
cause of  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
Not  only  was  the  course  followed  as 
regards  Panama  right  in  every  detail  and 
at  every  point,  but  there  could  have  been 
no  variation  from  this  course  except  for 
the  worse.  We  not  only  did  what  was 
technically  justifiable,  but  we  did  what  was 
demanded  by  every  ethical  consideration, 
national  and  international.  We  did  our 
duty  by  the  world,  we  did  our  duty  by  the 
people  of  Panama,  we  did  our  duty  by 
ourselves.  We  did  harm  to  no  one  save 
as  harm  is  done  to  a  bandit  by  a  policeman 
who  deprives  him  of  his  chance  for  black- 
mail. The  United  States  has  many  honor- 
able chapters  in  its  history,  but  no  more 
honorable  chapter  than  that  which  tells 
of  the  way  in  which  our  right  to  dig  the 
Panama  Canal  was  secured  and  of  the 
manner  in  which  the  work  itself  has  been 
carried  out. 


CHAPTER   XXXIX 


PANAMA  CANAL  LEGISLATION 

REASONS  FOR  CONSTRUCTING  THE  CANAL — THE  SPOONER  ACT — AUTHORITY  FOR  PUR- 
CHASE OF  CANAL  PROPERTY  AND  ACQUISITION  OF  CANAL  ZONE — ALTERNATE 
ROUTE  AUTHORIZED — REVOLUTION  OF  PANAMA  RESULTS  IN  NEW  TREATY 
— CONGRESS  APPROPRIATES  MONEY — PROVIDES  FOR  A  LOCK  CANAL — FORTI- 
FICATIONS AUTHORIZED — PERMANENT  GOVERNMENT  ACT — CANAL  COMMIS- 
SION SUPERSEDED — PRESIDENT  AUTHORIZED  TO  Fix  TOLLS — FAR-REACHING 
LEGISLATION  AFFECTING  RAILROAD-OWNED  VESSELS  AND  POWERS  OF  INTER- 
STATE COMMERCE  COMMISSION — CONTROVERSY  OVER  TOLLS  ON  AMERICAN 
COASTWISE  VESSELS — THE  REPEAL  ACT — FOREIGN  VESSELS  ADMITTED  TO 
AMERICAN  REGISTRY. 

BY  J.  HAMPTON  MOORE 
Member  of  Congress  from  Pennsylvania 


BY    what    legal     processes    did     the 
United  States  come  to   secure  pos- 
session of  the  Panama  Canal   prop- 
erty and  what  means  did  it  employ  to 
complete  the  work  of  construction  and  to 
organize  the  government  now  in   control 
at  the  Isthmus? 

The  story  of  the  pioneers  has  been  told ; 
the  brilliant  and  tragic  achievements  of 
the  explorers  have  filled  innumerable  vol- 
umes, and  each  succeeding  story  height- 
ens the  general  interest  in  the  great  scheme 
of  uniting  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  in  liquid  wedlock.  More  prosaic 
than  the  tales  of  Balboa  the  discoverer, 
of  Morgan  the  buccaneer,  or  of  de  Les- 
seps,  the  promoter,  but  equally  essential 
to  the  practical  accomplishment  of  the 
great  dream  of  the  ages,  was  the  work  of 
the  statesmen  in  the  American  Congress 
who  devised  the  plan  and  provided  the 
means  for  attaining  the  result  on  the  basis 
of  law.  It  is  easy  to  sit  upon  the  hilltop 
and  dream  of  the  union  of  rivers  that 
glisten  in  the  valley  below,  but  the  marshall- 
ing of  the  men  and  the  money  to  engage 
in  so  vast  an  undertaking  was  anything 
but  a  day-dream.  To  draw  the  plans  by 
which  a  given  number  of  cubic  yards  of 
earth  could  be  removed  from  a  given  area 
was  probably  the  easiest  step  in  the  work 


of  constructing  the  canal;  it  is  a  vastly 
different  thing  to  provide  the  equipment, 
and  to  secure  the  army  of  workers  sufficient 
to  surmount  the  difficulties  existing  in  so 
unhealthy  an  environment,  thousands  of 
miles  from  the  base  of  supplies. 

The  early  surveys  afforded  every  op- 
portunity for  individuals  or  nations  to 
enter  into  the  work  of  canal  construction 
either  at  Nicaragua  or  at  Panama.  The 
daring,  but  unsuccessful,  effort  of  the 
French  company  under  de  Lesseps  sup- 
plied the  American  Congress  with  ample 
information  as  to  the  breakers  ahead.  It 
is  still  a  disputed  question  whether  the 
historic  voyage  of  the  Oregon  was  responsi- 
ble for  the  desire  of  the  American  people  to 
undertake  the  work  of  canal  construction. 
Commercial  expansion,  or  the  desire  to 
figure  in  the  world's  trade,  undoubtedly 
had  much  to  do  with  it.  Later  on,  when 
the  question  of  fortification  arose,  it  was 
evident  that  the  military  and  naval  ad- 
vantages of  the  canal  had  been  considered 
among  the  reasons  for  its  acquisition  and 
construction. 

When  at  last  the  people  of  the  United 
States  were  ready  to  build  a  canal,  the 
preparation  of  the  necessary  legislation 
was  begun  in  both  Houses  of  Congress. 
The  distinguished  lowan,  Colonel  William 


231 


232 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


P.  Hepburn,  who  under  the  lamented 
McKinley,  was  chairman  of  the  Committee 
on  Interstate  and  Foreign  Commerce,  a 
committee  having  jurisdiction  over  matters 
of  this  kind,  introduced  a  bill  looking  to 
canal  construction,  and  so  did  the  learned 
Senator  from  Wisconsin,  the  Hon.  John  C. 
Spooner,  who  was  then  at  the  head  of  the 
Senate  Committee  having  jurisdiction  in 
such  cases. 

If  the  United  States  was  to  go  into  the 
canal  business,  it  must  necessarily  have 
a  start  warranted  by  law,  and  after  long 
discussions  in  committee  and  in  conference 
and  upon  the  floor  of  the  Senate  and 
House,  the  basic  law  which  has  since  been 
called  the  Spooner  Act  was  passed,  and 
signed  by  President  Roosevelt,  June  28, 
1902.  Although  induced  to  some  extent 
by  the  Hay-Pauncefote  Treaty  of  Feb- 
ruary 22,  1902,  and  modified  in  certain 
particulars  by  subsequent  legislation,  this 
act,  the  title  of  which  is  "To  provide  for 
the  construction  of  a  canal  connecting 
the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
Oceans,"  may  be  regarded  as  the  organic 
law  of  the  Panama  Canal.  And  it  is 
worthy  of  comment  that  although  the 
estimated  sum  of  money  appropriated  in 
the  Act  of  June  28,  1902,  for  the  purchase 
and  construction  of  the  canal,  has  been 
greatly  exceeded  by  subsequent  appropri- 
ations, the  object  set  forth  in  the  Act,  to 
wit,  the  construction  of  a  canal  connecting 
the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
Oceans,  was  prosecuted  with  such  intelli- 
gence and  vigor  that  in  twelve  years  from 
the  date  of  the  passage  of  the  Act,  the 
monumental  work  which  had  been  dreamed 
of  through  the  centuries  and  upon  which 
other  nations  had  expended  years  of  toil 
and  innumerable  lives,  had  been  com- 
pleted, and,  in  effect,  dedicated  to  the  com- 
merce of  the  world. 

It  may  be  left  to  others  to  enlarge  upon 
the  controversies  ensuing  from  interpre- 
tations of  the  Clayton-Bulwer  and  Hay- 
Pauncefote  treaties  with  Great  Britain. 
They  had  to  be  considered  by  our  national 
legislators  in  reaching  a  basis  for  proceeding 


lawfully  to  the  acquisition  of  the  canal. 
It  is  generally  conceded  that  without  the 
Hay-Pauncefote  treaty,  this  country  must 
have  undertaken  to  construct  a  canal  such 
as  was  contemplated,  in  violation  of  the 
troublesome  convention  known  as  the 
Clayton-Bulwer  treaty,  made  back  in  1850, 
when  conditions  were  radically  different 
from  those  succeeding  the  Spanish-Amer- 
ican War.  The  chief  objection  to  the 
United  States  assuming  the  work,  how- 
ever, was  removed  by  the  Hay-Pauncefote 
treaty  when,  in  Article  2,  it  was  agreed 

"that  the  canal  may  be  constructed  under  the  aus- 
pices of  the  government  of  the  United  States,  either 
directly  at  its  own  cost,  or  by  gift  or  loan  of  money 
to  individuals  or  corporations,  or  through  subscrip- 
tion to  or  purchase  of  stock  or  shares,  and  that, 
subject  to  the  provisions  of  the  present  treaty,  the 
said  government  shall  have  and  enjoy  all  the  rights 
incident  to  such  construction,  as  well  as  the  exclu- 
sive right  of  providing  for  the  regulation  and  man- 
agement of  the  canal." 

This  waiver  having  been  obtained  from 
Great  Britain,  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States  was  in  a  position  to  proceed  to  nego- 
tiate for  the  property  of  the  Panama  Canal 
Company,  or  for  an  alternative  route  by 
way  of  Nicaragua.  It  is  noticeable  that 
while  Congress  had  in  mind  the  taking  over 
of  the  property  of  the  French  Company 
at  Panama,  it  threw  an  anchor  to  wind- 
ward, so  that  in  the  event  of  the  failure  of 
negotiations  for  the  project  of  de  Lesseps, 
the  commission  appointed  by  the  Act 
could  proceed  to  negotiate  for  "a  ship 
canal  and  waterway  from  a  point  on  the 
shore  of  the  Caribbean  Sea  near  Grey- 
town,  by  way  of  Lake  Nicaragua,  to  a 
point  near  Brito  on  the  Pacific  Ocean." 

Taking  the  Act  of  June  28,  1902,  as  the 
organic  law  of  the  Panama  Canal,  let  us 
see  what  the  legislative  mind  had  in  view 
at  the  inception  of  the  project.  First,  the 
President  of  the  United  States  was  author- 
ized to  acquire 

"for  and  on  behalf  of  the  United  States,  at  a  cost  not 
exceeding  forty  millions  of  dollars,  the  rights,  priv- 
ileges, franchises,  concessions,  grants  of  land,  right 
of  way,  unfinished  work,  plants,  and  other  property, 
real,  personal,  and  mixed,  of  every  name  and  nature, 
owned  by  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company,  of 
France,  on  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  all  its  maps, 


THE  ALTERNATIVE   PLAN 


233 


plans,  drawings,  records  on  the  Isthmus  of  Panama 
and  in  Paris,  including  all  the  capital  stock,  not  less, 
however,  than  sixty-eight  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  sixty -three  shares  of  the  Panama  Railroad  Com- 
pany, owned  by  or  held  for  the  use  of  said  canal 
company,  provided  a  satisfactory  title  to  all  of 
said  property  can  be  obtained." 

That  was  the  first  step  by  which,  under 
the  Hay-Pauncefote  treaty,  the  canal  was 
to  be  constructed  "under  the  auspices  of 
the  government  of  the  United  States." 
And,  after  appropriate  negotiations,  the 
French  rights  and  titles  were  turned  over 
to  the  United  States. 

The  second  section  of  the  organic  act 
authorized  the  President,  who  at  that 
time  was  Mr.  Roosevelt, 

"to  acquire  from  the  Republic  of  Colombia,  for  and 
on  behalf  of  the  United  States,  upon  such  terms  as 
he  may  deem  reasonable,  perpetual  control  of  a  strip 
of  land,  the  territory  of  the  Republic  of  Colombia, 
not  less  than  six  miles  in  width,  extending  from  the 
Caribbean  Sea  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  the  right 
to  use  and  dispose  of  the  waters  thereon,  and  to 
excavate,  construct,  and  to  perpetually  maintain, 
operate,  and  protect  thereon  a  canal,  of  such  depth 
and  capacity  as  will  afford  convenient  passage  of 
ships  of  the  greatest  tonnage  and  draft  now  in  use, 
from  the  Caribbean  Sea  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  which 
control  shall  include  the  right  to  perpetually  main- 
tain and  operate  the  Panama  Railroad,  if  the  own- 
ership thereof,  or  a  controlling  interest  therein,  shall 
have  been  acquired  by  the  United  States,  and  also 
jurisdiction  over  said  strip  and  the  ports  at  the  ends 
thereof  to  make  such  police  and  sanitary  rules  and 
regulations  as  shall  be  necessary  to  preserve  order 
and  preserve  the  public  health  thereon,  and  to  es- 
tablish such  judicial  tribunals  as  may  be  agreed  upon 
thereon  as  may  be  necessary  to  enforce  such  rules 
and  regulations." 

In  the  third  section  it  was  provided 

"That  when  the  President  shall  have  arranged 
to  secure  a  satisfactory  title  to  the  property  of  the 
New  Panama  Canal  Company,  as  provided  in  sec- 
tion one  hereof,  and  shall  have  obtained  by  treaty 
control  of  the  necessary  territory  from  the  Republic 
of  Colombia,  as  provided  in  section  two  hereof,  he 
is  authorized  to  pay  for  the  property  of  the  New 
Panama  Canal  Company  forty  millions  of  dollars  and 
to  the  Republic  of  Colombia  such  sum  as  shall  have 
been  agreed  upon,  and  a  sum  sufficient  for  both 
said  purposes  is  hereby  appropriated,  out  of  any 
money  in  the  Treasury  not  otherwise  appropriated 
to  be  paid  on  warrant  or  warrants  drawn  by  the 
President." 

Thus  provision  was  made  for  the  pur- 
chase money,  the  expenditure  of  which 
would  clear  the  track  for  the  actual  work 
of  digging  and  construction.  Section  3, 


having  conferred  authority  upon  the  Presi- 
dent to  acquire  the  necessary  rights  and 
titles,  proceeded  to  direct  him  "through 
the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission,"  for 
which  provision  was  subsequently  made, 
to 

"cause  to  be  excavated,  constructed,  and  completed, 
utilizing  to  that  end  as  far  as  practicable  the  work 
heretofore  done  by  the  New  Panama  Canal  Com- 
pany, of  France,  and  its  predecessor  company,  a 
ship  canal  from  the  Caribbean  Sea  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean." 

Then  followed  legislative  instructions  in- 
dicating that  Congress  at  that  time  had  in 
mind  the  construction  of  a  canal  equal  in 
dimensions  to  any  in  existence,  and  capa- 
ble of  passing  the  largest  vessels  afloat. 
Here  is  the  exact  language  of  the  law: 

"Such  canal  shall  be  of  sufficient  capacity  and 
depth  as  shall  afford  convenient  passage  for  vessels 
of  the  largest  tonnage  and  greatest  draft  now  in 
use,  and  such  as  may  be  reasonably  anticipated, 
and  shall  be  supplied  with  all  necessary  locks  and 
other  appliances  to  meet  the  necessities  of  vessels 
passing  through  the  same  from  ocean  to  ocean; 
and  he  shall  also  cause  to  be  constructed  such  safe 
and  commodious  harbors  at  the  termini  of  said  canal, 
and  make  such  provisions  for  defense  as  may  be 
necessary  for  the  safety  and  protection  of  said  canal 
and  harbors.  That  the  President  is  authorized  for 
the  purposes  aforesaid  to  employ  such  persons 
as  he  may  deem  necessary,  and  to  fix  their  compen- 
sation." 

Having  thus  mapped  out  a  course  of 
action  for  the  President  and  having  thus 
supplied  him,  as  it  were,  with  the  ways 
and  means  to  proceed  with  the  great  busi- 
ness in  hand,  Congress  wisely  set  up  an 
alternative  course  of  action.  The  whole 
of  section  4  of  the  organic  law  relates  to  a 
possible  recourse  of  the  President  in  the 
event  of  the  failure  of  negotiations  with 
the  French  concessionaires,  or  with  Colom- 
bia, or  any  other  country,  over  the  Panama 
property.  What  if  the  French  should 
decline  the  $40,000,000?  was  evidently 
the  thought  running  through  the  mind  of 
Congress;  or  What  if  Colombia,  which 
assumes  jurisdiction  over  Panama,  should 
become  obstinate  or  balk  at  the  terms 
which  the  United  States  shall  offer?  It  is 
not  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  to  deal  with 
the  Colombian  controversy  that  arose 
after  the  Panama  revolution,  or  to  dwell 


234 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


in  detail  upon  the  negotiations  between 
the  President's  representatives  and  the 
French  interests.  It  may  be  observed, 
however,  that  while  the  two  parties  were 
brought  to  a  speedy  agreement  as  to  the 
value  of  the  French  rights  and  titles,  the 
revolution  of  Panama,  which  was  probably 
not  foreseen  by  the  framers  of  the  Spooner 
Act,  did  bring  on  a  controversy  which  has 
not  yet  been  settled  to  the  satisfaction  at 
least  of  Colombia. 

Whether  the  lawmakers  feared  the  out- 
come of  negotiations  with  Colombia  or 
not,  the  fact  remains  that  they  desired 
the  President  to  have  a  free  hand  to  quit 
Panama  and  Colombia,  if  the  terms  and 
conditions  became  unreasonable,  and  go 
elsewhere.  The  recent  Colombian  con- 
tention that  Colombia  ought  to  be  paid  for 
certain  rights  it  claimed  to  possess  before 
the  Panama  revolution  and  the  negotiations 
had  by  President  Roosevelt  with  the  Re- 
public of  Panama  as  an  independent 
country,  show  that  the  congressional  plans 
were  not  without  good  reason. 

Remembering  that  sections  I,  2,  and 
3,  related  to  the  Panama  Canal  and  the 
accompanying  rights  and  privileges  ex- 
clusively, and  contemplated  purchase  and 
construction  at  that  point,  section  4 
looms  up  as  a  saving  clause  against  extor- 
tion, misunderstanding,  or  delay.  "We 
desire  to  do  business  at  Panama,"  said 
Congress,  "but  if  you  will  not  sell,  or  if  you 
become  extortionate,  then  we  will  leave 
you  and  take  up  the  great  work  of  uniting 
the  oceans  at  another  place." 

"Should  the  President  be  unable,"  said 
section  4, 

"to  obtain  for  the  United  States  a  satisfactory  title 
to  the  property  of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company 
and  the  control  of  the  necessary  territory  of  the 
Republic  of  Colombia  and  the  rights  mentioned  in 
sections  one  and  two  of  this  Act,  within  a 
reasonable  time  and  upon  reasonable  terms, 
then  the  President,  having  first  obtained  for  the 
United  States  perpetual  control  by  treaty  of 
the  necessary  territory  from  Costa  Rica  and  Nica- 
ragua, upon  terms  which  he  may  consider  reasonable, 
for  the  construction,  perpetual  maintenance,  oper- 
ation, and  protection  of  a  canal  connecting  the 
Caribbean  Sea  with  the  Pacific  Ocean  by  what  is 
commonly  known  as  the  Nicaragua  route,  shall 


through  the  said  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  cause 
to  be  excavated  and  constructed  a  ship  canal  and 
waterway  from  a  point  on  the  shore  of  the  Carib- 
bean Sea  near  Greytown,  by  way  of  Lake  Nicaragua, 
to  a  point  near  Brito  on  the  Pacific  Ocean." 

And  if  the  Nicaragua  route  were  chosen, 
then  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  was 
to  make  the  necessary  surveys  and  pro- 
ceed to  the  work  of  construction  so  that  at 
Nicaragua  a  canal  of  dimensions  equal 
to  those  contemplated  for  the  Panama 
route  should  be  provided. 

The  question  of  Panama  or  an  alternate 
route  being  thus  provided  for,  an  appro- 
priation of  $10,000,000  was  set  down  in 
section  5  "toward  the  project  herein  con- 
templated by  either  route  so  selected." 
"And,"  continued  this  section, 

"the  President  is  hereby  authorized  to  cause  to  be 
entered  into  such  contract  or  contracts  as  may  be 
deemed  necessary  for  the  proper  excavation,  con- 
struction,  completion,  and  defense  of  said  canal, 
harbors,  and  defenses,  by  the  route  finally  de- 
termined upon  under  the  provisions  of  this  Act. 
Appropriations  therefor  shall  from  time  to  time  be 
hereafter  made,  not  to  exceed  in  the  aggregate  the 
additional  sum  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-five 
millions  of  dollars  should  the  Panama  route  be 
adopted,  or  one  hundred  and  eighty  millions  of 
dollars  should  the  Nicaragua  route  be  adopted." 

As  a  concession  to  the  Republic  of  Co- 
lombia or  to  the  States  of  Nicaragua  or 
Costa  Rica,  should  any  agreement  be 
entered  into  with  them,  the  President  was 
authorized  by  section  6  to  guarantee  to 
either  of  them  "the  use  of  said  canal 
and  harbors,  upon  such  terms  as  may  be 
agreed  upon,  for  all  vessels  owned  by  said 
states  or  by  citizens  thereof." 

The  appointment  of  the  Isthmian  Canal 
Commission  was  provided  for  in  Section  7. 
This  commission  was  to  be  composed  of 
seven  members  to  be  nominated  and  ap- 
pointed by  the  President,  by  and  with 
the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  and 
they  were  to  serve  until  the  completion 
of  the  canal  unless  sooner  removed  by  the 
President;  and  the  President  was  to  name 
one  of  them  as  chairman  of  the  commis- 
sion. It  was  the  purpose  of  the  law- 
makers to  secure  commissioners  of  engi- 
neering skill,  but  it  was  not  deemed  advis- 
able that  all  of  them  should  be  versed  in 


THE   EXECUTIVE   IN   CONTROL 


235 


the  science  of  engineering.  It  was  pro- 
vided that  four,  or  a  majority  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  commission,  should  be  engineers, 
one  of  them  an  officer  of  the  army  and 
another  an  officer  of  the  navy,  said  officers 
respectively  being  upon  either  the  active 
or  the  retired  list  of  the  army  or  the  navy. 
And  they  were  to  receive  such  compensa- 
tion as  the  President  should  prescribe, 
subject  to  the  action  of  Congress.  In 
addition  to  the  members  of  the  Isthmian 
Canal  Commission,  the  President  was  au- 
thorized, through  the  commission,  to  en- 
gage the  services  of  engineers  of  the  army  or 
engineers  in  civil  life,  or  any  other  persons 
necessary  for  the  proper  and  expeditious 
prosecution  of  the  work.  The  President 
was  given  complete  control  over  the  com- 
mission, which  was  to  report  to  the  Presi- 
dent, who  was  to  transmit  all  reports  to 
Congress.  In  addition  the  commission 
was  to  give  Congress  such  information  as  it 
desired  at  any  time.  Thus  the  executive 
was  put  in  complete  control  of  work  upon 
the  canal,  while  Congress  reserved  to  itself 
the  right  to  be  informed  upon  any  perti- 
nent matter  should  questions  at  any  time 
arise  as  to  the  proper  expenditure  of  the 
public  money. 

The  eighth,  or  final  section,  of  the  basic 
act  provided  that  the  Secretary  of  the  Treas- 
ury should  have  authority  to  borrow  on 
the  credit  of  the  United  States  from  time 
to  time  as  the  proceeds  might  be  required 
to  defray  the  expenses  authorized  by  the 
act,  and  to  issue  coupon  or  registered 
bonds  to  the  extent  of  $130,000,000,  or 
so  much  thereof  as  might  be  necessary. 
These  bonds,  some  of  which  have  been 
sold,  as  work  upon  the  canal  has  progressed, 
were  to  be  issued  at  the  rate  of  two  per 
cent,  per  annum,  redeemable  after  ten 
years  from  the  date  of  issue,  and  payable 
thirty  years  from  that  date.  The  bonds 
were  to  be  disposed  of  by  the  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury  at  not  less  than  par,  and  all 
citizens  of  the  United  States  were  to  have 
an  equal  right  to  subscribe  thereto. 

The  passage  of  this  act,  which  put  the 
President  in  a  position  to  begin  business, 


was  followed  by  negotiations  that  resulted 
successfully  so  far  as  the  French  interests 
were  concerned,  but  which  did  not  termi- 
nate favorably  with  respect  to  Colombia. 
The  Colombian  government  was  slow 
at  coming  to  a  bargain,  and  before  a  con- 
clusion was  reached,  negotiations  were 
completely  upset  by  the  revolution  of 
Panama,  which  declared  itself  free  of 
Colombian  domination.  The  Republic  of 
Panama,  having  thus  attained  its  inde- 
pendence and  having  come  to  be  recognized 
by  the  United  States,  the  Hay-Bunau-Varilla 
treaty  of  February  26,  1904,  was  effected. 
This  treaty  not  only  guaranteed  the  in- 
dependence of  the  Republic  of  Panama, 
but  provided  for  the  payment  to  Panama 
of  $10,000,000  in  gold  coin,  and  an  annual 
payment  beginning  thereafter,  of  $250,000, 
to  continue  so  long  as  the  convention  lasted. 
In  consideration  of  this  payment  the 
Republic  of  Panama,  amongst  other  things, 
granted  to  the  United  States 

"all  rights  which  it  now  has  or  hereafter  may  acquire 
to  the  property  of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company 
and  the  Panama  Railroad  Company  as  a  result  of 
the  transfer  of  sovereignty  from  the  Republic 
of  Colombia  to  the  Republic  of  Panama  over  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  authorizes  the  New  Pan- 
ama Canal  Company  to  sell  and  transfer  to  the 
United  States  its  rights,  privileges,  properties  and 
concessions  as  well  as  the  Panama  Railroad  and  all 
the  shares  or  part  of  the  shares  of  that  company; 
but  the  public  lands  situated  outside  of  the  zone 
described  in  Article  II  of  this  treaty  now  included 
in  the  concessions  to  both  said  enterprises  and  not 
required  in  the  construction  or  operation  of  the 
canal  shall  revert  to  the  Republic  of  Panama,  ex- 
cept any  property  now  owned  by  or  in  the  posses- 
sion of  said  companies  within  Panama  or  Colon 
or  the  ports  or  terminals  thereof." 

With  the  rights  and  title  thus  established 
by  the  treaty-making  power,  Congress  pro- 
ceeded in  orderly  fashion  to  further  the 
work.  On  April  28th,  1904,  an  act  was 
approved  to  "provide  for  the  temporary 
government  of  the  Canal  Zone  at  Panama, 
the  protection  of  the  canal  works,  and  for 
other  purposes."  This  act  authorized  the 
President,  on  the  acquisition  of  the  New 
Panama  Canal  Company  property  and  the 
payment  of  the  $10,000,000  to  Panama, 

"to  take  possession  of  and  occupy  on  behalf  of  the 
United  States  the  zone  of  land  and  land  under 


236 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


water  of  the  width  of  ten  miles,  extending  to  the 
distance  of  five  miles  on  each  side  of  the  center  line 
of  the  route  of  the  canal  to  be  constructed  thereon, 
which  said  zone  begins  in  the  Caribbean  Sea  three 
marine  miles  from  mean  low-water  mark  and  ex- 
tends to  and  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  into 
the  Pacific  Ocean  to  the  distance  of  three  marine 
miles  from  mean  low-water  mark,  and  also  of  all 
islands  within  said  zone,  and  in  addition  thereto  the 
group  of  islands  in  the  Bay  of  Panama  named  Perico, 
Naos,  Culebra,  and  Flamenco,  and,  from  time  to 
time,  of  any  lands  and  waters  outside  of  said  zone 
which  may  be  necessary  and  convenient  for  the 
construction,  maintenance,  operation,  sanitation, 
and  protection  of  the  said  canal,  or  of  any  auxiliary 
canals  or  other  works  necessary  and  convenient 
for  the  construction,  maintenance,  operation,  sani- 
tation, and  protection  of  said  enterprise,  the  use, 
occupation,  and  control  whereof  were  granted  to 
the  United  States  by  article  two  of  said  treaty." 

The  zone  referred  to  was  to  be  known  as 
"the  Canal  Zone,"  and  all  the  military, 
civil  and  judicial  powers,  essential  to  its 
temporary  government  were  to  be  exercised 
as  the  President  should  direct.  The  in- 
habitants of  the  zone  were  to  have  "free 
enjoyment  of  their  liberty,  property,  and 
religion."  It  is  noteworthy  that  this 
act  of  April  28,  1904,  enlarged  upon  the 
Spooner  Act,  in  that  in  accordance  with 
the  Hay-Varilla  treaty,  it  extended  the 
width  of  the  zone  from  three  miles 
to  five  miles  from  the  center,  thus 
establishing  a  zone  from  sea  to  sea  ten 
miles  in  width,  instead  of  six  miles  as  pro- 
vided for  in  the  organic  law.  This  was 
much  superior  to  the  concessions  con- 
templated in  the  Colombian  negotiations. 

From  this  time  on,  canal  legislation  had 
to  do  very  largely  with  appropriations  to 
forward  the  work,  and  in  this  respect  Con- 
gress was  ever  ready  to  deal  liberally  with 
the  estimates  of  the  engineers  as  they 
came  up  through  the  commission  and  the 
President.  It  was  equally  helpful  during 
the  earlier  stages  of  the  work,  when  Civil 
Engineers  Wallace,  Shonts,  and  Stevens 
were  in  control,  as  it  was  after  the  army 
engineers  took  charge  under  the  direction 
of  Colonel  George  W.  Goethals.  These 
laws  were  chiefly  in  aid  of  the  men  who  were 
upon  the  ground,  and  for  the  control  of 
such  business  as  was  incident  to  the  occu- 
pation of  the  territory.  In  February, 


1905,  it  was  provided  that  the  Isthmian 
Canal  Commission  accounts  should  be 
audited  by  the  auditor  of  the  war  depart- 
ment. In  March  of  the  same  year,  an 
act  was  passed  which  made  the  laws  of 
the  United  States  affecting  imports  and  the 
entry  of  persons  into  the  United  States 
applicable  to  merchandise  and  persons 
coming  from  the  Canal  Zone.  That  is  to 
say,  the  tariff  laws  and  the  immigration 
laws  were  made  to  treat  the  zone  as  for- 
eign territory.  The  issue  of  bonds  to 
raise  funds  to  continue  the  construction 
was  provided  for  in  an  act  passed  in  De- 
cember, 1905.  In  June,  1906,  a  joint 
resolution  was  passed  providing  that  ma- 
terials and  equipment  for  use  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  canal  would  be  restricted 
to  articles  of  domestic  production,  except 
in  certain  cases. 

Then,  on  June  29,  1906,  came  the  very 
important  act  which  was  passed  only  after 
a  nation-wide  discussion,  providing  for  a 
lock  canal,  rather  than  the  sea-level  canal 
for  which  a  large  body  of  citizens  contended. 
The  lock  canal  was  to  be  of  the  "general 
type  proposed  by  the  minority  of  the  board 
of  consulting  engineers,  created  by  the 
order  of  the  President."  In  this  instance 
the  technique  of  the  engineer  gave  way  to 
the  common  belief  of  the  legislators  that 
a  sea-level  canal  would  be  prohibitive  as 
to  cost,  and  more  troublesome  to  control 
than  a  lock  canal.  The  lock-canal  system, 
which  is  now  in  operation,  received  its 
sanction  through  this  act,  and  the  locks  and 
dams,  as  now  completed,  are  the  product 
of  the  nearly  nine  years'  labor  ensuing. 

From  1906  on,  the  legislation  related 
chiefly  to  appropriations  and  supervision 
of  canal  work,  railroad  construction,  and 
the  like,  and  was  attached  to  the  annual 
Sundry  Civil  and  Urgent  Deficiency  bills. 
In  May,  1908,  it  was  deemed  proper  to  pro- 
vide compensation  for  injuries  sustained 
by  employees  in  the  course  of  their  em- 
ployment on  the  Canal  Zone,  and  several 
measures  with  this  end  in  view  were  en- 
acted. Leases  of  land  to  tenant  holders, 
some  of  them  desiring  to  conduct  small 


1.  Looking  south  past  Cucaracha  slide,  December  9,  1913. 

2.  Nine  days  later,  looking  north. 


1.  How  Cucaracha  slide  came  down  many  times  a  year  and  bottled  up  the  south  end  of  Culebra  Cut. 

2.  Laborers  trying  to  lead  a  stream  of  Gatun  Lake  water  through  the  slide  and  down  to  Pedro  Miguel. 


PROTECTION   OF  THE  CANAL 


237 


plantations,  were  provided  for  in  Febru- 
ary, 1909,  but  these  leases  have  since  been 
revoked,  owing  to  the  determination  of  the 
government  to  clear  the  zone  of  all  occu- 
pants save  those  employed  in  the  control 
or  supervision  of  the  property.  Numer- 
ous other  appropriation  and  regulatory  acts 
were  passed  down  to  1911,  when  provision 
was  made  for  sea-coast  batteries  and  for 
construction  work  looking  to  the  fortifica- 
tion of  the  Canal  Zone. 

The  time  had  come,  in  the  judgment  of 
Congress,  to  provide  for  the  protection  of 
the  canal,  and  this  was  done,  notwith- 
standing a  wide-spread  agitation  in  favor 
of  neutralization.  The  friends  of  neutral- 
ization in  Congress  contended  that  it  would 
be  far  better  to  have  the  nations  that  ex- 
pected to  use  the  canal  cooperate  with  the 
United  States  on  friendly  terms,  rather 
than  to  establish  fortifications  which  might 
be  regarded  as  a  challenge ;  but  the  military 
experts  prevailed  and  the  fortifications 
were  set  up,  it  being  contended  that  the 
right  to  do  so  was  fully  supported  by  the 
Hay-Pauncefote  treaty. 

When  eventually  the  work  had  so  far 
advanced  that  Colonel  Goethals  and  his 
associates  advised  the  President  that  the 
opening  of  the  canal  might  be  expected 
along  about  July  I,  1915,  the  President,  who 
at  that  time  was  Mr.  Taft,  suggested  to 
Congress  the  propriety  of  preparing  for  the 
actual  work  of  operation  and  government. 
The  act,  "to  provide  for  the  opening, 
maintenance,  protection,  and  operation  of 
the  Panama  Canal,  and  the  sanitation  and 
government  of  the  Canal  Zone,"  approved 
August  24,  1912,  was  the  result.  This 
act,  considered  and  passed  by  a  Democratic 
Congress,  and  approved  by  a  Republican 
President,  who  had  formerly  been  Secre- 
tary of  War,  naturally  evoked  much  dis- 
cussion. It  was  argued  at  great  length 
in  Senate  and  House,  the  discussion  center- 
ing largely  upon  the  question  of  tolls, — a 
question  which  was  destined  to  become 
an  issue  in  the  succeeding  political  cam- 
paign. 

The  canal   was  opened   nearly   a  year 


ahead  of  the  predictions  of  the  engineers, 
not  formally,  but  sufficient  for  the  passage 
of  small  boats  connected  with  the  work, 
and  ultimately  for  regular  vessels  of  com- 
merce, from  which,  up  to  about  the  ist 
of  February,  1915,  tonnage  tolls  were  col- 
lected to  the  extent  of  about  $2,000,000. 

While  the  act  approved  by  President 
Taft,  August  24,  1912,  embodied  many 
preceding  provisions  of  law  with  respect 
to  the  operation  of  the  canal,  it  also  con- 
tained a  number  of  new  provisions,  some 
of  them  made  necessary  by  the  actual 
operation  and  maintenance  of  the  property 
as  a  canal. /Being  the  law  under  which,  in 
the  main,  the  government  of  the  Canal 
Zone  is  now  conducted,  reference  should  be 
made  to  some  of  its  provisions.  The  first 
section  defines  the  Canal  Zone  and  dis- 
tinguishes the  canal  by  title  as  "The  Pan- 
ama Canal."  It  authorizes  the  President, 
by  treaty  with  the  Republic  of  Panama,  to 
acquire  any  land  above  or  under  the  water 
that  may  be  desired  in  addition  to  the  ten- 
mile  strip.  Section  2  gives  validity  to  all 
laws,  orders,  regulations  and  ordinances 
heretofore  adopted  and  promulgated  in 
the  Canal  Zone  by  order  of  the  President, 
and  continues  the  courts,  subject  in  each 
instance  to  the  direction  of  Congress. 

Sections  3  and  4  authorize  the  President 
by  executive  order  to  dispose  of  all  private 
titles  or  claims  to  land  on  the  Canal  Zone 
under  certain  conditions,  and  to  dispense 
with  the  services  of  the  Isthmian  Canal 
Commission  when  in  his  judgment  it  may 
seem  proper.  Upon  the  discontinuance 
of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  the 
President  was  authorized  to  complete, 
govern,  and  operate  the  canal  and  the  Canal 
Zone,  or  to  direct  that  it  be  done, 

"through  a  governor  of  the  Panama  Canal  and  such 
other  persons  as  he  may  deem  competent  to  dis- 
charge the  various  duties  connected  with  the  com- 
pletion, care,  maintenance,  sanitation,  operation,  j 
government,  and  protection  of  the  Canal  and  Canal 
Zone. 

The  President,  acting  upon  this  authority, 
made  Colonel  Goethals  governor  of  the 
canal,  and  he  is  now  in  charge.  These 
details  respecting  appointments,  compen- 


238 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


sation  and  so  forth,   are  taken   from  sec- 
tion 4: 

"If  any  of  the  persons  appointed  or  employed  as 
aforesaid  shall  be  persons  in  the  military  or  naval 
service  of  the  United  States,  the  amount  of  the 
official  salary  paid  to  any  such  person  shall  be  de- 
ducted from  the  amount  of  salary  or  compensation 
provided  by  or  which  shall  be  fixed  under  the  terms 
of  this  Act.  The  governor  of  the  Panama  Canal 
shall  be  appointed  by  the  President,  by  and  with 
the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  commissioned 
for  a  term  of  four  years,  and  until  his  successor 
shall  be  appointed  and  qualified.  He  shall  receive 
a  salary  of  ten  thousand  dollars  a  year.  All  other 
persons  necessary  for  the  completion,  care,  man- 
agement, maintenance,  sanitation,  government, 
operation,  and  protection  of  the  Panama  Canal  and 
Canal  Zone  shall  be  appointed  by  the  President,  or 
by  his  authority,  removable  at  his  pleasure,  and 
the  compensation  of  such  persons  shall  be  fixed  by 
the  President,  or  by  his  authority,  until  such  time  as 
Congress  may  by  law  regulate  the  same,  but  salaries 
or  compensation  fixed  hereunder  by  the  President 
shall  in  no  instance  exceed  by  more  than  twenty- 
five  per  centum  the  salary  or  compensation  paid  for 
the  same  or  similar  services  to  persons  employed 
by  the  government  in  continental  United  States. 
That  upon  the  completion  of  the  Panama  Canal  the 
President  shall  cause  the  same  to  be  officially  and 
formally  opened  for  use  and  operation." 

The  formal  opening  of  the  canal  as  pro- 
vided for  in  this  section,  attaches  to  the 
administration  of  President  Wilson,  but 
owing  to  foreign  war  conditions  and  other 
considerations,  action  was  deferred,  although 
the  canal  was  open  for  business. 

That  Congress  had  in  mind  the  symmetry 
of  canal  construction,  as  well  as  the  en- 
gineering side  of  it,  is  shown  by  a  footnote 
to  section  4,  which  provides  that  the  Com- 
mission of  Fine  Arts  may  make  report  to 
the  President  regarding  the  artistic  char- 
acter of  the  structures  of  the  canal,  evi- 
dently referring  to  locks,  office  buildings, 
lighthouses,  and  other  structures.  Recom- 
mendations on  this  line  were  to  be  trans- 
mitted to  Congress. 

The  tolls  question  was  provided  for  in 
section  5,  and  this  section,  by  the  way, 
soon  proved  to  be  the  most  important  in 
the  bill.  First  the  President  was  author- 
ized 

"to  prescribe  and  from  time  to  time  change  the  tolls 
that  shall  be  levied  by  the  Government  of  the 
United  States  for  the  use  of  the  Panama  Canal: 
Provided,  That  no  tolls,  when  prescribed  as  above, 
shall  be  changed,  unless  six  months'  notice  thereof 


shall  have  been  given  by  the  President  by  proclama- 
tion. No  tolls  shall  be  levied  upon  vessels  engaged 
in  the  coastwise  trade  of  the  United  States." 

The  tolls  question  at  once  became  the 
great  bone  of  contention  in  Congress  and 
outside.  During  the  latter  part  of  Presi- 
dent Taft's  term,  and  by  reason  of  a  plank 
in  the  Democratic  platform,  declaring 
for  free  passage  of  American  ships  using  the 
canal,  it  continued  to  be  a  source  of  an- 
noyance to  President  Wilson,  who,  shortly 
after  he  entered  the  White  House,  insisted 
upon  the  repeal  of  the  "free  tolls"  clause. 
He  demanded  of  Congress  the  passage  of  a 
bill  requiring  the  vessels  of  all  nations,  in- 
cluding our  own,  to  pay  tolls  on  equal 
terms  with  all  other  nations,  in  accordance 
with  the  contention  of  those  who  insisted 
that  we  were  obligated,  by  the  Hay-Paunce- 
fote  treaty,  to  treat  ourselves  in  the  matter 
of  tolls  exactly  as  we  would  treat  the  other 
nations.  In  due  course,  as  will  be  shown 
hereafter,  the  exemption  clause  of  the  act 
of  August  24,  1912,  was  repealed.  ^- 

The  tolls  clause,  however,  was  not  the 
only  important  feature  of  section  5  of  the 
act  just  referred  to.  That  section  so 
amended  the  Revised  Statutes  of  the 
United  States  as  to  have  section  4132  read 
as  follows: 

"Sec.  4132.  Vessels  built  within  the  United 
States  and  belonging  wholly  to  citizens  thereof; 
and  vessels  which  may  be  captured  in  war  by  citi- 
zens of  the  United  States  and  lawfully  condemned 
as  prize,  or  which  may  be  adjudged  to  be  forfeited 
for  a  breach  of  the  laws  of  the  United  States;  and 
seagoing  vessels,  whether  steam  or  sail,  which  have 
been  certified  by  the  Steamboat-Inspection  Service 
as  safe  to  carry  dry  and  perishable  cargo,  not  more 
than  five  years  old  at  the  time  they  apply  for  regis- 
try, wherever  built,  which  are  to  engage  only  in 
trade  with  foreign  countries  or  with  the  Philippine 
Islands  and  the  islands  of  Guam  and  Tutuila,  being 
wholly  owned  by  citizens  of  the  United  States  or 
corporations  organized  and  chartered  under  the 
laws  of  the  United  States  or  of  any  State  thereof, 
the  president  and  managing  directors  of  which  shall 
be  citizens  of  the  United  States  or  corporations 
organized  and  chartered  under  the  laws  of  the  United 
States  or  of  any  State  thereof,  the  president  and 
managing  directors  of  which  shall  be  citizens  of  the 
United  States,  and  no  others,  may  be  registered  as 
directed  in  this  title.  Foreign-built  vessels  regis- 
tered pursuant  to  this  Act  shall  not  engage  in  the 
coastwise  trade:  Provided,  That  a  foreign -built 
yacht,  pleasure  boat,  or  vessel  not  used  or  intended 


RADICAL   CHANGES   IN  THE  LAW 


239 


to  be  used  for  trade  admitted  to  American  registry 
pursuant  to  this  section  shall  not  be  exempt  from 
the  collection  of  ad  valorem  duty  provided  in  sec- 
tion thirty -seven  of  the  Act  approved  August  fifth, 
nineteen  hundred  and  nine,  entitled  'An  Act  to 
provide  revenue,  equalize  duties,  and  encourage  the 
industries  of  the  United  States,  and  for  other  pur- 
poses." That  all  materials  of  foreign  production 
which  may  be  necessary  for  the  construction  or 
repair  of  vessels  built  in  the  United  States  and  all 
such  materials  necessary  for  the  building  or  repair 
of  their  machinery  and  all  articles  necessary  for 
their  outfit  and  equipment  may  be  imported  into 
the  United  States  free  of  duty  under  such  regula- 
tions as  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  may  pre- 
scribe: Provided  further,  That  such  vessels  so  ad- 
mitted under  the  provisions  of  this  section  may 
contract  with  the  Postmaster -General  under  the 
Act  of  March  third,  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety- 
one,  entitled  'An  Act  to  provide  for  ocean  mail  ser- 
vice between  the  United  States  and  foreign  ports, 
and  to  promote  commerce,'  so  long  as  such  vessels 
shall  in  all  respects  comply  with  the  provisions  and 
requirements  of  said  Act." 

It  will  be  observed  that  this  paragraph 
made  some  very  radical  changes  in  existing 
law  apart  from  canal  construction,  enter- 
ing as  it  does  into  the  registration  of  sea- 
going vessels  and  touching  also  upon  the 
tariff  and  ship  subsidies.  With  reference 
to  tolls,  section  5  provided  that 

"Tolls  may  be  based  upon  gross  or  net  registered 
tonnage,  displacement  tonnage,  or  otherwise,  and 
may  be  based  on  one  form  of  tonnage  for  warships 
and  another  for  ships  of  commerce.  The  rate  of 
tolls  may  be  lower  upon  vessels  in  ballast  than  upon 
vessels  carrying  passengers  or  cargo.  When  based 
upon  net  registered  tonnage  for  ships  of  commerce 
the  tolls  shall  not  exceed  one  dollar  and  twenty-five 
cents  per  net  registered  ton,  nor  be  less,  other  than 
for  vessels  of  the  United  States  and  its  citizens,  than 
the  estimated  proportionate  cost  of  the  actual 
maintenance  and  operation  of  the  canal,  subject, 
however,  to  the  provisions  of  article  nineteen  of  the 
convention  between  the  United  States  and  the 
Republic  of  Panama,  entered  into  November  eight- 
eenth, nineteen  hundred  and  three.  If  the  tolls 
shall  not  be  based  upon  net  registered  tonnage, 
they  shall  not  exceed  the  equivalent  of  one  dollar 
and  twenty-five  cents  per  net  registered  ton  as 
nearly  as  the  same  may  be  determined,  nor  be  less 
than  the  equivalent  of  seventy-five  cents  per  net 
registered  ton.  The  toll  for  each  passenger  shall 
not  be  more  than  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents." 

The  President  was  authorized  to  make 
regulations  governing  the  operation  of  the 
canal  and  the  passage  and  control  of  ves- 
sels. These  regulations  were  to  include  the 
adjustment  of  damages  for  injury  to  ves- 
sels, cargo,  or  passengers,  and  a  method 


for  determining  and  adjusting  claims  aris- 
ing from  personal  injuries  to  employees  on 
the  canal  or  the  Panama  Railroad.  In 
addition,  in  Section  6,  the  President  was 
authorized  to  erect  and  maintain  radio- 
communication,  or  wireless  telegraph  sta- 
tions, messages  of  the  government  of  the 
United  States,  or  departments  thereof,  to 
have  precedence  over  all  other  messages. 
The  same  section  provided  for  the  erection 
of  drydocks,  repair  shops,  yards,  docks, 
wharves,  warehouses,  storehouses,  and 
other  necessary  facilities  and  appurte- 
nances for  providing  coal  and  other  ma- 
terials, labor,  repairs,  and  supplies  for 
vessels  of  the  government  of  the  United 
States,  and  incidentally  for  supplying  such 
commodities  to  passing  vessels  at  reason- 
able prices.  In  this,  Congress  desired  to 
facilitate  the  transit  of  vessels  of  other 
nations  as  well  as  of  those  of  the  United 
States. 

The  Governor  of  the  Panama  Canal  was 
given  power,  in  section  7,  to  perform  all 
duties  in  connection  with  the  civil  govern- 
ment of  the  Canal  Zone.  He  was  to  per- 
form all  such  executive  and  administrative 
duties  as  might  be  required  by  existing  law. 
This  section  provided  also  for  the  location 
of  towns  on  the  Canal  Zone,  and  for  the 
trial  of  civil  and  criminal  cases  in  the 
minor  courts.  Courts  of  higher  jurisdic- 
tion were  provided  for  in  sections  8  and  9, 
and  section  10  conferred  upon  the  gover- 
nor, with  the  approval  of  the  President, 
certain  powers  determining  "the  right  of 
any  person  to  remain  upon  or  pass  over 
any  part  of  the  Canal  Zone."  This  pro- 
vision was  in  accordance  with  the  idea 
that  residence  on  the  Canal  Zone,  for 
sanitary  as  well  as  precautionary  reasons, 
and  to  promote  good  order,  should  be 
limited  to  those  actually  engaged  in  work 
upon  the  canal,  and  their  families. 

Section  1 1  of  the  law  is  of  so  important  a 
nature,  as  it  relates  to  powers  conferred 
upon  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commis- 
sion, that  it  is  inserted  here  in  full.  The 
exclusion  of  railroad-owned  ships  from 
the  right  to  use  the  canal,  and  various  other 


240 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


serious  questions  involving  transportation 
rates,  both  by  rail  and  by  water,  have 
since  been  under  consideration  by  the  In- 
terstate Commerce  Commission,  much  to 
the  concern  of  shippers  as  well  as  of  rail- 
roads owning  ships  and  others  that  do  not. 
The  section  referred  to  is  as  follows: 

"Sec.  II.  That  section  five  of  the  Act  to  regulate 
commerce,  approved  February  fourth,  eighteen 
hundred  and  eighty-seven,  as  heretofore  amended, 
is  hereby  amended  by  adding  thereto  a  new  para- 
graph at  the  end  thereof,  as  follows: 

"  'From  and  after  the  first  day  of  July,  nineteen 
hundred  and  fourteen,  it  shall  be  unlawful  for  any 
railroad  company  or  other  common  carrier  subject 
to  the  Act  to  regulate  commerce  to  own,  lease, 
operate,  control,  or  have  any  interest  whatsoever 
(by  stock  ownership  or  otherwise,  either  directly, 
indirectly,  through  any  holding  company,  or  by 
stockholders  or  directors  in  common,  or  in  any  other 
manner)  in  any  common  carrier  by  water  operated 
through  the  Panama  Canal  or  elsewhere  with  which 
said  railroad  or  other  carrier  aforesaid  does  or  may 
compete  for  traffic  or  any  vessel  carrying  freight 
or  passengers  upon  said  water  route  or  elsewhere 
with  which  said  railroad  or  other  carrier  aforesaid 
does  or  may  compete  for  traffic;  and  in  case  of  the 
violation  of  this  provision  each  day  in  which  such 
violation  continues  shall  be  deemed  a  separate 
offense.' 

"Jurisdiction  is  hereby  conferred  on  the  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission  to  determine  questions  of 
fact  as  to  the  competition  or  possibility  of  compe- 
tition, after  full  hearing,  on  the  application  of  any 
railroad  company  or  other  carrier.  Such  applica- 
tion may  be  filed  for  the  purpose  of  determining 
whether  any  existing  service  is  in  violation  of  this 
section  and  pray  for  an  order  permitting  the  con- 
tinuance of  any  vessel  or  vessels  already  in  opera- 
tion, or  for  the  purpose  of  asking  an  order  to  in- 
stall new  service  not  in  conflict  with  the  provisions 
of  this  paragraph.  The  commission  may  on  its 
own  motion  or  the  application  of  any  shipper  in- 
stitute proceedings  to  inquire  into  the  operation 
of  any  vessel  in  use  by  any  railroad  or  other  carrier 
which  has  not  applied  to  the  commission  and  had 
the  question  of  competition  or  the  possibility  of 
competition  determined  as  herein  provided.  In  all 
such  cases  the  order  of  said  commission  shall  be 
final. 

"If  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  shall  be 
of  the  opinion  that  any  such  existing  specified  ser- 
vice by  water  other  than  through  the  Panama  Canal 
is  being  operated  in  the  interest  of  the  public  and 
is  of  advantage  to  the  convenience  and  commerce  of 
the  people,  and  that  such  extension  will  neither 
exclude,  prevent,  nor  reduce  competition  on  the 
route  by  water  under  consideration,  the  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission  may,  by  order,  extend  the 
time  during  which  such  service  by  water  may  con- 
tinue to  be  operated  beyond  July  first,  nineteen 
hundred  and  fourteen.  In  every  case  of  such  ex- 
tension the  rates,  schedules,  and  practices  of  such 
water  carrier  shall  be  filed  with  the  Interstate  Com- 


merce Commission  and  shall  be  subject  to  the  Act 
to  regulate  commerce  and  all  amendments  thereto 
in  the  same  manner  and  to  the  same  extent  as  is 
the  railroad  or  other  common  carrier  controlling 
such  water  carrier  or  interested  in  any  manner  in  its 
operation:  Provided,  Any  application  for  extension 
under  the  terms  of  this  provision  filed  with  the  In- 
terstate Commerce  Commission  prior  to  July  first, 
nineteen  hundred  and  fourteen,  but  for  any  reason 
not  heard  and  disposed  of  before  said  date,  may  be 
considered  and  granted  thereafter. 

"No  vessel  permitted  to  engage  in  the  coastwise 
or  foreign  trade  of  the  United  States  shall  be  per- 
mitted to  enter  or  pass  through  said  canal  if  such 
ship  is  owned,  chartered,  operated,  or  controlled  by 
any  person  or  company  which  is  doing  business  in 
violation  of  the  provisions  of  the  Act  of  Congress 
approved  July  second,  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety, 
entitled  "An  Act  to  protect  trade  and  commerce 
against  unlawful  restraints  and  monopolies,"  or 
the  provisions  of  sections  seventy-three  to  seventy- 
seven,  both  inclusive,  of  an  Act  approved  August 
twenty-seventh,  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety-four, 
entitled  "An  Act  to  reduce  taxation,  to  provide 
revenue  for  the  Government,  and  for  other  pur- 
poses," or  the  provisions  of  any  other  Act  of  Con- 
gress amending  or  supplementing  the  said  Act  of 
July  second,  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety,  com- 
monly known  as  the  Sherman  Antitrust  Act,  and 
amendments  thereto,  or  said  sections  of  the  Act 
of  August  twenty-seventh,  eighteen  hundred  and 
ninety-four.  The  question  of  fact  may  be  deter- 
mined by  the  judgment  of  any  court  of  the  United 
States  of  competent  jurisdiction  in  any  cause  pend- 
ing before  it  to  which  the  owners  or  operators  of 
such  ship  are  parties.  Suit  may  be  brought  by 
any  shipper  or  by  the  Attorney  General  of  the 
United  States. 

"That  section  six  of  said  Act  to  regulate  commerce, 
as  heretofore  amended,  is  hereby  amended  by  adding 
a  new  paragraph  at  the  end  thereof,  as  follows: 

"  'When  property  may  be  or  is  transported  from 
point  to  point  in  the  United  States  by  rail  and  water 
through  the  Panama  Canal  or  otherwise,  the  trans- 
portation being  by  a  common  carrier  or  carriers, 
and  not  entirely  within  the  limits  of  a  single  State, 
the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  shall  have 
jurisdiction  of  such  transportation  and  of  the  car- 
riers, both  by  rail  and  by  water,  which  may  or  do 
engage  in  the  same,  in  the  following  particulars,  in 
addition  to  the  jurisdiction  given  by  the  Act  to 
regulate  commerce,  as  amended  June  eighteenth, 
nineteen  hundred  and  ten: 

"'(a)To  establish  physical  connection  between  the 
lines  of  the  rail  carrier  and  the  dock  of  the  water 
carrier  by  directing  the  rail  carrier  to  make  suitable 
connection  between  its  line  and  a  track  or  tracks 
which  have  been  constructed  from  the  dock  to  the 
limits  of  its  right  of  way,  or  by  directing  either  or 
both  the  rail  and  water  carrier,  individually  or  in 
connection  with  one  another,  to  construct  and  con- 
nect with  the  lines  of  the  rail  carrier  a  spur  track 
or  tracks  to  the  dock.  This  provision  shall  only 
apply  where  such  connection  is  reasonably  practi- 
cable, can  be  made  with  safety  to  the  public,  and 
where  the  amount  of  business  to  be  handled  is  suffi- 
cient to  justify  the  outlay. 


THE   FIGHT   OVER  TOLLS 


'  The  commission  shall  have  full  authority  to  de- 
termine the  terms  and  conditions  upon  which  these 
connecting  tracks,  when  constructed,  shall  be  oper- 
ated, and  it  may,  either  in  the  construction  or  the 
operation  of  such  tracks,  determine  what  sum  shall 
be  paid  to  or  by  either  carrier.  The  provisions  of 
this  paragraph  shall  extend  to  cases  where  the  dock 
is  owned  by  other  parties  than  the  carrier  involved. 

"  '(b)  To  establish  through  routes  and  maximum 
joint  rates  between  and  over  such  rail  and  water 
lines,  and  to  determine  all  the  terms  and  conditions 
under  which  such  lines  shall  be  operated  in  the 
handling  of  the  traffic  embraced. 

"'(c)  To  establish  maximum  proportional  rates 
by  rail  to  and  from  the  ports  to  which  the  traffic 
is  brought,  or  from  which  it  is  taken  by  the  water 
carrier,  and  to  determine  to  what  traffic  and  in  con- 
nection with  what  vessels  and  upon  what  terms  and 
conditions  such  rates  shall  apply.  By  proportional 
rates  are  meant  those  which  differ  from  the  corre- 
sponding local  rates  to  and  from  the  port  and  which 
apply  only  to  traffic  which  has  been  brought  to  the 
port  or  is  carried  from  the  port  by  a  common  carrier 
by  water. 

"'(d)  If  any  rail  carrier  subject  to  the  Act 
to  regulate  commerce  enters  into  arrangements 
with  any  water  carrier  operating  from  a  port  in  the 
United  States  to  a  foreign  country,  through  the 
Panama  Canal  or  otherwise,  for  the  handling  of 
through  business  between  interior  points  of  the 
United  States  and  such  foreign  country,  the  Inter- 
state Commission  may  require  such  railway  to  enter 
into  similar  arrangements  with  any  or  all  other  lines 
of  steamships  operating  from  said  port  to  the  same 
foreign  country.' 

"The  orders  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commis- 
sion relating  to  this  section  shall  only  be  made  upon 
formal  complaint  or  in  proceedings  instituted  by 
the  commission  of  its  own  motion  and  after  full 
hearing.  The  orders  provided  for  in  the  two  amend- 
ments to  the  Act  to  regulate  commerce  enacted  in 
this  section  shall  be  served  in  the  same  manner  and 
enforced  by  the  same  penalties  and  proceedings  as 
are  the  orders  of  the  commission  made  under  the 
provisions  of  section  fifteen  of  the  Act  to  regulate 
commerce,  as  amended  June  eighteenth,  nineteen 
hundred  and  ten,  and  they  may  be  conditioned  for 
the  payment  of  any  sum  or  the  giving  of  security 
for  the  payment  of  any  sum  or  the  discharge  of  any 
obligation  which  may  be  required  by  the  terms  of 
said  order." 

Having  thus  imposed  upon  the  Inter- 
state Commerce  Commission  a  very  great 
responsibility  in  the  matter  of  rates  in 
connection  with  the  operation  and  main- 
tenance of  the  canal,  Congress  provided  in 
the  other  sections  of  the  governing  act  for 
the  extradition  of  persons  accused  of  crime 
(section  12)  and  for  placing  exclusive  au- 
thority and  jurisdiction  over  the  canal  and 
all  its  adjuncts  upon  such  officer  of  the 
army  as  the  President  might  designate 


should  war,  or  the  imminence  of  war,  make 
such  designation  and  such  army  control 
expedient.  The  last  section  of  the  act 
provided,  for  the  sake  of  convenience  and 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  Spooner  Act  and 
all  others,  that  it  should  be  known  as  "The 
Panama  Canal  Act." 

This,  in  brief,  is  the  story  of  the  law 
governing  the  Panama  Canal.     It  remains 
but  to  consider  one  or  two  other  measures 
apart  from  appropriation  bills  that  have  an 
important  bearing  upon  the  entire  canal 
subject.     The  repeal  act  of  June  15,  1914, 
was  one  of  these.     The  discussion  over  the 
repeal  of  the  tolls  exemption  clause  was  one 
of  the  most  exciting  of  the  Sixty-third  con- 
gress.    Democrats  and  Republicans  divided 
upon  the  question,  but  most  of  the  former 
supported  the  repeal  bill  because  of  the 
attitude     of     President    Wilson.     Distin- 
guished leaders  like  Speaker  Clark  and  Mr. 
Underwood  opposed  the  President  in  the 
House,  while  Senator  O'Gorman,  of  New 
York,    and   others   in   the  Senate   fought 
earnestly  for  freedom  from  tolls.     Senator 
Root  made  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
speeches  of  his  career  in  the  Senate,  insist- 
ing that  the  United  States  was  morally 
bound  to  repeal  the  free  tolls  exemption 
provision  of  the  Panama  Canal  Act.     In 
both  houses,  treaty  provisions  and  diplo- 
matic correspondence  were  raked  over  with 
a  fine-tooth  comb.     All  previous  laws  that 
had  any  bearing  upon  the  subject  were 
dragged  into  the  discussion.     The  Repub- 
lican leader  of  the  House,  Mr.  James  R. 
Mann,  of  Illinois,  who  had  gone  on  the 
Committee    on    Interstate    and    Foreign 
Commerce  when  he  entered  the  House  in 
the  Fifty-fifth    congress,    argued    against 
the  repeal  and  in  favor  of  the  right  of  the 
United  States   to  grant  preferential   tolls 
or  no  tolls  at  all  to  the  American  merchant 
marine.     The  Democratic  chairman  of  the 
Committee  on  Interstate  and  Foreign  Com- 
merce,   Mr.    Adamson,    of   Georgia,    who 
had  been  a  member  of  the  committee  since 
the  days  of  Colonel  Hepburn,  and  who  first 
debated  the  tolls  question  with  that  dis- 
tinguished lowan,  took  issue  with  both  the 


242 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


Republican  leader  and  the  Democratic 
leader  of  the  House,  insisting  that  there 
was  no  excuse  for  releasing  American 
ships  from  the  tolls  imposed  upon  ships  of 
other  nations. 

In  reporting  the  repeal  bill  for  the  ma- 
jority of  his  committee,  Mr.  Adamson  said: 

"During  the  last  Congress  your  committee  recom- 
mended uniform  tolls.  By  an  amendment  vessels 
engaged  in  the  coastwise  trade  of  the  United  States 
were  exempted  and  discretion  was  left  in  the  Presi- 
dent when  levying  tolls,  based  on  net  registered 
tonnage,  on  vessels  of  commerce  of  the  United 
States  and  its  citizens  to  fix  them  lower  than  on 
other  vessels  of  commerce.  The  amendment  also 
made  possible  a  discrimination  by  fixing  the  mini- 
mum tolls  on  other  vessels,  based  on  net  registered 
tonnage,  at  the  cost  of  operation,  while  in  levying 
tolls  based  on  other  forms  of  tonnage  the  minimum 
was  fixed  at  the  equivalent  of  75  cents  per  net  regis- 
tered ton.  The  purpose  of  this  bill  is  to  repeal  the 
exemption  of  vessels  engaged  in  coastwise  trade  and 
to  amend  the  other  language  so  as  to  remove  the 
possibility  of  discrimination  in  order  to  promote 
equality  at  the  canal." 

For  a  minority  of  the  committee,  al- 
though all  of  the  minority  were  not  of  one 
mind,  Mr.  Knowland,  of  California,  pre- 
sented an  earnest  report  against  what  he 
termed  "The  humiliating  surrender  of 
every  American  right  at  Panama."  Said 
Mr.  Knowland: 

"  I  emphatically  dissent  from  the  views  of  the 
majority  which  are  in  the  main  but  a  reiteration  of 
the  arguments  advanced  by  Sir  Edward  Grey, 
secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs  of  Great  Britain, 
in  opposition  to  the  position  taken  by  Congress  when 
it  enacted  the  existing  canal  law,  which  American 
position  was  strongly  upheld  by  Secretary  of  State 
Knox  on  behalf  of  this  Government. 

"  I  vigorously  protest  against  the  attempt  to  force 
the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  through  a  legis- 
lative enactment,  to  give  a  British  interpretation  to 
the  Hay-Pauncefote  treaty,  thus  surrendering  for 
all  future  time  rights  vitally  affecting  this  nation 
commercially,  strategically,  and  politically. 

"  A  situation  unparalleled  and  unprecedented  in 
history  now  confronts  this  country.  The  custodian 
of  our  rights,  our  agent  in  dealing  with  foreign 
affairs,  advocates  the  case  of  Great  Britain.  We 
are  left  without  a  spokesman.  With  no  attempt 
to  settle  through  diplomatic  channels,  with  no 
suggestion  looking  to  the  reference  of  the  vital  ques- 
tion to  arbitration,  unconditional  and  complete 
surrender  is  urged." 

In  spite  of  the  most  determined  oppo- 
sition in  Senate  and  House  the  repeal  bill 
was  finally  passed.  The  President  ap- 


proved it  June  15,  1914.  This  act,  which 
reversed  the  tolls  exemption  provision  of 
the  Panama  Canal  Act,  and  set  at  naught 
the  tolls  plank  of  the  Democratic  platform 
at  Baltimore,  is  now  the  law.  It  contains 
the  proviso,  "reserving  all  rights,"  which 
was  tacked  on  to  it  in  the  Senate,  and  which 
served  to  ease  the  minds  of  certain  Sena- 
tors on  the  mooted  question  of  British 
domination  over  our  affairs.  The  inser- 
tion of  this  proviso  facilitated  the  pas- 
sage of  the  bill  when  its  life  in  the  Senate 
was  threatened.  Divested  of  its  title, 
the  repeal  act  is  as  follows: 

"Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives of  the  United  States  of  America  in  Congress 
assembled,  That  the  second  sentence  in  section  five 
of  the  Act  entitled  'An  Act  to  provide  for  the  open- 
ing, maintenance,  protection,  and  operation  of  the 
Panama  Canal,  and  the  sanitation  and  government 
of  the  Canal  Zone,'  approved  August  24,  1912, 
which  reads  as  follows:  'No  tolls  shall  be  levied 
upon  vessels  engaged  in  the  coastwise  trade  of  the 
United  States,'  be,  and  the  same  is  hereby,  repealed. 

"Sec.  2.  That  the  third  sentence  of  the  third  para- 
graph of  said  section  of  said  Act  be  so  amended  as 
to  read  as  follows:  'When  based  upon  net  regis- 
tered tonnage  for  ships  of  commerce  the  tolls  shall 
not  exceed  $1.25  per  net  registered  ton,  nor  be  less 
than  75  cents  per  net  registered  ton,  subject,  how- 
ever, to  the  provisions  of  article  nineteen  of  the 
convention  between  the  United  States  and  the 
Republic  of  Panama,  entered  into  November  eight- 
eenth, nineteen  hundred  and  three':  Provided, 
That  the  passage  of  this  Act  shall  not  be  construed 
or  held  as  a  waiver  or  relinquishment  of  any  right 
the  United  States  may  have  under  the  treaty  with 
Great  Britain,  ratified  the  2ist  of  February,  1902, 
or  the  treaty  with  the  Republic  of  Panama,  ratified 
February  26,  1904,  or  otherwise,  to  discriminate 
in  favor  of  its  vessels  by  exempting  the  vessels  of  the 
United  States  or  its  citizens  from  the  payment  of 
tolls  for  passage  through. said  canal,  or  as  in  any 
way  waiving,  impairing,  or  affecting  any  right  of 
the  United  States  under  said  treaties,  or  otherwise, 
with  respect  to  the  sovereignty  over  or  the  owner- 
ship, control,  and  management  of  said  canal  and 
the  regulation  of  the  conditions  or  charges  of  traffic 
through  the  same." 

Another  very  important  change  in  the 
Panama  Canal  Act  of  August,  1912,  was 
the  repeal  on  August  18,  1914,  of  that 
provision  of  the  governing  act  which  under- 
took to  protect  American  ships  against 
the  registration  of  foreign-built  ships 
"not  more  than  five  years  old  at  the  time 
they  apply  for  registry,  wherever  built." 
In  pursuance  of  a  shipping  policy  inaugu- 


FOREIGN   SHIPPING  AFFECTED 


243 


rated  by  the  administration  and  involving 
the  purchase  of  foreign  ships,  it  was  sought 
to  waive  the  limitation  of  five  years,  and 
so  the  Committee  on  Merchant  Marine  and 
Fisheries,  Mr.  Alexander,  of  Missouri, 
chairman,  brought  in  the  bill  which  Con- 
gress adopted.  This  measure,  which  is 
appended,  gives  a  wide  latitude  to  the  Presi- 
dent in  authorizing  the  registry  of  ships  and 
in  suspending  laws  that  have  hitherto  been 
regarded  as  protecting  American  interests 
with  respect  to  ships  and  seamen.  Under 
this  act,  President  Wilson  promptly  pre- 
pared an  order  suspending  the  navigation 
laws  in  the  manner  set  forth: 

"Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Represent- 
atives of  the  United  States  of  America  in  Congress 
assembled,  That  the  words  'not  more  than  five  years 
old  at  the  time  they  apply  for  registry'  in  section 
five  of  the  Act  entitled  'An  Act  to  provide  for  the 
opening,  maintenance,  protection,  and  operation 
of  the  Panama  Canal  and  the  sanitation  and  gov- 
ernment of  the  Canal  Zone,'  are  hereby  repealed. 

"Sec.  2.  That  the  President  of  the  United  States 
is  hereby  authorized,  whenever  in  his  discretion 
the  needs  of  foreign  commerce  may  require,  to  sus- 
pend by  order,  so  far  and  for  such  length  of  time 
as  he  may  deem  desirable,  the  provisions  of  law  pre- 
scribing that  all  the  watch  officers  of  vessels  of  the 
United  States  registered  for  foreign  trade  shall  be 
citizens  of  the  United  States. 

"Under  like  conditions,  in  like  manner,  and  to  like 
extent  the  President  of  the  United  States  is  also 
hereby  authorized  to  suspend  the  provisions  of  the 
law  requiring  survey,  inspection,  and  measurement 
by  officers  of  the  United  States  of  foreign -built 
vessels  admitted  to  American  registry  under  this  Act. 

"Sec.  3.  This  Act  shall  take  effect  immediately." 

Since  the  passage  of  this  act  and  the 
issuance  of  regulations  by  the  President 
in  conformity  thereto,  there  was  no  legis- 
lation of  consequence  to  the  canal  down  to 
March,  1915,  save  as  to  appropriations 
for  operation  and  maintenance.  While 
the  formal  opening,  in  which  the  President 
was  expected  to  participate,  was  deferred 
for  prudent  reasons,  vessels  of  the  United 
States  and  of  all  nations  were  using  the 
canal,  and  the  long-looked-for  union  of  the 
two  oceans  was  effected.  Some  of  the 
vessels  carried  passengers  from  the  Atlantic 
Coast  to  the  Panama- Pacific  Exposition 
at  San  Francisco,  and  cargoes  of  valuable 
merchandise  were  carried  through  the 
canal  from  coast  to  coast.  The  effect 


upon  the  trans-continental  railroads  was 
perceptible,  and  the  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission  was  soon  called  upon  to  exer- 
cise some  of  its  powers  conferred  by  the 
Panama  Canal  Act  with  respect  to  rail- 
road-owned vessels  and  freight  rate  ad- 
justments. 

In  concluding  this  sketch  of  Panama 
Canal  legislation,  it  may  be  appropriate 
now,  as  it  was  on  June  20,  1912,  when  the 
question  of  canal  fortifications  was  under 
consideration  in  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives, to  put  the  question  as  the  writer  then 
did:  "The  Panama  Canal:  Why  Did 
We  Build  It — For  Commerce  or  War?" 
At  that  time  the  thought  in  mind  was  that 
commerce  and  agriculture  should  be  en- 
couraged on  the  Canal  Zone;  that  those 
who  went  to  the  Zone  should  aid  in  the  pro- 
motion of  business  and  thus  assist  the 
United  States  in  obtaining  a  fair  return 
for  its  vast  expenditure.  It  was  argued 
also  that  the  encouragement  of  agriculture 
would  aid  in  meeting  the  problems  of  the 
food  supply  on  the  Isthmus.  Amendments 
proposing  a  study  of  the  commercial  op- 
portunities afforded  by  the  canal,  as  well 
as  the  agricultural  possibilities  of  the  land 
above  water,  were  offered,  but  the  military 
idea  was  then  in  the  ascendant,  and  it  was 
deemed  best  to  clear  the  zone  of  all  in- 
habitants except  in  Panama  City,  Colon, 
and  other  designated  settlements.  The 
amendments  were  therefore  rejected.  It 
is  to  be  presumed,  however,  that  in  due 
course,  as  the  government  work  upon  the 
canal  increases,  and  as  international  ship- 
ping avails  itself  more  generally  of  the  ad- 
vantages of  the  canal,  problems  of  fuel  and 
food  supply,  along  with  the  many  other 
problems  incident  to  so  great  an  under- 
taking, will  result  in  some  action  by  the 
United  States  to  secure  for  its  merchants 
and  business  men  such  advantages  in  South 
America  and  the  international  trade  as  the 
ownership  and  operation  of  the  canal 
would  seem  to  justify.  Otherwise  the 
value  of  the  canal  as  a  stimulant  to  trade 
and  a  promoter  of  American  interests  will 
not  be  fully  realized. 


CHAPTER  XL 


PROBLEMS  OF  QUARANTINE 

THE  GEOGRAPHY  OF  DISEASE — OPENING  OF  CANAL  PROVIDES  HIGHWAY  FOR  DISEASES 
AS  WELL  AS  FOR  COMMERCE — BUBONIC  PLAGUE,  CHOLERA,  YELLOW  FEVER, 
LEPROSY,  TYPHUS,  AND  SMALLPOX  ANCIENT  WANDERERS  THAT  FOLLOW  MAN- 
KIND AROUND  THE  EARTH — PRECAUTIONS  TO  BE  TAKEN  AT  PANAMA — SANITARY 
EFFECT  UPON  COMMERCE  OF  THE  NEW  TRADE  ROUTE — UNITED  STATES  GOV- 
ERNMENT ACQUIRES  JURISDICTION  OVER  FOREIGN  VESSELS  FOR  QUARANTINE 
PURPOSES. 

BY  RUPERT  BLUE,  M.D.,  D.P.H. 
Surgeon-General,  United  States  Public  Health  Service. 


THE  first  problems  in  the  Panama 
Canal  project  were  sanitary  ones 
incidental  to  its  construction.  With 
the  opening  of  the  canal  to  commerce 
other  problems  equally  grave  and  demand- 
ing sanitary  acumen  of  the  highest  order 
will  present  themselves.  Difficulties  must 
be  expected  and  forestalled  wherever  nature 
is  to  be  dominated  and  made  to  serve 
man's  purposes.  Such  has  been  the  in- 
variable experience  from  the  earliest  his- 
tory of  humanity's  struggling  progress. 
All  the  difficulties  were  not  passed  when 
primitive  man  lassoed  the  first  wild  horse, 
taught  it  to  feed  in  the  stall  and  fixed  the 
bit  in  its  refractory  mouth — there  still  re- 
mained the  perils  of  horsemanship.  The 
construction  and  launching  of  the  first 
rude  canoe  was  a  notable  victory  over  the 
watery  bounds  hemming  in  the  savage's 
activity,  but  shipwreck  and  the  perils  of 
the  sea  were  yet  to  be  contended  with  and 
a  thousand  expedients  for  as  many  diffi- 
culties invented.  The  aeroplane  mounts 
to  the  clouds,  but  the  daily  press  is  an  end- 
less chronicle  of  the  dangers  of  the  naviga- 
tion of  the  air.  The  ventilating  of  tun- 
nels, the  fireproofing  of  buildings,  safety 
appliances  in  railroad  transportation  are 
other  examples  of  the  continued  efforts 
in  the  interest  of  human  welfare  called  for 
after  the  successful  installation  of  useful 
improvements  on  older  ways  of  doing 
things. 


The  high  standard  of  sanitation  already 
established  in  the  Canal  Zone  must  be 
maintained  as  long  as  the  canal  is  to  be 
operated  with  safety  to  health.  In  addi- 
tion to  this  continuance  of  sound  hygienic 
practices  already  begun,  new  problems  will 
immediately  arise  with  the  opening  of  the 
canal — problems  incidental  to  the  changes 
in  the  routes  of  navigation,  highways,  not 
only  of  commerce,  but  of  epidemic  disease. 

No  branch  of  geography  is  more  sub- 
ject to  changes  than  the  geography  of  dis- 
ease as  the  result  of  great  human  move- 
ments such  as  those  caused  by  war,  by 
emigration,  by  the  opening  of  new  terri- 
tory, or  by  changes  in  the  routes  of  com- 
merce on  land  and  sea.  This  is  particu- 
larly the  case  with  the  geographic  distri- 
bution of  quarantinable  diseases.  It  is 
usual  to  speak  of  these  diseases  as  having 
endemic  areas  in  certain  parts  of  the  world, 
centers  in  which  they  have  become  estab- 
lished and  from  which,  under  favoring 
conditions,  they  issue  and  spread  to  sec- 
tions previously  unoccupied  by  them, 
sometimes  forming  new  centers  of  perma- 
nent prevalence. 

In  order  to  comprehend  this  matter 
clearly,  it  must  be  remembered  that  epi- 
demic disease  is  but  a  manifestation  of  an 
existing  cause,  the  living  germ  whose 
presence  in  the  human  body  excites  the 
phenomenon  we  call  disease.  The  geogra- 
phy of  disease  resolves  itself  then  into  the 


244 


1.  Early  print  of  the  present  city  of  Panama. 

2.  Ancon  Hospital  grounds,  with  Tivoli  Hotel  in  the  distance. 


A  SIEVE  TO  SIFT  OUT  DISEASE 


245 


distribution  of  the  disease-producing  fac- 
tors, and  is  precisely  analogous  to  the 
distribution  of  groups  of  plants  or  animals. 
The  habitat  of  all  plants  and  animals  is 
subject  to  mutations  due  to  many  familiar 
causes,  as,  for  example,  geological  and 
climatic  changes  and  the  invasion  of  new 
territory  by  other  animals  or  by  man.  The 
appearance,  disappearance  or  re-appear- 
ance of  any  given  disease  in  a  special  terri- 
tory is  very  similar  to  the  behavior  of  in- 
sects and  plants  under  certain  conditions. 
Changes  of  an  effective  nature  likely  to 
operate  on  the  geographical  distribution 
of  diseases  caused  by  living  organisms  are 
to  be  expected  as  a  result  of  the  modifica- 
tions in  world  routes  incidental  to  the  open- 
ing of  the  Panama  Canal. 

It  is  self-evident  that  diseases  whose 
distribution  varies  widely  at  different 
times  and  under  changing  circumstances 
are  those  against  which  the  measures  in- 
cluded in  the  practice  of  quarantine  apply. 
Plague  is  a  scourge  whose  wanderings  in 
many  ages  over  the  face  of  the  earth  have 
linked  its  dismal  story  with  the  history 
of  mankind  in  many  epochs.  Cholera  is 
another  traveler  whose  fatal  shadow  has 
been  thrown  over  many  a  melancholy 
chronicle  in  the  pages  of  history.  Yellow 
fever,  issuing  from  its  tropical  home,  has 
too  often  followed  the  routes  of  travel  and 
commerce.  Leprosy,  an  ancient  wanderer; 
typhus,  haunting  the  abodes  of  poverty 
and  filth ;  and  smallpox,  a  squatter  in  vari- 
ous climes,  are  other  ills  whose  vagrancy 
have  caused  them  to  be  classified  among 
quarantinable  diseases. 

Research  in  recent  years,  by  the  appli- 
cation of  modern  laboratory  methods,  has 
led  to  very  precise  knowledge  of  the  causa- 
tive agents  of  infectious  diseases.  In  no 
branch  of  medicine  have  these  scientific 
advances  been  productive  of  greater  bene- 
fit than  in  the  combat  with  the  disease 
scourges  accompanying  civilization  in  its 
commercial,  emigratory  and  colonizing 
movements.  The  story  of  these  ills  track- 
ing mankind  on  a  thousand  marches  and 
voyages  is  of  intense  economic  interest. 


The  close  connection  between  new  routes 
of  travel  and  the  spread  of  disease  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  the  word  "Lazaretto"  was 
brought  back  by  the  crusaders  on  their 
return  to  Europe.  Places  outside  the 
gates  of  nearly  all  the  principal  cities  of 
Europe  were  built  for  the  reception  of  sick 
crusaders,  who  also  brought  back  with  them 
numerous  diseases.  The  name  came  from 
that  of  the  Hospital  of  St.  Lazarus,  a  place 
of  sequestration  for  contagious  maladies 
which  the  crusaders  erected  outside  the 
walls  of  Jerusalem  after  taking  the  city  from 
the  Mussulmans.  Leprosy  became  wide- 
spread during  the  epoch  of  the  crusades  as 
the  result  of  opening  new  routes  of  travel 
and  increased  use  of  old  routes. 

Plague  is  a  disease  which  has  always 
maintained  itself  in  certain  endemic  centers 
in  Asia  from  which  waves  of  diffusion,  fol- 
lowing lines  of  travel,  have  from  time  to 
time  originated.  New  foci  have  been 
temporarily  formed  in  different  parts  of 
the  world,  and  from  these  secondary  cen- 
ters epidemic  waves  have  spread.  The 
relation  between  the  prevalence  of  plague 
among  rodents  and  its  outbreak  in  men 
is  notably  emphasized  in  the  chronicles  of 
the  disease,  the  infection  being  generally 
conveyed  from  rat  to  rat  and  from  rat  to 
man  through  the  agency  of  fleas.  The 
expediency  of  ridding  ships  from  rats  is 
obvious. 

Cholera,  a  disease  having  its  home  in 
India,  particularly  about  the  delta  of  the 
Ganges,  has  followed  almost  invariably 
in  its  excursions  throughout  the  world  the 
lines  of  traffic  by  land  and  water,  selecting 
certain  routes  and  omitting  others.  The 
most  important  of  recent  discoveries  re- 
garding this  disease  is  that  persons  exhibit- 
ing no  symptoms  of  illness  may  carry  the 
disease  in  their  bodies  and  communicate 
it  to  others.  The  necessity  for  a  rigid 
laboratory  examination  of  all  exposed  per- 
sons is  evident.  Yellow  fever  has  long  been 
associated  with  the  shipping.  The  pre- 
vention of  its  spread  from  port  to  port  by 
screening  and  mosquito  destruction  has 
been  made  possible  by  the  demonstration  of 


246 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA  CANAL 


the  connection  of  a  species  of  mosquito  in- 
sect with  the  disease. 

Every  good,  it  is  said,  brings  evils  in  its 
train.  The  shortening  of  certain  ocean 
routes  by  the  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal 
means  in  many  cases  the  bringing  closer 
together  of  disease  centers  with  territory 
whose  invasion  by  such  disease  is  feared. 
This  disadvantage  may  be  neutralized  by 
the  proper  application  of  sanitary  meas- 
ures. Geographical  disadvantages,  obsta- 
cles in  themselves  to  traffic,  are  often  bar- 
riers against  the  spread  of  disease.  Their 
removal,  effected  by  the  intelligence  and 
energy  of  man,  must  go  hand  in  hand  with 
artificial  defenses  against  the  passage  of 
disease.  An  interesting  point  of  inquiry 
is  to  what  extent  freedom  from  imported 
disease  is  due  to  geographical  position 
and  climatic  conditions.  The  peculiar  geo- 
graphical position  of  Great  Britain  mini- 
mizes to  a  certain  degree  the  introduction 
of  disease  through  commerce.  The  appli- 
cation of  sanitary  measures  to  the  specific 
cases  arising  from  the  great  changes  in 
ocean  routes  is  the  problem  whose  success- 
ful solution,  by  methods  at  present  avail- 
able, is  the  task  presenting  itself  to  the  san- 
itarian with  the  opening  of  the  Panama 
Canal.  The  difficulties  of  the  work  can 
be  to  a  large  extent  foreseen  and  hence 
provided  for,  but  it  is  natural  to  expect 
that  special  conditions,  wholly  novel  con- 
cerning details,  will  arise  calling  for  solu- 
tion on  the  spot  and  perhaps  giving  origin 
to  improved  procedures  beneficial  to  public 
health.  Often  in  this  way  disadvantages 
are  turned  into  advantages  and  the  efforts 
to  correct  matters  in  single  instances  re- 
sult in  widespread  improvement  in  lines 
not  directly  parallel  with  those  in  point. 
As  a  concrete  example,  the  measures  at 
Panama  against  rats  as  carriers  of  plague 
may  lead  to  the  fulfillment  of  a  hope  long 
entertained  of  rendering  rat-free  the  ship- 
ping of  the  world. 

Because  of  its  close  commercial  relations 
with  foreign  ports,  this  country  is  deeply 
interested  in  the  health  of  other  countries. 
Great  strides  in  the  direction  of  world  sani- 


tation can  be  made  by  the  policy  of  de- 
manding that  all  vessels  passing  through 
the  canal,  even  when  the  port  of  departure 
and  that  of  destination  are  foreign  ports, 
shall  be  in  the  health  condition  required 
by  the  United  States  quarantine  regula- 
tions for  vessels  arriving  at  domestic  ports. 
This  means  that  no  vessel  issuing  from  the 
canal  shall  have  on  board  any  person  sick 
of  quarantinable  disease,  or  shall  lodge  any 
human  carrier  of  such  disease,  or  any  ani- 
mal, such  as  rats  or  mosquitoes,  capable 
of  conveying  disease.  Loss  of  time  in  the 
operation  of  quarantine  measures,  fumiga- 
tion and  the  like,  may  in  appropriate  cases 
be  obviated  by  their  application  during 
the  transit  of  the  vessels  through  the  canal. 
By  such  courses,  sanitation,  which  made 
the  cutting  of  the  canal  possible,  may  be- 
stow a  further  boon  on  the  world  by  mak- 
ing the  canal  a  sieve  to  sift  out  disease 
dangers  that  might  otherwise  pass  through 
the  world's  highways,  infecting  other  lands 
and  perhaps  in  time  returning  to  our 
shores. 

The  high  seas  are  a  road  to  which  no 
nation  claims  ownership.  Its  routes  are 
open  to  all.  Each  nation  imposes  such  reg- 
ulations as  it  deems  fit  on  vessels  sailing 
under  its  flag.  But  sanitary  restraints 
foreign  to  the  country  where  a  vessel  is 
registered  do  not  become  effective  until 
the  vessel  enters  within  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  foreign  government  under  whose  au- 
thority the  regulations  were  made.  The 
coming  of  a  vessel  within  the  sphere  of 
control  of  a  nation  having  an  interest  in 
the  health  of  the  world  is  an  opportunity 
of  unusual  advantage  for  bringing  into 
action  sanitary  rules  and  practices  benefi- 
cial to  shipping,  having  in  mind  in  the 
selection  of  these  measures,  the  minimum 
restraint  of  commerce  consistent  with 
effectiveness. 

It  is  especially  important  to  improve 
such  a  favorable  opportunity  for  the  bet- 
terment of  the  hygiene  of  shipping  in  view 
of  the  fact  that,  with  the  rising  standard 
of  living,  there  is  in  operation  a  progres- 
sive increase  in  traffic  by  sea.  Not  only 


THE  GREAT  DISEASE  ROUTES 


247 


are  civilized  nations  becoming  yearly  more 
dependent  on  foreign  trade,  but  even  half- 
savage  peoples,  from  lack  of  local  manu- 
factures, look  to  shipping  as  a  means  of 
trading  the  crude  products  of  wild  lands 
for  clothing  and  certain  food  elements 
originating  in  distant  parts  of  the  world. 

Though  unrestrained  at  sea,  the  free- 
dom of  a  ship  comes  at  once,  as  has  been 
indicated,  under  control  the  moment  the 
vessel  enters  the  limits  of  a  port.  Not 
only  do  regulations  become  effective  con- 
trolling air  space,  light,  ventilation  and 
life-saving  appliances,  but  rules  are  pre- 
scribed bearing  on  the  health  of  passen- 
gers and  crews  and  on  the  presence  aboard 
of  living  beings,  such  as  rats,  the  carriers 
of  plague,  and  mosquitoes,  the  intermedi- 
aries between  patients  afflicted  with  yellow 
fever.  Thus  governments  as  public  pro- 
tectors, are  under  obligation  to  the  people 
to  see  that  every  reasonable  effort  is  made 
on  every  available  occasion  to  protect  the 
health  of  those  who  go  to  sea  and  of  those 
with  whom  sea-going  persons  and  the 
vessels  that  carry  them  are  brought  in  con- 
tact ashore. 

Arriving  within  the  limits  of  a  port,  the 
inbound  vessel  must  stop,  and  submit 
to  inspection  of  everything  aboard,  papers, 
passengers,  crew,  cargo,  supplies,  the  ship 
itself,  in  so  far  as  the  quarantine  authori- 
ties deem  expedient.  As  a  result  of  this 
examination  the  vessel  is  either  given  free 
pratique  to  enter  port,  or  may  be  detained 
for  the  application  of  such  sanitary  meas- 
ures as  are  deemed  necessary  in  the  interest 
of  public  health. 

A  knowledge  of  the  highways  of  the  sea, 
of  the  localities  where  disease  is  likely  to 
prevail,  and  of  the  changes  of  relations  be- 
tween ports  that  will  be  brought  about  by 
the  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal,  is  neces- 
sary to  a  clear  understanding  of  the  ques- 
tions under  consideration.  The  ocean  trade 
routes  of  the  world,  too  numerous  even  to 
be  charted  on  ordinary  maps,  could  not  be 
intelligibly  reviewed  within  a  limited  space. 
They  are  multitudinous.  The  use  of  steam 
has  doubled  the  number.  All  routes,  be- 


cause of  the  complex  relations  of  trade, 
will  be  directly,  indirectly  or  remotely 
affected  immediately  or  at  a  later  period 
by  the  opening  of  the  canal.  The  full  ex- 
tent of  the  effect  of  these  changes  on  inter- 
national health  aspects  can  only  be  sur- 
mised. 

In  order  to  understand  clearly  the  ex- 
tent of  changes  involved,  a  glance  may 
with  benefit  be  taken  at  the  chief  trade 
routes  of  the  world  without  going  so  far 
afield,  or  rather  to  sea,  as  to  trace  the 
endless  side-tracks,  feeders  and  other  acces- 
sory routes,  except  when  their  considera- 
tion has  direct  bearing  on  quarantine. 

The  chief  routes  of  the  North  Atlantic 
are  those  connecting  the  Atlantic  Coast  of 
the  United  States  with  ports  of  North- 
ern Europe.  One-sixth  of  the  ocean  com- 
merce of  the  world,  carried  by  the  largest 
and  fastest  vessels,  follows  this  route. 
Any  epidemic  disease  occurring  in  ports 
brought  thus  into  relation  may  take  the 
same  path. 

The  route  created  by  the  Suez  Canal  is 
next  in  importance.  It  passes  from  the 
Atlantic  through  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar, 
with  accessory  routes  including  all  ports 
of  the  Mediterranean,  and  then  around  the 
continent  of  Asia  to  Japan.  Cholera  and 
plague  have  in  Asia  their  endemic  homes 
near  the  tributaries  of  this  track,  and 
along  its  course  are  many  ports  opening 
into  territory  both  in  Europe  and  in  Asia 
that  has  on  numerous  occasions  received 
the  visitations  of  these  scourges.  The  epi- 
demic of  cholera  in  Italy  and  elsewhere 
in  Europe  in  1910  and  1911  is  an  example. 

The  South  African  route,  drawing  on  the 
scattered  settlements  of  the  west  coast  of 
Africa,  divides  at  the  Cape  Verde  Islands 
into  two  branches,  one  bound  for  the  Eng- 
lish Channel,  the  other  for  New  York.  By 
these  routes,  the  world's  highway  is  open 
to  communicable  diseases  that  may  from 
time  to  time  prevail  on  the  west  coast  of 
Africa.  Cape  Colony,  Natal,  Rhodesia, 
and  the  Transvaal  were,  within  the  last 
decade,  the  seat  of  an  extended  epidemic 
of  plague 


248 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


The  region  to  the  eastward  of  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  receives  visits  from  vessels 
passing  along  the  west  coast.  Some  go  to 
Australia  and  New  Zealand,  countries 
afflicted  with  plague  during  the  prevalence 
of  the  present  world-wide  epidemic  of  that 
disease.  This  route  to  Australia  is  used 
in  preference  to  the  Suez  route  by  vessels 
plying  between  the  United  States  and 
Australia. 

Around  the  coast  of  South  America  from 
the  eastern  projection  of  that  continent 
to  Panama  and  up  the  west  coast  of  North 
America  to  British  Columbia  sweeps  an- 
other great  world  highway.  Yellow  fever, 
plague,  and  smallpox  are  among  the  un- 
welcome visitors  which  vessels  visiting 
certain  ports  on  this  route  may  involun- 
tarily receive  aboard.  Calls  are  often 
made  at  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Santos,  where 
Brazilian  coffee  is  received,  and  at  the  River 
Plate,  where  grain  and  meat  are  the  chief 
cargoes.  Commodities  of  various  char- 
acter are  received  and  discharged  at  ports 
between  southern  Chile  and  Guayaquil, 
a  region  parts  of  which,  because  of  their 
insalubrity,  are  the  subject  of  much  alarm 
on  the  part  of  sanitarians,  travelers  and 
the  shipping  interests.  Vessels  in  the  New 
Zealand  trade  returning  to  Europe  with 
cargo  add  to  the  shipping  through  the 
Strait  of  Magellan,  and  certain  steamers 
running  between  New  York  and  San  Fran- 
cisco or  Hawaii  pass  through  the  same 
channel. 

The  routes  entering  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
and  the  Caribbean  Sea  by  the  several 
inlets  are  frequented  by  vessels  from  the 
Atlantic  Coast  of  the  United  States  and 
from  Europe  which  visit,  as  do  also  vessels 
from  the  Gulf  Coast  of  the  United  States, 
the  many  ports  of  that  tropical  region  and 
are  thus  exposed  to  the  dangers  of  yellow 
fever,  plague,  and  other  communicable 
disease  which  may  at  the  time  exist  at 
these  places. 

Of  Pacific  routes,  the  most  important  is 
that  connecting  North  America  and  Asia. 
San  Francisco,  Puget  Sound,  Portland,  and 
San  Diego  are  the  well-known  American 


termini.  Manzanillo  and  Salina  Cruz  are 
the  Mexican  ports  interested.  Some  ves- 
sels call  at  Hawaii,  and  all  courses  meet  at 
Yokohama,  whence  the  route  follows  the 
coast  of  Asia,  having  access  to  ports  closely 
scrutinized  for  cholera  and  plague,  and 
thence  to  the  Philippines. 

Finally,  there  are  the  routes  from  the 
Pacific  Coast,  whereby  San  Francisco  is 
connected  with  New  Zealand,  via  Tahiti; 
and  Vancouver  with  Australia  and  the  Fiji 
Islands. 

The  most  decided  effect  in  trade  routes 
incidental  to  the  opening  of  the  Panama 
Canal  will  be  the  change  in  the  route  around 
South  America.  By  way  of  the  canal  the 
voyage  from  New  York  to  San  Francisco 
will  be  5,000  miles,  which  is  8,000  miles 
shorter  than  by  the  Magellan  route.  New 
Orleans  will  save  9,000  miles  and  Liver- 
pool 6,000  miles  in  sending  ships  to  San 
Francisco.  Guayaquil  is  brought  7,500 
miles  nearer  New  York,  8,500  miles  nearer 
New  Orleans,  and  5,500  miles  nearer 
Liverpool. 

The  western  coast  of  South  America 
comprises  an  immense  territory  rich  at 
present,  and  likely  with  the  development 
of  trans-Andean  railroads  to  become  richer 
by  its  intercourse  with  Brazil  and  Argen- 
tina. Through  Panama  this  vast  terri- 
tory will  come  in  close  relation  with  the 
commerce  of  the  world.  Without  a  watch- 
ful surveillance  not  only  will  its  wealth  be 
cast  into  the  stream  of  commerce,  but  by 
the  same  channel  yellow  fever,  plague, 
etc.,  with  which  some  of  its  ports  have 
been  cursed,  may  also  enter  the  current. 

From  New  York  and  the  North  Atlantic 
ports  of  the  United  States,  the  distance  to 
the  Philippines  and  Hongkong  by  Panama 
is  not  much  less  than  by  Suez.  The  dis- 
tance from  New  Orleans  to  Manila,  about 
13,000  miles  by  the  Suez  via  Colombo  and 
Singapore,  is  reduced  to  about  1 1 ,000  miles 
by  the  Panama  route.  New  York  is  nearly 
4,000  miles  nearer  Sydney,  Australia,  by 
way  of  Panama,  than  by  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  The  distance  from  New  York  to 
Australia  is  practically  the  same  by  Cape 


CHANGES   IN   OCEAN   COMMERCE 


249 


of  Good  Hope  as  by  the  Suez  Canal,  and 
the  Cape  route  has  the  advantage  over  the 
Suez  of  more  favorable  winds  and  currents 
and  of  a  lower  temperature. 

The  important  sanitary  effect  of  changes 
in  ocean  commerce  brought  about  by  the 
use  of  the  Panama  route  is  shown  by  a 
comparison  of  the  distance  between  the 
Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  by  the  new  water- 
way and  by  the  routes  at  present  in  use. 

The  following  table  shows  the  distance 
by  way  of  the  Straits  of  Magellan  and  by 
Panama  Canal  from  New  York  and  from 
New  Orleans  to  San  Francisco  and  Iquique: 

By  By 

From  New  York —                    Magellan  Panama 

To  San  Francisco I3.7H  5»299 

To  Iquique 9,221  4,021 

By  By 

From  New  Orleans —  Magellan  Panama 

To  San  Francisco 14,114  4,698 

To  Iquique 9,621  3,420 


For  purposes  of  comparison  in  the  table, 
New  York  has  been  selected  as  the  princi- 
pal Atlantic  port  of  the  United  States; 
New  Orleans  as  the  chief  Gulf  port;  San 
Francisco  as  the  leading  Pacific  port  of 
the  United  States;  and  Iquique,  Chile, 
as  the  center  of  the  nitrate  of  soda  section. 

Distance  alone  does  not  in  all  cases  de- 
termine the  routes  of  vessels;  the  cost  of 
operating  including  port  expenses,  fuel, 
pilotage,  tolls,  etc.,  enters  into  the  decision; 
but  enough  has  been  shown  by  a  review  of 
routes  to  indicate  that  immense  changes  in- 
volving sanitary  problems  of  the  gravest 
importance  are  impending. 

The  defense  of  Panama  includes  sani- 
tary as  well  as  armed  defense.  Sani- 
tary guarding  is  not  only  a  local  protection 
in  the  case  of  Panama;  it  means  an  im- 
provement of  the  hygiene  of  shipping 
throughout  the  world. 


CHAPTER  XLI 


THE  PROPOSAL  TO  COMPLETE  THE  CANAL  BY  CONTRACTORS'  GROUPS 

AMERICAN  ENGINEERS  INDIFFERENT  TO  EARLY  FRENCH  OPERATIONS — SPANISH  WAR 
STIRS  UP  PATRIOTISM — CONTRACTORS  EAGERLY  STUDY  AMERICAN  CANAL 
PLANS — COMMISSION  CONSULTS  LEADING  CONTRACTORS  AND  DEVISES  PLAN 
TO  CONSTRUCT  WATERWAY  BY  CONTRACTORS'  GROUPS — WIDE  VARIATIONS 
IN  THE  BIDS — INFORMAL  BIDS — REJECTION  OF  ALL  BIDS — CIVIL  ENGINEERS 
AND  CONTRACTORS  GIVE  FULL  CREDIT  TO  COL.  GOETHALS  AND  His  STAFF. 

BY  ARTHUR  F.  MACARTHUR 


TO  the  young  engineer  and  constructor 
who  was  on  the  Isthmus  of  Panama 
in  December,  1888,  and  witnessed 
the  tragic  denouement  of  the  work  in  the 
field  of  the  "Compagnie  Universelle  du 
Canal  Interoceanique  de  Panama"  must 
have  come  some  of  the  conclusions  which 
came  to  the  mind  of  the  writer  of  this 
article,  who  was  at  that  time  a  brief  so- 
journer  in  the  land  where  Count  Ferdinand 
de  Lesseps  was  the  leading  spirit.  These 
conclusions  were,  in  a  word,  that  the 
acknowledged  success  which  had  attended 
the  efforts  of  the  great  constructor  in  the 
joining  of  two  seas  in  the  Eastern  Hemi- 
sphere had  driven  his  luckless  sun-chariot 
,into  oblivion  under  the  tropical  suns  of 
the  western  world,  and  that  the  dream  of 
three  and  a  half  centuries  of  establishing 
water  communication  across  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama  from  ocean  to  ocean  was  at  an 
end  for  at  least  a  generation  to  come,  if 
not  forever. 

No  one  could  witness  the  destruction 
wrought  by  the  then  recent  rains  and  not 
conclude,  despite  the  charges  of  reckless 
and  ill  advised  expenditures  by  the  French 
company,  which  were  apparently  in  evi- 
dence everywhere  along  the  canal  route, 
that  after  all,  from  a  construction  stand- 
point, the  control  of  the  flood  waters  of 
the  Chagres  River  was  the  crucial  test  of 
the  canal's  feasibility.  A  continuous  rain 
of  two  nights  and  days  at  that  time  had 
wrought  ruin  everywhere  and  apparently 
had  put  the  active  works  and  studies  of  a 


decade  by  the  best-known  engineers  in  the 
world,  with  their  thousands  of  co-workers, 
fabulous  sums  expended,  and  thousands 
of  lives  sacrificed  in  the  undertaking,  into 
the  archives  of  romantic  history.  Never 
was  a  more  pathetic  human  story  written 
on  the  faces  of  mortals  than  was  read  by 
the  writer  in  the  faces  of  those  hapless 
thousands  in  camps  along  the  canal  route 
and  on  the  streets  of  Colon  and  Panama 
and  about  the  crowded  lobbies  of  the 
hotels  in  those  luckless  days  on  the  isthmus 
in  December,  1888. 

"L'honneur  de  France"  was  the  most 
frequently  uttered  phrase  on  the  isthmus 
in  those  gloomy  hours.  It  was  reechoed 
throughout  the  whole  French  republic 
from  club  to  peasant-hut,  and  it  was  a 
specious  argument  which  pictured  the 
revival  of  the  enterprise  and  its  completion 
at  any  sacrifice  of  men  or  means  by  the 
French  government. 

While  the  work  on  the  isthmus  by  the 
first  French  company  had  excited  some 
interest  on  the  part  of  the  American 
engineers  at  its  inception,  comparatively 
few  found  employment  thereon,  and  during 
the  construction  and  for  the  decade  fol- 
lowing the  appointment  of  the  receiver  for 
the  company,  the  American  engineer  or 
contractor  rarely  heard  of  and  paid  small 
heed  to  the  undertakings  on  the  isthmus. 

Busied  with  plans  and  undertakings  for 
all  kinds  of  construction  work  in  the 
development  of  our  own  internal  water- 
ways, railways,  hydro-electric  properties, 
250 


THE  PLAN  OF  CONTRACTORS'  GROUPS 


251 


sanitation,  and  buildings,  there  was  work 
at  home  for  all  the  talent  of  engineers  and 
contractors  in  the  beginning  of  one  of  the 
greatest  eras  of  construction  work  ever 
inaugurated  in  America.  And  it  is  there- 
fore not  surprising  that  the  tremendous 
impetus  to  patriotism  aroused  by  the 
Spanish  War  should  not  have  to  wait  to 
find  a  most  ready  expression  in  the  indivi- 
duals who  for  one  cause  or  another  had 
been  denied  the  privilege  of  fighting  for 
the  flag  in  Cuba  or  Manila,  while  busied 
in  the  great  undertakings  at  home.  Ac- 
cordingly, when  the  first  isthmian  commis- 
sion was  appointed  to  consider  the  whole 
question  of  isthmian  transit  by  navigation 
the  engineering  and  contracting  fraternity 
of  the  United  States  patiently  waited  to 
be  called  into  service  for  the  greatest  single 
undertaking  of  all  ages  in  the  line  of  their 
chosen  work. 

The  isthmian  canal  was  to  become  an 
accomplished  fact,  a  world  work  was  to 
be  done  by  Americans  with  American 
brains,  brawn  and  money,  for  Americans 
and  for  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  for  all 
time.  And  it  was  no  uncommon  interest 
which  was  manifested  in  the  query:  Would 
it  be  done  by  the  administration  and  those 
trained  in  government  service,  and  be 
carried  on  as  an  army  undertaking;  or 
would  those  supposedly  most  skilled  by 
experience  in  each  particular  department 
of  this  most  complex  and  exceptionally 
great  work  be  called  from  among  the 
ranks  of  the  nation's  best  civilians,  who 
were  trained  executives  in  construction 
work  and  who  could  offer  the  immediate 
benefit  of  efficient  existing  organizations 
to  aid  the  country  in  its  great  undertaking? 

The  Spanish  War  had  done  much  more 
than  put  upon  a  secure  footing  the  peace 
and  happiness  of  a  few  neighboring  Latin 
Americans  and  distant  islanders.  It  had 
suddenly  made  the  undertaking  of  the 
construction  of  the  Panama  Canal  by 
Americans  a  national  necessity,  and  the 
war's  experience  had  uncovered  a  relief 
from  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  previous 
failure  on  the  isthmus.  The  causes  of 


malaria  and  yellow  fever  were  no  longer  a 
mystery  to  science,  and  the  medical  pro- 
fession was  to  play  a  prominent  part  in 
the  construction  and  divide  honors  with 
engineers  and  constructors  in  the  great 
work. 

Men  could  now  live  and  think  and  work 
on  the  isthmus  through  wet  and  dry 
months.  The  medical  profession  had 
already  blazed  the  trail  for  successful 
accomplishment  by  the  engineer  and 
constructor,  and  the  bete  noir  of  the 
French,  the  Chagres  River,  vanished  like 
its  own  rising  miasma  at  noontide.  The 
problem  for  the  engineer  and  constructor 
was  simply  one  of  men  enough,  plant 
enough,  time  enough,  and  money  enough, 
and  the  canal  would  be  an  accomplished 
fact  at  a  cost  which  our  government  could 
well  afford  to  pay. 

Into  the  conferences  of  the  Isthmian 
Canal  Commission  and  the  Board  of  Con- 
sulting Engineers,  many  of  the  leading 
engineers  and  contractors  of  the  country 
were  called  from  time  to  time,  and  after 
nearly  three  years  of  study,  survey,  and 
actual  construction  by  the  government, 
the  waiting  American  contract  world  was 
rewarded  for  its  interest  in  the  matter  by 
the  suggestion  that  the  government  might 
soon  consider  the  advisability  of  con- 
tracting the  work  of  completing  the  canal 
by  associating  with  the  work  of  the  com- 
mission the  best  trained  talent  of  the  world 
in  each  department  of  the  undertaking; 
the  plan  contemplating  a  competition  for 
the  work  between  groups  of  contractors, 
each  group  composed  of  contractors  who 
had  achieved  notable  success  in  some  of 
the  departments  of  construction  involved 
in  the  undertaking  and  whose  combined 
experience  covered  the  whole  task,  and 
whose  reputations,  like  that  of  Caesar's 
wife,  must  be  above  suspicion,  and  whose 
combined  capital  should  be  sufficient  at 
all  times  to  carry  out  their  undertakings 
with  the  government. 

For  the  formation  of  one  such  group  of 
contractors,  MacArthur  Brothers  Company 
were  early  invited,  many  months  prior  to 


252 


HISTORY   OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


any  public  discussion  of  the  matter  and 
before  any  definite  qualifications  and 
requirements  expected  from  possible  bid- 
ders had  been  formulated  by  the  com- 
mission. 

Finally  the  question  of  contracting  the 
completion  of  the  work  was  discussed  by 
the  chairman  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Com- 
mission in  a  communication  addressed  to 
the  Secretary  of  War,  dated  August  29, 
1906.  A  copy  of  the  communication  was 
made  public  and  submitted  to  prospective 
bidders,  as  indicating  to  them  some  of  the 
reasons  why  the  work  was  to  be  let  to  con- 
tractors, and  the  general  qualifications  and 
requirements  which  would  be  exacted  by 
the  government. 

The  widespread  interest  manifested  in 
the  work  on  the  canal,  which  so  far  had 
been  conducted  under  the  immediate  direc- 
tion of  the  civilian  chief  engineers,  one  of 
whom  had  inaugurated  the  great  work  in 
its  most  trying  period  and  stayed  with  it 
but  little  over  a  year,  and  whose  successor 
was  at  this  time  barely  entering  upon  his 
second  year  of  incumbency,  was  now  most 
naturally  intensified  in  the  public  mind. 
When  the  announcement  was  made  that 
President  Roosevelt  was  seriously  con- 
sidering the  placing  of  the  completion  of 
the  canal  under  contract,  the  plan  was 
interpreted  by  many  to  mean  an  admission 
of  defeat  by  the  government  to  its  own 
organization,  and  dire  results  were  pre- 
dicted for  the  fortunes  of  any  group  of  con- 
tractors who  would  enter  into  any  part- 
nership or  dual  performance  with  the 
government  in  this  stupendous  and  risky 
undertaking.  The  enemies  of  the  canal  at 
home  and  abroad  wisely  shook  their  heads 
and  rushed  into  print  for  a  period. 

Under  the  fire  of  such  public  discussion 
it  was  no  easy  task  to  enlist  the  interest  of 
contractors  in  the  groups  desired  by  the 
government.  Contractors  of  national  repu- 
tation, achievement,  and  financial  responsi- 
bility had  to  be  induced  by  much  argu- 
ment, suggestion,  and  effort  to  join  such  a 
combination.  The  multiplied  divisions  of 
the  work  extended  over  a  long  series  of 


years,  and  the  necessary  division  of  profits 
did  not  appeal  to  large  contracting  con- 
cerns, all  of  whom  were  profitably  employ- 
ing their  capital  and  organizations  at  home. 
Millions  of  capital  and  credit  was  to  be 
interested  in  the  proposed  groups,  for  a 
long  time,  under  so  many  conditions  of 
risk,  attendant  with  the  personal  danger 
to  health  in  the  tropics,  that  contractors 
and  capital  became  shy  of  the  undertaking 
after  their  first  enthusiasm  had  subsided. 
The  first  drafts  of  invitations  to  bidders 
and  proposed  forms  of  contracts  were 
many  times  modified  and  finally  with- 
drawn, after  much  discussion  between  the 
President  of  the  United  States,  the  mem- 
bers of  his  cabinet,  the  chairman  of  the 
commission,  and  the  intending  bidders. 

The  frankness  and  evident  fairness  of 
these  discussions,  in  an  effort  to  harmonize 
all  views  and  obtain  the  best  results  for 
the  government,  with  a  fair  compensation 
for  the  contractor  with  the  minimum  of 
risk,  characterized  all  the  discussions  at 
which  the  writer  had  the  honor  to  be  pres- 
ent. But  finally  in  pursuance  of  the  general 
plan,  invitations  were  publicly  issued  to 
bidders  throughout  the  country  under 
date  of  October  9,  1906,  calling  for  the 
reception  of  bids  January  12,  1907. 

After  many  weeks  of  fruitless  negotia- 
tion between  groups  of  contractors,  and 
within  a  very  few  days  of  the  time  set  for 
receiving  bids,  it  became  evident  that  few, 
if  any,  groups  of  contractors  throughout 
the  country  could  be  formed,  or  bankers 
enlisted  into  the  groups  for  the  under- 
takings proposed  by  the  government. 
Accordingly  the  specifications  and  financial 
requirements  were  at  the  last  moment 
very  materially  modified,  cutting  down 
the  bond  to  be  given  by  the  contractors 
from  $3,000,000  to  $2,000,000,  and  the 
available  cash  capital  required  down  to 
$5,000,000,  which  was  always  to  be  kept 
intact  in  the  treasury  of  the  contracting 
group. 

Several  hundred  copies  of  the  invitation 
to  bidders  and  forms  of  contract  were 
given  out  and  received  by  and  seriously 


NATURE  OF  THE  BIDS 


253 


considered  by  the  contractors  of  the  coun- 
try. And  the  widest  publicity  was  likewise 
given  through  the  popular  and  technical 
journals. 

Bids  from  several  competent  groups 
were  expected  by  the  commission,  as 
several  tentative  groups  were  known  to 
have  been  formed  for  the  purpose  of 
bidding. 

When  it  came,  however,  to  the  reception 
of  the  bids,  while  four  bids  only  were 
presented,  only  one  of  them  had  complied 
with  the  terms  and  vital  requirements  of 
the  invitations.  That  was  the  bid  of  the 
MacArthur-Gillespie  Company,  a  group 
organized  for  the  purpose  of  completing 
the  construction  of  the  canal  pursuant  to 
the  invitation  of  the  government,  and 
composed  of  four  of  the  most  successful 
contracting  concerns  in  the  country.  Each 
of  the  four  concerns  composing  the  group 
was  recognized  as  having  had  a  longer, 
wider  and  more  successful  experience  in 
the  field  of  contracting  than  any  of  the 
other  bidders;  and  all  had  a  larger  experi- 
ence in  all  the  important  branches  of  the 
work  called  to  be  done  on  the  canal,  and 
with  a  larger  organization  of  trained  and 
experienced  men  to  draw  from  than  all 
the  other  bidders  combined. 

For  the  successful,  economical,  and  cer- 
tain execution  of  the  great  work  it  was 
thought  that  the  government  had  re- 
ceived in  the  bid  of  the  MacArthur-Gillespie 
group  the  strength  of  the  strongest  and 
the  skill  of  the  most  experienced  contract- 
ors in  the  country. 

The  proposed  contract  for  which  the 
bidders  tendered  was  based  upon  the 
theory  of  paying  the  contracting  group  the 
cost  of  the  work  which  they  undertook  to 
perform  plus  a  percentage  for  the  risks 
assumed  and  profits  expected  by  the  group. 
The  performance  of  the  work,  however, 
was  to  be  a  dual  one  by  the  commission 
and  the  contractor  on  a  hitherto  untried 
basis  in  the  history  of  government  contracts. 

Large  risks  not  incident  to  other  govern- 
ment contracts  were  to-  be  assumed  by  the 
contractor.  It  was  difficult  to  determine 


what  possibilities  of  risk  might  arise,  and 
if  they  did  arise  by  whom  were  they  to  be 
assumed.  Some  of  the  most  important 
functions  upon  which  the  success  or  failure 
of  the  contractor  hinged  were  specially 
reserved  and  retained  in  the  control  of  the 
commission. 

The  method  of  estimating  the  cost  and 
time  for  the  construction  of  the  canal  and 
the  work  which  the  contractor  assumed  was 
to  be  determined  by  an  engineering  com- 
mittee of  five  members,  two  to  be  nomi- 
nated by  the  contractors,  and  three  by  the 
commission,  of  which  three  one  should  be 
the  chief  engineer  of  the  commission.  This 
engineering  committee  was  to  be  nomi- 
nated after  the  contract  should  be  executed 
and  after  the  contractor  had  assumed  all 
obligations,  backed  with  its  bond  and 
cash  resources.  To  some  contractors  the 
whole  principle  of  the  contracting  group 
idea  reduced  the  actual  doers  of  the  work 
to  mere  employees  of  the  government, 
whose  pay  would  become  most  uncertain 
and  whose  capital  and  time  would  be 
jeopardized.  It  is  not  surprising,  there- 
fore, that  only  four  bids  should  be  received 
and  that,  considering  figures  only,  they 
should  have  varied  in  expected  compensa- 
tion to  the  contractor,  being  in  numerical 
order  as  follows:  6.75  per  cent.,  7.17  per 
cent.,  12.5  per  cent.,  and  28  per  cent.  The 
wide  range  in  the  tenders  was  obviously 
the  measure  of  the  varying  estimates  of 
hazard  existing  in  the  judgment  of  the 
bidders. 

To  the  public  mind  it  appeared  remark- 
able that  a  bid  made  upon  a  percentage 
basis  should  afford  opportunity  for  such  a 
range  of  risk,  but  an  intelligent  examina- 
tion of  the  contract  provisions  and  con- 
ditions under  which  the  contractor  was  to 
receive  his  final  compensation  will,  in  the 
light  of  our  knowledge  today,  now  that  the 
canal  is  completed,  and  its  cost  ascertained, 
force  the  conclusion  that  had  either  one 
of  the  two  lowest  bids  been  accepted  and 
the  contract  undertaken,  the  unfortunate 
group  would  have  long  since  lost  all  its 
original  $5,000,000  capital  and  several  mil- 


254 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


lions  more,  had  it  been  able  to  progress 
with  the  work  up  to  its  nearly  completed 
stage,  or  the  government  would  have  had 
a  forfeited  contract  on  its  hands. 

The  bid  of  the  MacArthur-Gillespie 
Company  of  12.50  per  cent.,  so  strongly 
urged  for  acceptance  upon  the  government 
at  the  time,  would  have  resulted  in  divi- 
dends of  patriotism  to  be  distributed  among 
its  group. 

There  were  doubtless  contractors  who 
would  have  undertaken  the  great  work  for 
a  less  percentage  even  than  the  so-called 
lowest  bidder  submitted,  with  the  hope  of 
snatching  the  first  fruits  therefrom  and 
leaving  the  government  in  the  lurch  when 
the  day  of  trial  came.  And  well  might 
the  group  of  men  who  had  submitted  the 
only  tender  which  complied  with  the  terms 
and  requirements  of  the  invitations  and 
specifications  object  to  their  efforts  being 
laid  aside,  while  serious  consideration  was 
being  given  to  an  informal  tender.  How- 
ever, the  right  to  consider  an  informal  ten- 
der was  reserved  to  the  commission  in  the 
"General  Instructions  to  Bidders,"  and 
thus  by  inference  the  warning  to  intending 
bidders  against  informality  in  their  bids 
was  nullified  and  the  door  left  open  for  the 
commission  to  make  the  best  trade  it 
could  for  the  government.  This  the  com- 
mission sought  to  do  with  the  lowest 
informal  bidder,  who  upon  his  own  sug- 
gestion was  given  time  to  qualify  in  the 
necessary  financial  and  other  requirements 
of  the  proposal,  but  not  until  after  many 
formal  protests  had  been  made  by  able 
counsel  in  the  interests  of  the  MacArthur- 
Gillespie  bid  against  such  a  proceeding, 
and  oral  arguments  and  printed  briefs  had 
been  considered  thoughtfully  and  fairly  by 
the  President  and  the  commission  in  sup- 


port of  the  contention  for  the  right  to  the 
award,  if  any  were  to  be  made  by  the 
government,  to  the  MacArthur-Gillespie 
Company,  and  not  until  after  the  writer  on 
behalf  of  that  company  had  in  a  personal 
interview  with  the  President  assured  him 
of  the  hearty  acquiescence  by  the  group  he 
represented  in  any  procedure  which  would 
secure  for  the  government  the  completion 
of  the  canal  project  on  the  wisest  and  most 
favorable  terms  to  the  country. 

The  rejection  of  all  bids  some  days  later, 
and  the  placing  of  the  great  enterprise 
again  into  the  hands  of  the  army  engineers 
for  completion  by  administration  of  the 
President  through  the  commission,  must 
now,  after  the  years  of  successful  accom- 
plishment, meet  with  the  unqualified  ap- 
proval of  the  American  people. 

It  is  far  from  one  of  the  fundamental 
duties  of  good  government  that  the  action 
of  its  representatives  should  pursue  the 
individual  to  his  ruin.  The  suggestion  to 
put  this  great  national  work  under  con- 
tract invited  the  possibility  of  such  an  out- 
come, and  would  have  deprived  the  nation's 
faithful  servants,  the  army,  of  participation 
in  the  glories  of  the  actual  accomplishment 
of  the  greatest  single  peaceful  enterprise 
ever  undertaken  by  any  government. 

The  construction  of  the  canal  is  now  an 
accomplished  fact,  and  well  may  the 
American  engineers  in  civil  life  and  con- 
tractors doff  their  hats  to  Col.  George  W. 
Goethals  of  the  Army  Corps  and  his  group 
of  trained  constructors.  They  have  proven 
themselves  the  silent,  informal,  and  suc- 
cessful bidders  for  the  contract  which  the 
President  and  commission  might  have  over- 
looked had  they  not  been  looking  for  the 
best  trade  for  the  government  with 
contractors. 


CHAPTER  XLII 


THE  NAVY  AND  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 

NATIONAL  POLICIES  WHICH  AFFECT  EXTERNAL  RELATIONS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES — 
POSSIBLE  ANTAGONISTS  IN  THE  ATLANTIC  AND  PACIFIC — OUTLYING  POSSES- 
SIONS AND  THEIR  BEARING  UPON  NAVAL  REQUIREMENTS — CANAL  SHORTENS 
THE  ROUTE  OF  NAVAL  REINFORCEMENTS  BY  8,000  TO  10,000  MILES — EFFECT- 
IVENESS OF  NAVY  NOT  DOUBLED  BY  THE  CANAL,  BUT  IT  BECOMES  A  GREAT 
MILITARY  ASSET — ADVANTAGES  IN  DISPOSITION  OF  THE  FLEET — GREAT  SAV- 
ING OVER  MAGELLAN  ROUTE — NEW  DUTIES  IMPOSED  UPON  THE  NAVY  BY  THE 
CANAL. 

BY  CAPTAIN  HARRY  S.  KNAPP,  U.  S.  N.* 

NOTE. — In  the  preparation  of  this  History  the  Editor-in-Chief  requested  Admiral  George  Dewey  to 
prepare  a  chapter  dealing  with  the  effect  of  the  Panama  Canal  upon  the  United  States  Navy  and  naval 
strategy.  Admiral  Dewey  was  about  to  prepare  such  a  chapter  when  his  attention  was  directed  to  the 
appended  article  written  by  Capt.  Harry  Knapp,  U.  S.  N.,  to  which  Admiral  Dewey  refers  in  the  following 
letter:  "My  dear  Mr.  Bennett:  Recalling  our  conversation  relative  to  the  bearing  of  the  Panama  Canal 
upon  the  naval  development  of  the  United  States  I  have  forwarded  you  a  copy  of  an  article  on  that  subject 
written  for  the  U.  S.  Naval  Institute  by  Captain  Harry  S.  Knapp,  U.  S.  N.,  under  the  caption:  'The  Navy 
and  the  Panama  Canal.'  Captain  Knapp's  views  are  in  such  complete  accord  with  my  own  and  are  so 
clearly  and  convincingly  presented,  as  to  leave  no  occasion  for  separate  comment  on  the  subject  on  my 
part.  Very  sincerely  yours,  GEORGE  DEWEY." 


THE  completion  of  the  Panama  Canal 
is  so  nearly  at  hand  that  the  time 
has  seemed  appropriate  to  the  board 
of  control  to  publish  in  the  "Proceed- 
ings" a  discussion  of  the  effect  of  the  canal 
upon  the  navy.  In  responding  to  their 
invitation  to  submit  a  paper  on  this  subject 
the  writer  wishes  at  the  outset  to  make 
plain  that  what  follows  represents  his  per- 
sonal conclusions,  and  that  he  neither  de- 
sires nor  is  authorized  to  speak  for  any- 
body but  himself. 

Because  it  has  the  widest  appeal  the 
question  of  how  the  canal  will  affect  the 
strength  of  the  navy  will  be  considered 
first  and  at  most  length.  To  those  outside 
of  professional  circles  it  has  a  more  direct 
and  personal  application  than  any  other, 
because  upon  the  answer  will  depend  the 
appropriations  that  the  taxpayer  must  pro- 
vide. The  canal  has  been  an  expensive 
undertaking  for  the  United  States,  and  the 
people  of  the  country,  in  thinking  of  its 
bearing  upon  the  navy,  naturally  antici- 
pate that  its  completion  may  considerably 


•Reprinted  from  the  Proceedings  of  the  U.  S.  Naval  Insti- 
tute. September,  1913. 


modify  the  appropriations  for  the  upkeep 
of  the  naval  establishment.  Everybody 
is  familiar  in  a  general  way  with  the  short- 
ening of  sea  routes  via  the  Panama  Canal 
from  our  Atlantic  to  our  Pacific  coast;  for 
instance,  that  the  direct  distance  from  New 
York  or  Philadelphia  to  San  Francisco  is 
reduced  from  about  13,000  miles  via  Magel- 
lan to  about  5,000  miles  via  Panama,  or 
that  the  distance  from  New  Orleans  to  San 
Francisco  is  about  9,000  miles  less  via  the 
canal  than  via  Magellan.  From  such  gen- 
eral and  obvious  knowledge  it  is  an  easy 
step  to  the  conclusion  that  the  strength 
of  the  navy  with  the  canal  may  be  much 
less  than  it  would  necessarily  be  without 
the  canal;  or,  what  amounts  to  the  same 
thing,  that  the  appropriations  for  the  navy 
may  be  greatly  reduced  as  soon  as  the 
canal  is  opened.  Twice  recently  within  a 
week  the  writer  has  heard  members  of 
Congress  refer  to  this  very  matter,  one 
of  them  saying,  in  effect,  that  the  canal 
would  increase  the  effectiveness  of  the  navy 
two-  or  three-fold,  while  the  other  thought 
its  effectiveness  would  be  doubled.  The 
writer,  while  prepared  to  admit  that  these 


255 


256 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


remarks  were  rather  an  after-dinner  faqon 
deparlerthan  the  expression  of  a  deliber- 
ately formed  opinion,  yet  believes  they  in- 
dicate a  somewhat  general  impression  that 
careful  study  of  the  situation  will  not  justify. 

A  prerequisite  to  the  formation  of  any 
intelligent  conclusion  on  this  question  is 
an  understanding  of  the  conditions  that 
govern  the  strength  of  the  navy.  The  ulti- 
mate, dynamic,  use  of  the  navy  is  to  beat 
the  enemy  in  war;  the  every-day  political 
use  of  the  navy  in  peace  is  to  avert  war  by 
reason  of  its  existence  ready  for  war. 
Neither  purpose  will  be  served  unless  the 
navy  be  adequately  strong  in  material  and 
personnel,  and  unless  the  personnel  be 
trained  and  efficient;  the  navy  itself  is  re- 
sponsible for  trained  efficiency,  but  the  coun- 
try at  large,  through  Congress,  is  respon- 
sible that  adequate  strength  be  provided. 

Wars  do  not  merely  happen ;  they  usually 
result  from  the  clash  of  some  definite 
policies.  In  an  attempt  to  fix  the  strength 
of  our  navy  the  national  policies  of  our 
government  that  affect  other  countries  are 
a  prime  factor  to  be  considered.  The 
United  States  has  the  following  definite 
policies  in  its  external  relations:  1st,  the 
avoidance  of  entangling  alliances;  2d,  the 
Monroe  Doctrine;  3d,  the  Open  Door  in 
the  Far  East;  4th,  Asiatic  exclusion;  5th, 
the  control  and  protection  of  the  Panama 
Canal  itself.  Where  any  of  these  policies 
affect  adversely  the  interests  of  other  na- 
tions there  is  the  possibility  of  friction,  and 
where  friction  arises  there  is  always  the 
possibility  of  war. 

The  first  of  the  policies  mentioned  above 
may  be  dismissed  with  a  word,  for  it  is 
distinctly  one  of  abstention,  and  so  is  not 
apt  to  be  the  cause  of  diverse  interests. 
Its  effect  is,  however,  that  we  must  play 
a  lone  hand,  and  that  is  not  without  a 
bearing  on  the  strength  of  the  navy.  The 
second  policy  was  recognized  in  a  manner 
by  England  in  the  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty 
of  1850,  and  to  a  greater  degree  in  the  Hay- 
Pauncefote  treaty  of  1901.  But  other 
nations  do  not  accept  it  as  international 
law,  and  it  is  not  infrequently  the  subject 


of  unfriendly  comment.  The  Monroe  Doc- 
trine may  be  the  occasion  of  friction,  and 
so  of  war,  with  European  nations,  and  there 
is  a  possibility  that  it  may  be  with  Japan, 
or  at  a  later  day  with  China.  The  rela- 
tion of  the  Monroe  Doctrine  to  the  navy 
was  pointedly  indicated  by  Mr.  Secretary 
Meyer,  when  he  said  in  effect,  for  his  words 
are  not  before  the  writer,  that  the  Monroe 
Doctrine  is  just  as  strong  as  the  navy,  and 
no  stronger.  The  third  policy  is  one  that 
may  cause  friction  with  both  European 
and  Asiatic  nations.  The  fourth  concerns 
our  relations  with  Asiatic  nations  only. 
The  fifth  policy  is  a  result  of  a  duty  we 
have  assumed  single-handed  for  manifest 
reasons  of  advantage,  and  we  consulted 
no  nation  about  it  except  Great  Britain. 
It  has  a  very  direct  bearing  upon  the 
strength  of  the  navy,  upon  which  it  throws 
an  added  responsibility. 

The  extension  of  our  foreign  trade  that 
is  now  being  so  urgently  advocated  in  con- 
nection with  the  change  of  our  tariff  laws 
cannot  be  placed,  perhaps,  under  the  same 
head  as  the  policies  just  mentioned.  But 
foreign  trade  certainly  does  involve  rela- 
tions with  foreign  nations;  and,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  commercial  and  trade  rivalries  are 
most  fruitful  causes  of  misunderstanding 
between  nations. 

What  has  just  been  said  does  not  exhaust 
all  sources  of  possible  wars  by  any  means, 
as  it  does  not  exhaust  all  our  external 
relations.  Enough  has  been  said,  how- 
ever, to  show  reasons  why  war  is  not  an 
improbability — certainly  it  is  a  possibility 
— with  nations  in  Europe  and  Asia.  Eu- 
ropean nations  will  hardly  attack  us  in 
force  in  the  Pacific,  nor  will  any  nation 
fronting  on  the  Pacific  be  apt  to  attack 
us  in  force  in  the  Atlantic.  We  have, 
therefore,  to  anticipate  the  possibility  of 
war  in  the  Atlantic  with  a  European  na- 
tion, and  in  the  Pacific  with  an  Asiatic 
nation. 

This  leads  us  to  the  formulation  of  a 
policy  for  the  strength  of  the  navy.  It 
should  be  strong  enough  to  safeguard 
our  interests  and  meet  any  probable  attack 


THE  TWO-OCEAN  STANDARD 


257 


in  either  ocean  and  not  leave  our  interests 
unguarded  in  the  other.  In  explanation  of 
the  last  clause  it  may  be  said  that  a  full 
consideration  of  the  subject  should  not  stop 
short  of  the  possibility  of  a  simultaneous 
attack  in  both  oceans,  however  improbable ; 
a  war  with  allied  nations  in  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  is  not  impossible.  It  is  es- 
pecially the  duty  of  men  in  the  military 
branches  of  the  government  to  have  their 
eyes  open  to  every  contingency. 

In  considering  possible  antagonists  in 
the  Atlantic  Great  Britain  may  be  elimi- 
nated from  consideration.  In  the  first 
place  it  would  take  us  many  years  to  catch 
up  with  her  in  material  strength  if  we 
tried,  and  would  entail  an  enormous  ex- 
pense; in  the  second,  war  would  be  a  blow 
to  her  commercial  interests  and  interests 
of  supply  that  she  can  ill  afford  to  suffer; 
and,  in  the  third,  we  have  a  hostage  in 
Canada  worth  many  battleships.  There 
are,  moreover,  powerful  interests  of  a  more 
sentimental  nature  that  are  yet  very  real. 
No  such  strong  reasons  exist  for  eliminat- 
ing any  other  European  nation  from  the 
list  of  possible  antagonists  and  the  formula 
therefore  becomes,  in  its  final  and  definite 
statement,  that  our  navy  should  be  strong 
enough  to  meet  in  the  Atlantic  the  mari- 
time nation  of  Europe  next  strongest  to 
Great  Britain,  and  in  the  Pacific  the  strong- 
est nation  in  that  ocean. 

As  affecting  the  strength  of  the  navy  it  is 
well  to  keep  in  mind  also  the  position  of 
the  United  States  in  the  two  oceans.  In 
the  Atlantic,  aside  from  the  maintenance 
of  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  we  have  a  great 
material  interest  in  Porto  Rico,  which  is 
our  own  territory;  and  toward  Cuba  and 
Panama  we  have  a  duty  in  the  protection 
of  their  independence.  Then  there  is  the 
canal  itself.  All  of  these  interests  are  com- 
paratively near  to  us,  and  very  much 
nearer  than  is  any  European  adversary. 
In  the  Pacific  we  are  in  a  very  different 
case.  There  we  have  Alaska,  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  Guam,  the  Philippines,  and  Tu- 
tuila,  the  nearest  2,000  miles  and  the  most 
distant  7,000  miles  from  our  coast,  and 


some  much  nearer  possible  adversaries  in 
that  ocean  than  ourselves.  The  distance 
of  our  outlying  Atlantic  interests  has 
vastly  less  bearing  on  the  strength  of  our 
fleet  in  that  ocean  than  has  the  distance 
of  our  outlying  Pacific  interests  on  the 
strength  of  the  fleet  in  the  Pacific. 

If  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  were  closed 
oceans  the  formula  reached  above  for  the 
strength  of  the  navy  would  mean  that  in 
each  there  should  be  maintained  a  force 
(that  may  be  called  the  Standard  Atlantic 
Fleet  and  the  Standard  Pacific  Fleet,  for 
brevity)  sufficient  for  the  duty  in  that 
ocean,  which  is  the  Two-Ocean  Standard, 
pure  and  simple. 

Neither  here  nor  elsewhere  in  this  paper 
will  a  concrete  estimate  be  undertaken  of 
the  strength  in  numbers  of  ships  of  the 
"standard"  fleets.  Such  an  estimate  is 
not  reached  by  a  simple  matching  of  ship 
by  ship,  but  is  influenced  also  by  such 
considerations  as  the  probable  situation 
of  the  theater  of  war,  the  possibility  that 
the  assumed  antagonist  may  not  be  able  to 
have  his  entire  strength  present  in  that 
theater  for  political  or  other  reasons,  and 
the  morale  of  the  antagonist.  This  may 
not  impossibly  result  in  the  conclusion  that 
our  own  necessary  strength  in  ships  is  less 
than  that  of  some  possible  antagonists 
and  greater  than  that  of  others.  For  the 
present  purpose  no  such  concrete  estimate 
is  necessary  and  it  is  enough  to  say  that 
the  strength  should  be  "  sufficient  for  the 
duty." 

Without  the  canal  the  requirements  are 
practically  the  same  as  if  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  were  closed  oceans.  For,  though 
the  possibility  exists  of  reinforcement  in 
one  ocean  from  the  other,  yet  the  long 
distance  to  be  traversed  by  the  reinforce- 
ment by  whatever  route,  the  difficulties 
about  fueling  en  route,  and  the  danger,  es- 
pecially to  a  force  coming  from  the  Pacific, 
of  finding  the  enemy  between  the  reinforce- 
ment and  the  body  it  is  attempting  to 
join,  all  militate  so  greatly  against  a  suc- 
cessful issue  that  it  would  be  imprudent 
to  count  upon  it. 


258 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


With  the  canal  in  operation,  however,  a 
different  situation  arises.  The  route  of 
the  reinforcements  will  be  shortened  from 
8,000  to  10,000  miles  by  the  canal,  and  that 
route  will  lie  on  interior  lines.  Fuel  can 
be  taken  at  stations  under  our  own  flag, 
separated  by  distances  less  than  those  rep- 
resenting the  sea  endurance  of  the  fleet; 
the  embarrassment  arising  from  the  neces- 
sity of  avoiding  any  semblance  of  violating 
neutrality  in  fueling  will  thus  be  avoided. 
Junction  is  possible  from  forty  to  sixty  days 
sooner,  and  the  enemy  need  not  be  passed 
to  effect  it.  Put  in  another  way:  Guan- 
tanamo  is  at  practically  the  same  distance 
from  the  English  Channel  that  it  is  from 
San  Francisco  via  the  canal;  or  again,  the 
nearest  Asiatic  port  to  Honolulu  is  only 
about  1,250  miles  nearer  than  Panama,  but 
is  about  8,700  miles  nearer  to  Honolulu 
than  our  nearest  Caribbean  port  by  way 
of  Magellan.  In  the  face  of  such  facts  it 
would  be  difficult  to  maintain  that  the 
canal  will  have  no  effect  on  the  strength 
of  the  navy,  for  that  would  be  tantamount 
to  the  claim  that  the  canal  has  no  military 
value  to  the  United  States. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  claim  that  the 
canal  will  double  the  effectiveness  of  the 
navy  or  more  is  a  great  exaggeration. 
Though  such  statements  probably  result 
from  loose  use  of  language  rather  than  a 
careful  study  of  the  situation,  they  are 
dangerous,  for  they  are  apt  to  be  taken 
literally  by  the  layman,  and  the  navy  can- 
not afford  to  have  such  an  impression  gain 
ground.  To  show  their  fallacy  it  is  only 
necessary  to  consider  the  matter  of  dis- 
tances. It  is  quite  true  that  the  canal 
will  enable  the  fleet  to  be  transferred  from 
one  ocean  to  the  other  in  a  few  hours,  but 
that  is  only  the  beginning  of  the  problem. 
The  added  strength  that  the  canal  will  give 
to  the  navy  must  be  measured  by  the  facil- 
ity the  canal  affords  in  enabling  reinforce- 
ments to  arrive  in  time  to  be  of  use  tacti- 
cally; that  is,  as  a  part  of  the  entire  force 
in  battle  with  the  enemy.  The  canal  will 
be  of  little  use  if  the  reinforcements  arrive 
so  late  that  the  battle  has  already  been 


won  by  the  enemy.  The  Atlantic  terminal 
is  about  700  miles  from  Guantanamo,  1 ,200 
miles  from  the  most  distant  part  of  the 
Caribbean,  and  2,000  miles  from  New  York, 
no  inconsiderable  distances  in  themselves. 
On  the  Pacific  side  the  condition  is  very 
much  less  favorable,  for  the  Pacific  termi- 
nal is  about  3,250  miles  from  San  Francisco, 
4,700  from  Honolulu,  8,000  from  Guam, 
and  9,350  from  Manila.  Merely  to  be  able 
to  get  the  fleet  rapidly  from  one  ocean  to 
another  is  a  great  gain,  a  very  great  gain; 
but  it  is  not  by  any  means  the  whole  prob- 
lem. Allowing  the  fleet  an  average  speed 
of  12  knots  from  departure  to  destination, 
which  is  high,  considering  the  time  neces- 
sary to  coal  and  effect  repairs  and  the 
necessity  that  all  the  fighting  components 
arrive  together  and  ready  for  action,  this 
means  that,  from  the  time  of  leaving  the 
canal  until  it  arrived  where  it  would  proba- 
bly be  needed,  the  shortest  interval  is  about 
fifty-eight  hours  to  Guantanamo,  and  the 
longest  is  about  thirty-three  days  to  Ma- 
nila, during  which  the  enemy  will  not  have 
been  idle.  The  canal  will  be  a  great  mili- 
tary asset  in  war,  and  an  equally  great  one 
in  anticipation  of  war;  but  it  is  quite  beside 
the  mark  to  say  it  will  double  the  effective- 
ness of  the  navy,  or  do  anything  approach- 
ing that. 

The  truth,  as  usual,  lies  between  these 
two  extreme  views  just  examined,  and  the 
writer  believes  that  the  former  is  much 
nearer  the  truth  than  the  latter.  By  its 
very  nature  the  problem  of  determining 
just  what  will  be  the  effect  of  the  canal  upon 
the  strength  of  the  navy  cannot  be  mathe- 
matically demonstrated.  The  solution  is 
largely  one  of  opinion,  and  will  be  modified 
as  greater  or  less  weight  is  given  to  the 
several  considerations  on  which  it  is  based. 
If  the  general  formula  advanced  above  for 
fixing  the  strength  of  the  navy  be  accepted, 
then  manifestly,  canal  or  no  canal,  the 
minimum  permissible  strength  of  the  navy 
is  that  which  will  enable  us  to  meet,  with 
our  entire  force,  our  strongest  probable 
enemy,  wherever  situated.  Under  the 
same  conditions  the  maximum  strength 


AMERICAN  NAVAL  BUILDING  POLICY 


259 


that  can  be  claimed  as  necessary  is  the  sum 
of  that  of  the  Standard  Atlantic  Fleet  plus 
that  of  the  Standard  Pacific  Fleet  (Great 
Britain  being  excluded  for  reasons  above 
given).  This  amounts  to  saying  that  the 
maximum  strength  that  can  be  claimed  as 
necessary  is  that  which  will  enable  us  to 
conduct  a  war  with  prospect  of  success  in 
both  oceans  at  once,  which  is  the  Two- 
Ocean  Standard  again.  If  the  possible 
antagonists  in  the  two  oceans,  in  relation 
to  whom  our  formula  for  strength  is  founded 
were  equally  strong,  our  minimum  permis- 
sible navy  would  be  half  as  strong  as  the 
maximum  navy  that  will  ever  be  necessary. 
They  are  not  equally  strong,  however,  and 
our  Standard  Atlantic  Fleet  should  now, 
and  the  condition  is  probably  permanent, 
be  stronger  than  the  Standard  Pacific  Fleet 
need  be.  The  Standard  Atlantic  Fleet, 
therefore,  is  the  measure  of  our  minimum 
permissible  strength;  and,  to  avoid  any 
misunderstanding,  the  words  "minimum 
permissible  strength"  are  used  in  the  nar- 
row sense  of  indicating  the  very  least 
strength  that  can  logically  be  believed  allow- 
able by  anybody  who  believes  in  a  navy 
at  all  for  well-founded  reasons.  The  quoted 
words  do  not  represent  the  writer's  views  of 
what  our  minimum  naval  strength  should  be. 

Our  total  naval  strength  at  this  minute 
is  not  equal  to  that  of  what  is  called  above 
the  Standard  Atlantic  Fleet.  Hence  the 
completion  of  the  canal  should  have  no 
immediate  effect  upon  our  building.  It 
remains  to  find  an  answer  to  the  question: 
What  effect  will  it  have  upon  our  build- 
ing policy  for  the  future? 

The  writer's  personal  opinion  is  that, 
when  the  canal  is  finished,  our  policy  should 
be  to  have  eventually,  and  as  soon  as  possi- 
ble, a  total  strength  not  less  than  that  of 
the  Standard  Atlantic  Fleet  plus  three- 
quarters  that  of  the  Standard  Pacific  Fleet. 
These  so-called  "standard"  fleets  are  not 
fixed  quantities,  but  will  vary  from  year 
to  year  as  foreign  nations  increase  their  own 
naval  strength.  The  policy  itself  can, 
however,  be  fixed,  and  some  policy  should 
be  established. 


The  reasons  that  have  appealed  to  the 
writer  in  reaching  this  conclusion  are  as 
follows : 

(a)  With   no  canal   our   total   strength 
should  be  the  sum  of  both  the  Standard 
Atlantic  Fleet  and  the  Standard   Pacific 
Fleet. 

(b)  The  canal  so  greatly  shortens  dis- 
tances between  the  two  oceans  that  some 
reduction  of  strength  below  that  of  (a)  is 
justifiable  when  it  shall  be  finished,  in  view 
of  the  great  financial  burden  imposed  by  a 
great  navy,  and  the  rather  remote  possi- 
bility of  simultaneous  war  in  both  oceans. 

(c)  This  reduction  should  not  be  suffi- 
cient to  leave  the  nation  in  a  hopeless  case 
in  either  ocean  if  war  broke  out  there  while 
war  was  being  waged  in  the  other. 

(d)  As   the   strength   of   the   Standard 
Atlantic  Fleet  must  be  maintained  in  any 
event,  the  Pacific  Fleet  is  the  one  in  which 
to  make  the  reduction  in  strength. 

(e)  Our  interests  are  so  great,  and  are 
scattered  over  such  immense  distances  in 
the  Pacific,  that  anything  less  than  three- 
quarters   of    the   Standard    Pacific    Fleet 
would  make  even  a  defensive  war  in  that 
ocean  hopeless. 

(f)  With  three-quarters  of  the  Standard 
Pacific  Fleet  a  defensive  war,  a  containing 
war,  so  to  speak,  would  not  be  hopeless 
while  waging  a  war  on  equal  terms  in  the 
Atlantic. 

(g)  If  there  were  no  prospect  of  war  in 
the  Pacific  at  a  time  when  engaged  in  war 
in  the  Atlantic,  then  one-half  of  the  Stand- 
ard Pacific  Fleet,  and  perhaps  less,  would 
suffice  to  guard  our  interests  in  the  Pacific, 
leaving  the  rest  of  the  fleet  in  that. ocean 
free  to  reinforce  the  Atlantic  Fleet  and 
give  in  the  Atlantic  a  marked  superiority 
of  force. 

(h)  If  at  war  in  the  Pacific  with  no  pros- 
pect of  war  in  the  Atlantic,  a  great  supe- 
riority of  force  could  be  maintained  in  the 
Pacific  that  would  be  the  more  valuable, 
owing  to  the  distances  over  which  the  navy 
would  have  to  operate  in  that  ocean. 

The  composition  of  the  fleet  will  be  little 
affected  by  the  existence  of  the  finished 


26o 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


canal.  All  classes  of  fighting  ships  will  be 
as  much  needed  after  the  canal  as  before, 
and  their  numbers  and  proportions  deemed 
requisite  for  the  duty  in  either  ocean  will 
be  necessary,  canal  or  no  canal.  It  is  not 
improbable  that  the  defense  of  the  canal 
itself  may  demand  a  limited  number  of 
certain  classes  of  vessels  that  would  not 
otherwise  be  necessary.  But  in  its  large 
aspect  the  composition  of  the  fighting  fleet 
can  hardly  be  affected  by  the  completion 
of  the  canal.  Even  in  the  matter  of  auxil- 
iaries the  same  thing  appears  to  be  true. 
If  the  navy  depended  upon  its  own  aux- 
iliaries for  the  transfer  of  supplies  and  fuel 
from  one  ocean  to  the  other,  the  canal 
would  naturally  serve  to  diminish  the 
number  of  supply  and  fuel  ships ;  but  such 
cargoes  are  practically  all  sent  by  contract. 
Other  auxiliaries  are  based  in  number  on 
the  fighting  ships  they  have  to  serve,  and 
distance  has  little  to  do  with  the  question. 
Speaking  in  a  broad  way,  then,  the  exist- 
ence of  the  canal  will  have  no  effect  on  the 
composition  of  the  fleet. 

It  is  more  than  probable  that  the  com- 
pletion of  the  canal  will  effect  some  changes 
in  the  disposition  of  the  fleet  in  time  of 
peace.  It  has  already  been  pointed  out 
that  the  navy  is  not  now  as  strong  as  is 
theoretically  necessary  in  the  Atlantic 
alone;  so  that  for  a  considerable  time  to 
come,  whatever  building  program  may  be 
adopted,  it  will  be  necessary  to  concen- 
trate our  entire  fighting  fleet  in  time  of 
war,  trusting  to  Providence  that  the  part 
sent  to  the  threatened  ocean  will  not  be 
needed  during  the  war  in  the  ocean  from 
which  it  is  withdrawn.  In  effecting  this 
concentration  the  canal  will  be  a  very  great 
military  advantage  to  us.  In  time  of 
peace,  however,  the  completion  of  the  canal 
will  enable  some  changes  to  be  made  in  the 
present  disposition  of  the  fleet.  The  dis- 
position now,  while  dictated  by  reasons  of 
convenience  under  present-day  conditions, 
is  yet  not  very  logical  considered  in  the 
light  of  all-round  preparedness  for  war.  A 
very  possible  outcome  will  be  the  mainte- 
nance of  a  force  of  fixed  strength  in  each 


ocean,  with  a  shifting  squadron  that  will 
go  first  into  one  and  then  into  the  other. 
This  can  be  so  managed  as  to  keep  in  both 
oceans  a  force  better  balanced  in  all  its 
components  of  fighting  strength  than  is 
now  the  case  with  either.  There  will  be 
other  advantages  also,  one  being  the  ap- 
pearance on  the  Pacific  coast  of  parts  of  the 
navy  that  cannot  now  be  seen  there.  The 
people  on  the  Pacific  coast  are  as  vitally  in- 
terested in  the  navy  as  are  those  in  the 
East;  yet  they  habitually  see  the  least 
powerful  and  least  modern  of  our  ships. 
It  is  natural  and,  indeed,  commendable, 
that  they  should  wish  to  have  in  their  own 
waters  at  one  time  or  another  the  flower  of 
the  navy.  The  completion  of  the  canal 
will  enable  this  to  be  done;  and  it  will, 
further,  be  good  policy  for  the  navy  to  do 
it,  and  so  stimulate  the  friendly  interest 
in  the  navy  that  is  always  in  evidence  on 
the  Pacific  coast. 

Another  advantage  that  will  accrue  in 
connection  with  the  transfer  of  ships  from 
one  ocean  to  another  is  the  possibility  of 
making  between  our  own  ports,  and  with- 
out taxing  the  hospitality  of  foreign  na- 
tions, the  long  voyages  in  fleet  that  we 
believe  in  our  service  to  be  so  advantageous 
as  a  means  of  fleet  discipline  and  fleet  pre- 
paredness. The  entire  battle  fleet  could 
easily  go  from  New  York  to  Seattle,  stay 
ten  days  at  San  Francisco  and  ten  in  Puget 
Sound,  and  be  back  in  New  York  in  a  little 
more  than  three  months.  As  a  long-dis- 
tance cruise  this  would  have  many  advan- 
tages over  a  cruise  to  Europe  and  back,  not 
the  least  of  which  would  be  the  experience 
gained  in  logistics  over  a  route  that  the 
fleet  may  have  to  make  some  day  in  one 
direction  or  the  other  when  the  errand  is 
not  peaceful. 

The  completion  of  the  canal  will  be  ad- 
vantageous to  the  navy  in  still  another 
way  connected  with  the  disposition  of  the 
ships  of  the  fleet.  Corinto,  Nicaragua, 
is  less  than  100  miles  further  distant  from 
New  York  via  Panama  than  it  is  from  San 
Francisco.  All  the  Pacific  coast  of  Central 
America  outside  of  Mexico  is  1,000  miles  or 


1.  U.  S.  Marines  scaling  a  wall,  Ancon  Baseball  Park,  July  4,  1912. 

2.  Panama  Railroad  Dock  Cristobal,  showing  Torpedoboat  Destroyers. 


IMPORTANCE  OF  GUANTANAMO 


261 


more  nearer  Panama  than  it  is  to  San 
Francisco.  It  will,  therefore,  be  possible 
generally  to  send  ships  more  quickly  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  coast  of  Central 
America  in  times  of  disturbance  there  than 
it  will  be  to  send  them  from  San  Francisco. 

.The  preponderance  of  our  naval  strength 
will  probably  continue  to  be  in  the  future, 
as  it  has  been  in  the  past,  habitually  kept 
in  the  Atlantic.  That  ocean  is  the  better 
one  for  the  upkeep,  drill  and  administra- 
tion of  the  battle  fleet  for  many  reasons. 
But  the  canal  will  permit  of  many  changes 
of  disposition,  some  of  them  permanent 
and  some  temporary,  that  will  be  advanta- 
geous and  that  are  impracticable  under 
present  conditions. 

The  completion  of  the  canal  should  serve 
to  bring  home  to  every  one  the  importance 
of  our  naval  bases  in  the  West  Indies  and 
the  Pacific.  That  their  importance  has 
not  been  adequately  realized  is  evidenced 
by  the  lack  of  funds  provided  to  put  them 
in  an  efficient  condition.  The  Monroe 
Doctrine  was  an  old  story  before  the  war 
of  1898;  but  few  people  realized  that  it 
extended  our  military  frontier  beyond  the 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts,  for  it  is  a  mental 
conception  and  not  a  tangible  thing  appeal- 
ing to  the  senses.  After  1898  and  the  ac- 
quisition of  Porto  Rico  there  was  a  visible 
projection  of  our  frontier  into  the  Carib- 
bean; and  after  the  Hay-Pauncefote 
treaty  in  1901,  which  gave  the  United 
States  undivided  responsibility  for  the 
canal,  another  visible  and  material  interest 
appeared  still  further  to  the  front.  It  has 
always  been  clear  to  the  naval  mind  that 
our  military  frontier  extends  far  beyond 
our  continental  borders,  and  now,  irrespect- 
ive of  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  it  extends 
from  the  Atlantic  coast  around  Porto  Rico 
to  the  canal ;  and  it  has  been  equally  clear 
that,  for  the  security  of  that  frontier,  a 
naval  base  somewhere  on  the  outer  edge  of 
the  Caribbean  is  a  necessity.  After  care- 
ful consideration  Guantanamo  was  selected 
as  the  site  for  such  a  base  as  being  the 
suitable  harbor  situated  furthest  to  the 
front  on  the  edge  of  the  Caribbean.  Con- 


gress has  not  yet  signalized  its  apprecia- 
tion of  the  necessity  for  Guantanamo  by 
the  provision  of  an  adequate  program  for 
its  defense  and  equipment,  though  there 
are  some  signs  of  such  an  appreciation. 
Nor  do  the  people  of  some  of  the  gulf  states 
realize  that  the  frontier  has  advanced  more 
than  a  thousand  miles  from  their  coast,  and 
that  the  New  Orleans  and  Pensacola  naval 
stations  no  longer  serve  any  useful  military 
purpose,  if  one  may  judge  by  their  argu- 
ments against  the  action  of  the  Navy 
Department  in  closing  them  during  the  last 
administration .  When  the  canal  becomes  a 
great  utility  in  regular  operation  instead 
of  an  interesting  engineering  work,  when 
trade  has  settled  into  the  new  routes  the 
canal  will  make  possible,  and  when  business 
men  have  occasion  to  think  of  it  daily  as 
a  vital  link  in  their  transportation  problems, 
a  juster  appreciation  will  arise  of  the  neces- 
sity of  a  naval  base  at  Guantanamo  for 
the  protection  of  the  canal  and  of  the  trade 
routes  converging  toward  it,  as  well  as  for 
the  maintenance  of  our  general  interests 
in  the  Caribbean,  that  will  doubtless  find 
expression  in  a  complete  scheme  for  its  de- 
fense and  equipment. 

If,  as  it  almost  surely  will,  the  canal 
serves  to  place  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  even 
for  a  part  of  the  time  only,  a  greater  force 
and  one  of  larger  ships  than  is  now  there, 
the  question  of  bases  in  that  ocean  must 
be  considered.  In  the  Pacific,  excepting 
our  limited  plant  in  the  Philippines,  there 
are  three  bases — Mare  Island,  Bremerton, 
and  Pearl  Harbor.  To  care  for  any  con- 
siderable force  in  peace,  and,  what  is  more 
important,  to  care  for  it  in  war,  these  are 
all  too  few.  Pearl  Harbor  is  in  the  mak- 
ing, and  Bremerton  is  not  yet  a  first-class 
base.  San  Francisco  Bay  is  the  place 
above  all  others  on  our  Pacific  continental 
coast  that  is  suited  for  a  naval  base  by 
reason  of  its  strategic  situation  geographi- 
cally and  the  advantages  attending  the 
proximity  of  a  large  city.  But  the  Mare 
Island  Navy  Yard  is  impossibly  situated 
for  this  purpose.  It  has  neither  the  area 
nor  the  depth  of  water  needed  for  modern 


262 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


capital  ships  and  its  distance  from  San 
Francisco  and  lack  of  a  railway  connection 
are  handicaps  in  the  supply  of  labor  and 
in  the  economical  handling  of  freight  and 
building  supplies.  At  the  present  time 
the  available  depth  is  twenty-two  feet  at 
mean  lower  low  water,  and  the  channels 
constantly  and  rapidly  silt  up.  It  is  even 
difficult  to  keep  the  entrance  to  the  new 
dry-dock  deep  enough  for  safe  docking 
of  ships  that  can  enter  it.  The  adopted 
departmental  policy  is  to  have  forty  feet 
depth  from  the  sea  to  our  navy  yards, 
and  that  depth  of  channel  is  being  urged 
at  our  important  commercial  ports  in  the 
interests  of  commerce.  To  all  except  those 
who  will  not  see  it  has  been  increasingly 
evident  during  the  last  ten  years  that  the 
Mare  Island  Navy  Yard  is  doomed  for  the 
service  of  modern  capital  ships,  and  it  is 
equally  evident  that  a  new  location,  some- 
where in  San  Francisco  Bay,  on  deep  water 
near  the  city,  must  eventually  be  provided 
for  their  docking  and  repair.  If  the  people 
of  California  desire  and  expect  to  see  any 
considerable  part  of  our  modern  fleet  habit- 
ually visiting  in  their  waters  after  the  canal 
is  finished,  they  cannot  too  soon  bestir 
themselves  to  provide  in  the  deep  water  of 
San  Francisco  Bay  the  naval  facilities  that 
are  required  for  the  supply,  upkeep,  and 
repair  of  modern  capital  ships.  Mare 
Island  does  not  afford  them,  for  the  simple 
reason  that  recent  capital  ships  cannot 
safely  go  there,  if  for  no  other.  Men  can- 
not drive  rivets  on  a  ship  twenty  to  thirty 
miles  away.  The  completion  of  the  canal 
should  help  to  force  this  conclusion  home  if 
the  people  of  California  are  not  prepared 
to  accept  it  now. 

Of  Pearl  Harbor  and  Bremerton  there  is 
less  occasion  to  speak  in  this  connection. 
Congress  is  treating  Pearl  Harbor  in  a 
liberal  spirit,  and  the  facilities  at  Bremer- 
ton are  gradually  increasing.  The  develop- 
ment of  both  should  go  on  to  provide  for 
the  increased  naval  shipping  that  may 
naturally  be  expected  to  follow  the  com- 
pletion of  the  canal;  but,  above  all,  to 
provide  for  the  greatly  increased  demand 


upon  them  in  the  event  of  a  war  in  the 
Pacific. 

The  consideration  that  perhaps  comes 
most  naturally  to  mind  in  connection 
with  the  canal  is  the  immense  shortening 
of  distances  effected  by  it  in  most  cases 
between  points  in  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific. 
This  consideration,  was,  of  course,  the 
reason  for  building  it.  What  may  be 
termed  the  commercial  routes  from  New 
York  to  Hong- Kong,  those  that  take  in 
ports  of  call,  are  practically  the  same  length 
via  Panama  and  Suez,  the  difference  be- 
tween them  being  less  than  twenty  miles 
in  favor  of  Suez;  but  the  Panama  route 
is  the  shorter  from  New  York  to  Shanghai 
and  the  ports  of  Japan.  From  New  York 
to  Manila  the  Panama  route  is  shorter 
than  that  by  Suez  unless  the  former  go  by 
way  of  Honolulu  and  Yokohama.  The 
further  east  the  point  in  the  Pacific,  the 
greater  the  gain  in  distance  to  New  York 
by  the  Panama  route.  Valparaiso  is  3,750 
miles  nearer  New  York  via  Panama  than 
via  Magellan.  Speaking  generally,  the 
distance  is  shortened  via  the  canal  from 
New  York  to  any  point  in  the  Pacific  inside 
of  a  line  drawn  from  Magellan  Strait, 
through  Australia  and  the  Philippines,  to 
Hong-Kong.  As  affecting  naval  move- 
ments this  means  more  than  time  and  fuel 
saved,  though  both  economies  are  of  prime 
importance.  It  means  the  possibility  of 
sending  ships  from  the  Atlantic  to  almost 
any  place  where  they  will  be  needed  in 
the  Pacific  by  a  route  that  has  fuel  stations 
under  our  flag  along  the  entire  distance,  no 
two  of  which  are  further  apart  than  the 
fuel  endurance  of  our  capital  ships.  This 
is  an  enormous  advantage,  for  the  problem 
of  fueling  our  naval  ships  in  time  of  war 
on  a  passage  from  the  Pacific  to  the  Atlan- 
tic, or  vice  versa,  would  be  a  staggering 
one  by  either  the  Suez  or  Magellan  route, 
and  the  attitude  of  neutrals  might  make  it 
almost  an  unsolvable  one.  The  canal  will 
eliminate  the  question  of  neutrality  alto- 
gether, and  for  that  reason  alone  it  is  of 
incalculable  benefit  to  the  navy. 

The  question  of  economy  is,  however,  one 


HOW  THE  CANAL  AIDS  THE  FLEET 


263 


not  to  be  ignored.  Between  New  York  and 
San  Francisco,  in  either  direction,  Panama 
and  Guantanamo  would  probably  be  ports 
of  call  for  a  fleet.  A  study  of  the  saving  of 
time,  fuel,  and  money  effected  by  sending 
a  fleet  between  Panama  and  Guantanamo 
through  the  canal  instead  of  through  Ma- 
gellan gives  some  astonishing  results.  Such 
a  study  has  been  made,  based  on  the  move- 
ment of  twenty-five  capital  ships  with 
attendant  cruisers,  destroyers,  and  aux- 
iliaries. It  is  too  long  to  give  more  than 
the  results,  but  they  are  sufficiently  inter- 
esting. 

The  time  saved  under  the  assumption 
is  about  sixty  days.  This  could  be  con- 
siderably shortened  by  increasing  the 
assumed  sea  speed,  or  decreasing  the  days 
at  anchor  for  coaling,  repairs,  and  recuper- 
ation of  the  personnel,  but  at  the  expense 
of  fuel  burned,  with  the  attendant  cost  and 
necessity  of  fueling  oftener.  The  route 
via  Magellan  that  the  fleet  would  follow 
between  Guantanamo  and  Panama  requires 
nearly  900  actual  steaming  hours  at  twelve 
knots,  or  thirty-seven  days.  This  makes 
no  allowance  for  necessary  time  to  refuel 
and  repair,  so  that  sixty  days  is  not  an  un- 
reasonable gain  in  time  to  allow  in  favor 
of  the  canal,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  refuel- 
ing on  the  Magellan  route  would  have  to 
be  carried  on  at  places  outside  the  terri- 
torial limits  of  neutrals,  and  often  un- 
der disadvantageous  circumstances.  This 
might  be  time  enough  to  enable  the  enemy 
to  finish  the  campaign  in  his  favor,  not  to 
speak  of  the  harassment  of  the  personnel 
while  making  the  long  sea  voyage  via  Ma- 
gellan, during  which  every  man  would 
know  that  he  and  his  ship  were  needed 
every  moment  of  the  time,  with  the  pros- 
pect that  the  fleet  would  not  arrive  after 
all  in  time  to  effect  its  purpose. 

The  saving  in  coal  is  about  290,000  tons, 
and  in  fuel  oil  about  54,000  tons.  At  the 
present  market  values  of  these  fuels  taken 
for  the  conditions,  this  means  a  money 
saving  of  nearly  $3,000,000.  Not  to  over- 
estimate this  saving,  and  assuming  that 
an  oversupply  of  twenty  per  cent,  has  been 


allowed,  the  saving  in  coal  would  still  be 
240,000  tons,  in  oil  45,000  tons,  and  in 
money  $2,500,000. 

The  gain  in  time  is  the  all-important 
economy,  but  the  saving  in  money  is  itself 
important.  In  view  of  our  lack  of  a  mer- 
chant marine,  however,  the  simplification 
in  the  supply  of  fuel  via  the  canal  is  of 
vastly  greater  moment  than  the  money 
saving.  The  United  States  can  furnish 
whatever  money  the  circumstances  of  war 
may  demand,  but  it  cannot  build  over- 
night a  merchant  marine  for  the  service  of 
the  fleet.  This  subject  could  be  greatly 
elaborated,  but  enough  has  been  said  to 
show  what  a  valuable  military  asset  the 
canal  is  in  its  bearing  on  fleet  logistics. 

Simply  for  the  ordinary  service  of  the 
fleet  in  time  of  peace  the  canal  will  effect 
very  large  savings  to  the  naval  appropria- 
tions. A  fair  average  price  for  eastern 
coal  of  a  kind  fit  for  naval  use  is  $8.45  per 
ton  at  San  Francisco,  Puget  Sound,  and 
Honolulu.  While  no  exact  prediction  can 
be  made,  competent  authorities  believe 
that  when  the  canal  is  in  operation  the 
price  at  which  eastern  coals  can  be  laid 
down  at  these  places  will  not  be  more 
than  $6.20  per  ton.  Taking  as  a  basis  the 
amount  of  coal  on  naval  account  sent  to 
the  Pacific  in  the  last  fiscal  year,  160,000 
tons,  the  saving  amounts  to  $360,000. 
Nor  does  the  advantage  end  there;  a  collier 
can  take  a  cargo  via  the  canal  to  the  Pacific 
coast,  discharge  and  be  back  at  Norfolk 
in  the  time  she  would  take  to  make  the 
voyage  out  via  Magellan.  This  roughly 
divides  by  two  the  tonnage  necessary  for 
any  given  supply  of  coal  at  those  ports.  In 
time  of  war  in  the  Pacific,  this  will  be  of  in- 
estimable advantage,  considering  our  woful 
lack  of  a  merchant  marine.  With  respect 
to  other  bulky  naval  supplies,  like  provi- 
sions, the  same  thing  does  not  hold  true, 
for  they  can  be  delivered  equally  well  and 
at  little  difference  in  cost  on  either  coast 
from  their  points  of  origin.  Even  ammu- 
nition and  guns,  which  are  practically  all 
manufactured  in  the  east,  would  very  prob- 
ably be  sent  by  rail  to  the  Pacific  in  order 


264 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


to  save  time,  though  the  expense  would  be 
greater.  But  with  oil  fuel,  again,  the  ad- 
vantage to  the  navy  is  apparent,  ?nd  this 
time  the  gain  is  in  movement  toward  the 
Atlantic.  In  the  last  few  months  the  price 
of  oil  has  markedly  increased.  California 
produces  more  oil  than  any  other  state 
and  its  price  is  lower  than  eastern  oils. 
This  fact,  in  addition  to  the  important 
fact  that  a  large  oil-producing  area  has 
been  set  aside  for  naval  purposes  in  Cali- 
fornia, points  to  the  possibility  that  the 
navy  may  soon  be  using  California  oil  in 
the  Atlantic,  which  would  hardly  be  possi- 
ble without  the  canaL  The  demand  for 
oil  increases  every  day  and  many  of  the 
older  wells  are  falling  off  in  production; 
the  navy  may  not  improbably  have  great 
occasion  in  the  years  to  come  to  congratu- 
late itself  that  the  canal  will  make  the 
Pacific  coast  fields  available. 

Modifications  of  trade  routes  that  will 
follow  the  completion  of  the  canal  are  sure 
eventually  to  cause  a  reduction  in  freight 
rates,  and  so  act  as  a  stimulus  to  trade. 
The  increased  trade  will,  in  turn,  demand 
a  greater  tonnage,  though  this  demand  will 
be  partially  met  at  first  by  the  ability  of 
the  same  amount  of  shipping  to  provide  for 
a  greater  trade  because  of  the  shortened 
distances  via  the  canal.  Still  it  can  hardly 
be  doubted  that  the  opening  of  the  canal 
will  create  a  demand  in  time  for  an  amount 
of  shipping  considerably  greater  than  exists 
now  in  order  to  provide  for  the  increased 
trade.  The  opinion  has  been  advanced 
that  the  United  States  merchant  marine 
will  be  greatly  stimulated  by  the  opera- 
tion of  these  causes.  The  navy  earnestly 
hopes  that  this  may  be  true,  for  a  large 
merchant  marine  is  a  necessity  for  a  strong 
navy  only  in  a  less  degree  than  the  auxiliary 
ships  especially  designed  for  its  service; 
and  anything  whatever  that  can  properly 
be  done  to  increase  the  merchant  marine 
should  have  the  active  support  of  the  navy. 
In  so  far  as  the  coasting  trade  is  concerned 
there  seems  to  be  good  reason  to  expect  an 
increase  of  United  States  shipping,  for  that 
trade  is  certain  to  grow  rapidly  upon  the 


opening  of  the  canal,  and  foreigners  can- 
not take  any  part  in  it.  Moreover,  the 
exemption  of  this  class  of  shipping  from 
the  payment  of  canal  tolls  will  virtually  be 
a  subsidy.  Already  some  ships  have  been 
built  for  this  trade  in  anticipation  of  the 
completion  of  the  canal,  and  others  are 
being  built.  But  the  writer  has  been 
unable  to  convince  himself  that  the  open- 
ing of  the  canal  will  alone  serve  to  draw 
American  capital  into  a  form  of  invest- 
ment from  which  it  has  persistently  kept 
aloof,  and  under  present  conditions  and 
laws  he  anticipates  little  or  no  resultant 
increase  in  that  part  of  the  merchant  marine 
of  the  United  States  engaged  in  foreign 
trade.  Without  any  close  examination  of 
the  reason  why,  it  seems  to  be  a  fact  that 
Americans  either  cannot  or  else  do  not 
care  to  compete  with  other  maritime  na- 
tions in  the  sea  carriage  of  foreign  trade, 
and  it  is  not  apparent  that  the  opening  of 
the  canal  will  by  itself  change  that  condi- 
tion. That  we  should  have  a  flourishing 
merchant  marine  is  a  matter  of  such  vital 
interest  to  the  navy  that  it  will  anticipate 
with  satisfaction  the  increase  of  shipping 
engaged  in  coastwise  trade  due  to  the  open- 
ing of  the  canal;  and,  as  remarked  above, 
the  navy  should  exert  its  influence  in  favor 
of  every  proper  measure  tending  to  put 
American  ships  on  the  ocean  in  the  foreign 
trade. 

However  interesting  and  profitable  it  may 
be  to  dwell  upon  the  military  advantages 
to  the  United  States  attending  the  open- 
ing of  the  canal,  that  feature  is  not  the 
most  vital  one  to  the  navy.  The  canal 
puts  an  added  and  very  great  responsibility 
upon  the  navy,  and  this  fact  is  one  that  the 
navy  and  its  friends  must  always  keep  in 
mind. 

The  canal  is  being  built,  and  it  will 
be  operated  and  controlled,  solely  by  the 
United  States  Government.  The  protec- 
tion of  the  canal,  therefore,  falls  solely 
upon  the  United  States.  Moreover,  in 
the  Hay-Pauncefote  treaty  of  1901,  the 
neutralization  rules  are  embodied  in  Article 
3,  in  which  the  language  is:  "The  United 


LACK  OF  A  CONTINUING  POLICY 


265 


States  adopts,  as  the  basis  of  the  neutraliza- 
tion of  such  ship  canal,  the  following 
rules.  ..."  We  are,  therefore,  the  sole 
guarantors  of  the  neutralization  of  the 
canal.  Again  Article  I  of  the  treaty  of 
November  18,  1903,  with  Panama,  reads: 
"  The  United  States  guarantees  and  will 
maintain  the  independence  of  the  Repub- 
lic of  Panama."  Finally,  the  United  States 
trade  passing  through  the  canal  will  be 
very  great.  Here  are  new  and  great  re- 
sponsibilities, all  flowing  from  the  canal, 
and  all  dependent  upon  the  navy  for  their 
realization.  The  navy  is  the  outer  line  of 
defense  of  the  canal  as  it  is  of  the  cpuntry. 
The  inner  line  of  defense  of  the  canal  resides 
in  the  fortifications  and  garrison  at  the 
canal  itself.  If  our  navy  is  driven  from 
the  sea  and  made  negligible  an  enemy 
with  a  great  army  can  undertake  with 
impunity  the  transportation  of  the  troops 
necessary  to  overcome  the  inner  line  of 
defense  and  complete  the  victory  begun 
on  the  ocean.  The  task  may  not  be  easy 
for  him,  but  its  possibility  must  be  con- 
ceded if  the  sea  is  closed  to  us  and  open 
to  the  enemy.  The  only  possible  and  final 
assurance  of  safety  for  the  canal  is  in  a 
navy  strong  enough  to  meet  the  enemy, 
beat  him,  and  prevent  him  from  ever 
getting  near  it.  The  following  words, 
quoted  from  Admiral  Mahan,  indicate  the 
alternative:  "Permanent  [naval]  inferi- 
ority means  inevitably  ultimate  defeat, 
which  fortifications  can  only  delay."  And 
a  few  lines  later  he  uses  these  words:  "If 
the  United  States  desires  peace  with  secur- 
ity, it  must  have  a  navy  second  to  none  but 
that  of  Great  Britain;  to  rival  which  is 
inexpedient,  because  for  many  reasons 
unnecessary." 

The  United  States  is  not  a  military  na- 
tion. There  is  little  consideration  and 
less  understanding  among  the  people  at 
large  of  military  matters.  The  Govern- 
ment has  no  defined  military  policy,  using 


"  military  "  in  its  wide  sense,  and  it  has 
no  defined  naval  policy.  By  this  is  meant 
that  there  is  no  soberly  thought-out  rela- 
tion between  our  military  strength  and  our 
situation  in  the  world — between  our  de- 
clared external  political  policies  and  the 
only  means  yet  found  efficacious  to  uphold 
them — that  manifests  itself  as  a  guiding 
principle  in  Congress,  or  even  in  the 
recommendations  to  Congress.  There 
should  be  such  a  military  policy,  and  it 
should  carry  on  from  administration  to 
administration,  from  Congress  to  Congress, 
and  be  considered  a  part  of  our  foreign 
affairs  policy,  as  little  open  to  attack  from 
within  our  own  household  as  the  external 
policies  on  which  it  is  founded.  Our  form 
of  government,  the  immensity  of  our 
country,  and  our  isolated  position,  almost 
insular  as  far  as  other  first-class  nations 
having  great  military  strength  are  con- 
cerned, all  doubtless  conspire  to  cause  the 
general  lack  of  interest  of  our  people  in 
foreign  affairs,  which  is  the  ultimate  cause 
why  there  is  so  little  appreciation  of  the 
underlying  need  for  a  strong  navy.  The 
navy  is  popular  just  now,  and  to  that 
degree  it  is  fortunate;  but  the  roots  of  its 
existence  should  lie  in  deeper  ground  than 
popularity.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the 
completion  of  the  canal  may  serve  to 
broaden  the  national  outlook,  and  that  we 
may  be  able  to  look  back  to  it  in  coming 
years  as  the  period  in  which  a  reasoned  na- 
tional policy,  founded  on  national  aims,  shall 
have  had  its  birth  in  the  country  at  large. 
There  would  be  no  excuse  for  a  failure 
of  the  navy  itself  to  have  a  "  reason  for 
the  faith  that  is  in  us  ";  nor  can  that  re- 
proach be  laid  at  the  door  of  the  navy, 
which  has  for  years  had  a  definite,  consist- 
ent policy  as  expressed  by  the  responsi- 
ble advisers  of  the  Navy  Department. 
Moreover,  the  effect  of  the  canal  upon  that 
policy  has  been  carefully  kept  in  mind 
since  the  day  the  canal  was  started. 


CHAPTER  XLIII 


THE  DEFENSE  OF  THE  CANAL  ZONE 
BY  MAJOR-GENERAL  LEONARD  WOOD,  U.  S.  A. 


THE  people  of  the  United  States  in 
constructing  the  Panama  Canal 
undoubtedly  had  in  mind  its  great 
commercial  advantage  to  the  world  at 
large;  they  realized  that  it  would  facili- 
tate commerce,  that  it  would  bring  certain 
sections  of  the  west  coast  of  North  and 
South  America  into  closer  relations  with 
Europe;  it  was  looked  upon  as  a  great 
world  benefit,  one  of  those  great  works  the 
beneficial  results  of  which  go  to  the  bet- 
terment of  mankind. 

The  American  soldier  and  sailor  at  once 
saw  in  the  completed  canal  an  implement 
of  tremendous  military  utility,  and  realized 
that  it  would  enable  the  prompt  transfer 
of  our  fleet  from  one  ocean  to  the  other,  or 
the  quick  union  of  the  fleet  on  either 
ocean.  In  a  certain  way  it  doubled  our 
naval  efficiency.  It  is  now  practically 
completed;  and,  like  all  great  undertak- 
ings, it  carries  with  it  great  responsibilities; 
it  must  be  safeguarded.  Its  secure  holding 
is  of  more  importance  to  us  than  to  any 
other  nation;  and  consequently,  we  are 
confronted,  from  the  military  standpoint, 
with  the  problem  of  holding  the  Canal 
Zone  securely,  so  that  the  canal  may  be 
always  available  to  us,  and  not  available 
to  our  enemies.  With  this  end  in  view, 
careful  and  detailed  studies  have  been  made 
of  the  Canal  Zone  area;  powerful  fortifi- 
cations are  being  constructed  at  each  ex- 
tremity of  the  canal,  and  the  preliminary 
steps  taken  to  provide  a  garrison  adequate 
to  hold  it  against  any  force,  excepting 
such  force  as  might  be  landed  as  a  result 
of  our  losing  sea  power — that  is  to  say,  the 
garrison  ultimately  to  be  provided  will  be 
sufficient  merely  to  hold  the  canal  against 
raiding  forces  from  fleets.  If  we  should 
lose  sea  control  so  as  to  permit  the  free 


transport  of  troops  by  an  enemy,  then  the 
force  required  to  hold  the  canal  securely 
would  be  a  very  large  one.  These  are 
some  of  the  aspects  of  the  problem  which 
confronts  us. 

The  expansion  of  the  United  States  into 
a  world  power  has  brought  in  its  train 
many  new  responsibilities — responsibilities 
which  thus  far  have  been  discharged  with 
great  good  to  humanity  and  with  much 
benefit  to  ourselves,  in  that  our  occupa- 
tion of  tropical  countries  has  resulted  in 
discovering  the  method  of  transmission  of 
yellow  fever,  and  the  means  of  its  control. 
Through  the  application  of  this  knowledge, 
yellow  fever  has  been  done  away  with, 
and  the  tropics  made  a  white  man's  country 
for  all  time,  so  far  as  this  disease  is  con- 
cerned. Yellow  fever  need  no  longer 
harass  the  Southern  states;  the  great  losses 
from  widespread  quarantine  are  no  longer 
necessary.  Great  results  have  also  been 
accomplished  in  the  control  of  malaria 
and  other  widespread  tropical  diseases — 
results  tending  to  increase  the  energy,  and 
consequently  the  productive  power  of 
tropical  and  semi-tropical  people,  as  well  as 
that  of  the  population  of  some  of  our  South- 
ern states. 

The  Canal  Zone  is  a  typical  tropical 
area,  with  heavy  forests  and  luxuriant 
vegetation.  The  problem  of  its  defense 
involves  many  interesting  features.  Great 
care  must  be  exercised  in  the  sheltering 
and  sanitation  of  troops.  Officers  and 
men  cannot  be  kept  advantageously  in 
the  tropics  for  more  than  a  few  years  at  a 
time.  All  this  involves  not  only  the  main- 
tenance of  a  highly  efficient  garrison, 
always  equipped  and  ready  to  meet  any 
emergency,  but  also  a  careful  application 
of  the  latest  sanitary  principles. 


266 


CHAPTER  XLIV 


THE  PANAMA  CANAL  FROM  A  NAVY  STANDPOINT 

INCREASED  BURDEN  OF  PROTECTING  CENTRAL  AND  SOUTH  AMERICAN  COUNTRIES  UNDER 
MONROE  DOCTRINE — THE  FLEET  PROTECTED  BY  CANAL  FORTIFICATIONS — 
NECESSITY  OF  STRONGER  NAVAL  FORCES  IN  THE  PACIFIC — ENGLAND'S  ALLI- 
ANCE WITH  JAPAN — NAVAL  BASES  IN  THE  PACIFIC — ENFORCING  NEUTRALITY 
OF  THE  CANAL — THE  RESERVE  FLEET. 

BY  CAPTAIN  PHILIP  ANDREWS,  U.  S.  N. 

NOTE. — In  accordance  with  Navy  Regulations,  permission  to  publish  this  article  was  requested  by  Capt. 
Andrews,  and  was  granted  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  in  a  letter  dated  Aug.  14,  1914,  as  follows:  "Per- 
mission is  granted  you  to  publish  without  change  your  article  entitled  'The  Panama  Canal  from  a  Navy 
Standpoint,'  submitted  for  scrutiny  under  Article  1534  (3),  U.  S.  Navy  Regulations,  1913.  (Signed) 
JOSEPHUS  DANIELS." 


THE  Panama  Canal  has  been  suc- 
cessfully built.  It  has  been  forti- 
fied. It  is  being  operated  com- 
mercially. 

The  doubts  and  controversies  which  pre- 
ceded it,  the  difficulties  of  building,  may 
now  be  forgotten  and  attention  riveted  on 
what  it  will  do  for  the  navy,  the  nation, 
and  mankind  generally.  That  the  recipi- 
ents of  the  canal's  bounty  are  mentioned 
inversely  in  the  order  of  their  importance 
is  because  this  article  deals  mainly  with 
its  effect  on  the  navy,  and  only  incidentally 
with  the  others. 

In  arguing  for  the  building  of  the  canal, 
the  benefit  to  be  gained  by  the  freer  use 
of  our  naval  force  in  war  or  threatened  war, 
was  used  to  arouse  patriotic  and  wide- 
spread interest  in  the  canal,  yet  the  ma- 
terial benefits  to  the  United  States  in  the 
easier  exchange  of  commercial  commodities, 
and  to  mankind  generally,  were  of  much 
greater  importance. 

The  shortening  of  trade  routes,  the  de- 
velopment of  Central  and  South  American 
states,  through  fuller  emigration  and  com- 
mercial opportunity,  the  direct  benefits 
to  our  sparsely  populated  Pacific  coast  in 
supplying  labor,  and  the  opening  of  new 
markets  in  the  vast  Pacific  Ocean — one 
thinks  of  these  at  once  as  among  the  direct 
results  of  joining  the  two  oceans. 

Let  us  look  ahead  some  years  to  the  prob- 


able effect  of  the  stimulus  given  Central 
and  South  America  after  the  opening  of 
the  canal.  It  needs  only  a  fair  imagina- 
tion to  see  what  will  happen.  The  trade 
to  and  from  these  countries  will  vastly 
increase,  and  they  will  become  well  popu- 
lated by  people  from  Europe  and  the 
United  States,  and  probably  even  by 
Asiatics.  Investments  of  foreign  capital 
will  be  heavy.  Until  the  native  popula- 
tion is  overcome  by  children  of  foreign 
blood,  or  intermarriage,  the  governments 
of  some  Central  and  South  American  states 
will  not  be  strong  enough  to  stand  alone 
or  to  resist  aggression,  nor  will  they  be 
stable.  We  must  continue  for  years  to 
exercise  a  suzerainty  over  them ;  and  while 
protecting  them  against  outside  interfer- 
ence, require  of  them  honest  government 
and  fair  dealing  among  themselves  and 
toward  outside  nations.  Stable  govern- 
ments must  henceforth  be  the  rule,  not  the 
exception. 

This,  then,  is  the  newer  Monroe  Doctrine. 
The  United  States  protects,  when  neces- 
sary, Central  and  South  America  from  in- 
terference from  other  nations,  but  it  now 
demands  and  will  enforce  as  necessary 
not  only  fair  dealing  with  foreigners  and 
stable  government  within,  but  a  govern- 
ment which  shall  be  founded  on  justice 
and  the  consent  of  a  majority  of  the  gov- 
erned. This  course  will  make  for  the  ben- 


267 


268 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


efit  of  Central  and  South  America,  and 
equally  for  the  United  States  and  those 
other  nations  which  have  citizens  and 
money  invested  in  these  countries. 

The  navy  shares  in  the  benefits  con- 
ferred by  the  canal  to  a  marked  degree. 
The  greatest  benefit  is  the  shortening  of 
the  distance  between  our  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  seaboards.  The  seaboard  frontiers 
of  the  United  States  are  not  only  the  At- 
lantic and  Pacific  coasts,  but  also  the  nec- 
essary water  communication  between  them, 
for  at  times  it  will  be  necessary  to  send 
our  naval  force  from  one  coast  to  the  other. 
When  there  was  no  canal,  our  sixteen  bat- 
tleships of  the  Atlantic  fleet  went  from 
one  coast  to  the  other  by  the  Straits  of 
Magellan;  a  long  route  but  fairly  sure. 
In  war  time  even  this  would  be  feasible 
provided  no  greater  force  than  ours  was 
met,  for  the  route  is  far  from  a  base. 
With  the  Panama  Canal  in  operation  the 
distance  is  much  decreased,  the  time  even 
more;  but  safety  is  infinitely  greater  be- 
cause the  communications  to  the  canal 
(or  away  from  it)  on  either  ocean  are 
shorter  and  more  easily  defended.  The 
safety  of  the  fleet  is  also  increased  by  the 
strength  of  the  canal  itself;  the  powerful 
guns  at  its  entrances,  the  defense  of  the 
line  of  the  canal  by  an  adequate  army 
force,  and  by  the  dry  docks  and  repair 
shops  at  the  disposal  of  our  ships.  Thus 
our  ships  may  seek  shelter  behind  the  guns 
at  the  entrance  as  against  a  superior  force, 
and  safely  await  the  arrival  of  more  of 
our  ships  from  the  other  side,  or  may  all 
seek  shelter  in  the  interior  lake  of  the  canal 
while  a  part  may  be  repaired  or  docked. 
The  entrances  are  well  fortified  with  heavy 
guns  to  keep  off  hostile  vessels,  so  that  our 
fleet,  wishing  to  emerge  to  give  battle  to 
the  enemy's  fleet,  can  safely  leave  the 
entrance  and  form  in  line  of  battle  before 
it  can  be  reached  by  an  enemy's  guns. 

If  we  have  an  enemy  in  each  ocean,  de- 
sirous of  joining,  we  can  at  least  go 
through  the  canal,  reach  one  part  and  give 
battle  before  a  junction  can  be  made. 

Until  recently  it  was  only  necessary  to 


have  our  main  fleet  in  the  Atlantic,  where 
it  seemed  most  likely  international  com- 
plications might  arise.  But  the  Pacific 
Ocean  for  some  years  has  been  steadily 
increasing  in  importance  to  us,  and  the 
two  wars  in  which  Japan  has  recently  en- 
gaged have  placed  her  and  her  policies  in 
a  position  where  careful  statesmanship 
will  be  necessary  to  avoid  controversy 
between  us.  This  condition  has  been 
coming  and  would  have  arrived  whether 
the  Panama  Canal  had  been  dug  or  not, 
but  the  recognition  of  it  was  partly  respon- 
sible for  the  building  of  the  canal. 

The  canal  has  cut  the  distance  from  New 
York  to  San  Francisco  from  13,000  to 
5,000  miles,  and  has  reduced  the  time  in 
even  greater  proportion  than  the  distance 
on  account  of  cutting  out  delays  necessary 
for  replenishing  fuel.  Our  battle  fleet, 
therefore,  of  whatever  strength  it  may  be, 
is  rendered  vastly  more  mobile  by  means  of 
the  canal,  and  can  readily  and  quickly 
pass  from  one  ocean  to  the  other  in  case 
of  need. 

Before  the  opening  of  the  canal,  our 
fleet  in  the  Atlantic  should  have  been 
measured  by  our  need  for  enforcing  the 
Monroe  Doctrine;  in  the  Pacific  by  the 
strength  necessary  to  share  in  the  trade  of 
the  East  and  in  enforcing  Asiatic  exclusion, 
for  the  time  at  least  one  of  our  definite 
policies.  Thus  both  oceans  would  have 
ultimately  demanded  strong  fleets  suited 
to  their  necessities,  and  as  commerce  grew 
and  competition  became  keener  stronger 
fleets  would  have  been  necessary.  The 
canal  has  made  it  possible  for  us  to  main- 
tain a  smaller  battle  fleet  because  it  can 
pass  quickly  from  one  ocean  to  the  other 
.as  necessary  and  be  available  for  either. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  building  of  the 
canal  would  double  our  navy,  but  this 
probably  only  meant  that  one  fleet  would 
suffice,  instead  of  two  which  could  rarely 
be  joined,  and  then  only  after  great  delay. 
And  the  fact  that  naval  forces,  with  no 
canal,  would  necessarily  be  divided  and 
make  it  necessary  to  have  each  separate 
fleet  of  full  strength,  was  a  prime  factor 


POSSIBLE  CONTROVERSY  WITH  JAPAN 


269 


in  deciding  that  we  should  build  the  canal. 
It  was,  in  fact,  a  military  measure  to  re- 
duce our  ultimate  expenditure  for  war 
vessels;  an  economy.  It  is  immaterial 
here  to  conjecture  what  strength  each  fleet 
would  have  had  without  the  canal;  or 
what  our  one  battle  fleet  will  be  with  the 
canal.  Both  would  depend  upon  the 
policies  of  other  nations,  and  on  their 
varying  naval  strength. 

By  what  proportion  the  canal  has  in- 
creased our  naval  or  military  effectiveness 
can  not  be  stated ;  it  is  more  correct  merely 
to  say  that  it  saves  us  from  larger  expendi- 
tures for  war  vessels,  by  requiring  less 
naval  strength  to  prevent  wars,  and  to 
meet  war,  should  it  come. 

In  all  probability  a  battle  fleet  suited  in 
size  for  any  contingency  in  either  ocean 
will  suffice  for  our  needs.  This  means  in 
effect  that  we  should  be  approximately 
as  strong  as  or  stronger  than  Germany 
or  France  in  the  Atlantic,  and  stronger 
than  Japan  or  China  in  the  Pacific.  Just 
as  soon  as  our  naval  strength  falls  below 
that  of  any  European  nation  that  needs 
land  for  her  surplus  population,  we  invite, 
and  may  get,  a  defiance  of  the  Monroe 
Doctrine.  Indeed,  the  opening  of  the  canal 
itself,  by  gradually  increasing  commerce 
and  opportunity  in  Central  and  South 
America,  will  invite  such  aggression .  Trade 
and  colonization,  in  fact  though  not  in 
name,  will  increase  the  interest  of  all  na- 
tions in  Central  and  South  America.  Even 
now,  both  European  and  Asiatic  nations 
have  large  colonies  in  South  America. 

We  have  guaranteed  the  neutrality  of 
the  Panama  Canal;  we  must  maintain  it 
by  force  if  need  be  against  any  and  all. 
We  have  bound  ourselves  to  do  this.  What 
this  may  mean  no  one  yet  knows;  the  need 
for  force  on  this  score  would  probably  arise 
at  the  same  time  as  other  difficulties. 

We  must  prevent  two  nations  at  war 
from  fighting  in  the  canal,  or  near  it  at 
such  distance  as  we  may  prescribe.  We 
cannot  allow  the  passage  through  the  canal 
of  belligerent  vessels  of  one  nation  in  pur- 
suit of  its  enemy  until  a  suitable  time  has 


elapsed,  just  as  belligerent  vessels  of  one 
nation  are  not  allowed  to  depart  from  the 
same  port  until  twenty-four  hours  after 
its  enemy's  vessels  have  left. 

One  circumstance  remains  which  is  at 
once  an  embarrassment  and  a  source  of 
security  to  us,  and  might  affect  materially 
our  need  for  naval  strength — England's 
offensive  and  defensive  alliance  with  Japan. 
It  means  baldly  that  England  will  join 
Japan  in  case  she  cannot  persuade  her 
to  go  it  alone,  or  refrain  from  war.  It  is 
certain  that  England's  close  commercial 
dependence  on  us  in  the  way  of  investment, 
and  her  reluctance  to  part  with  Canada, 
would  lead  her  to  advise  against  war  with 
us,  but  the  possibility  is  there.  It  is 
equally  certain  that  wise  Japan  does  not 
wish  war  with  us  or  with  any  nation.  Her 
greatest  need  for  successful  development 
lies  in  many  years  of  peace,  and  wisdom  to 
cope  with  her  serious  internal  problems 
and  her  financial  condition. 

With  our  battle  fleet  in  the  Pacific  a 
large  part  of  the  time,  as  it  will  be,  the  ex- 
tension of  our  naval  bases  becomes  neces- 
sary. We  now  have  Mare  Island  in  Cal- 
ifornia, and  Bremerton  in  the  State  of 
Washington,  and  a  small  coal  pile  at  San 
Diego.  Our  facilities  for  repair  and  outfit 
of  our  ships  on  the  Pacific  will  be  entirely 
inadequate  when  the  battle  fleet  gets  in 
the  Pacific  for  any  length  of  time.  The 
navy  yard  at  Bremerton  must  be  increased 
and  a  first  class  naval  base  established  on 
San  Francisco  Bay,  the  natural  strategic 
center  of  the  Pacific  Coast.  It  is  probable 
even  that  a  naval  station  must  ultimately 
be  established  in  southern  California,  for 
the  length  of  our  Pacific  seacoast  is  about 
1,200  miles.  With  this  purely  navy  yard 
development  will  probably  also  go  the 
establishment  of  a  torpedo  station  for 
manufacture,  repair  and  test  of  torpedoes, 
and  possibly  even  a  powder  factory  and 
facilities  at  one  of  the  navy  yards  for  man- 
ufacture and  repair  of  guns. 

With  the  increase  of  naval  facilities  on 
the  Pacific  Coast  will  come  a  diminution  in 
the  number  of  navy  yards  on  the  Atlantic 


270 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


Coast.     We  have  now  two  on  the  Pacific 
Coast  and  eleven  on  the  Atlantic  Coast. 

We  will  have  in  the  canal  itself  ample 
docks  and  shops  for  the  repair  of  our  ships, 
but  necessity  will  force  the  development  of 
Guantanamo,  on  the  southeast  side  of 
Cuba,  and  probably  will  urge  the  establish- 
ment of  a  coaling  and  naval  station  on  the 
Pacific  between  Panama  and  San  Diego,  a 
long  distance  of  2,840  miles. 

These  are  all  on  our  coasts  or  on  the  line 
from  coast  to  coast,  but  our  responsibili- 
ties point  still  westward.  Pearl  Harbor 
in  Hawaii  is  approaching  completion.  It 
is  the  great  outpost  of  our  Pacific  Coast 
whose  possession  is  vital  to  us,  and  it  must 
be  denied  an  enemy.  It  is  also  a  vital 
link  in  our  line  of  communications  to  the 
Philippines,  which  if  we  retain,  will  also 
require  the  fortification  of  Guam  as  the 
next  step.  Then  a  minor  naval  base  will 
be  necessary  in  the  Philippines. 

Smaller  questions  which  will  undoubtedly 
arise  after  the  opening  of  the  canal  will  be 
the  necessity  on  the  Pacific  Coast  for 
increased  barracks  for  the  larger  number 
of  men  needed,  increased  facilities  for  oil 
fuel  and  coal,  and  provisions  and  supplies. 
This  will  mean  more  storehouses,  barracks, 
fuel  depots,  and  additional  expenditure  for 
equipment  and  supplies  for  the  fleet  when 
in  the  Pacific. 

It  will  be  necessary  to  make  some  re- 
arrangement of  the  reserve  fleets,  probably 
balancing  each  with  the  different  elements 
usually  in  a  standard  fleet.  It  is  likely  too 
that  additional  torpedo  vessels  and  sub- 


marines of  a  more  modern  type  will  be 
transferred  to  the  Pacific  Coast.  We 
already  have  torpedo  vessels  and  sub- 
marines in  the  Philippines,  and  subma- 
rines in  Hawaii.  Guam,  too,  will  get  its 
quota  of  both  for  local  defense. 

The  Atlantic  reserve  fleet  is  based  at 
Philadelphia  and  the  Pacific  reserve  fleet 
at  Bremerton  Navy  Yard.  Both  are  com- 
posed of  the  older  vessels  which  would 
form  the  second  line,  and  perhaps  be  the 
final  reliance  in  war  should  it  happen  that 
our  main  battle  fleet  had  met  the  enemy 
and  been  disabled,  or  in  need  of  repairs 
even  if  victorious.  It  has  been  well 
said  that  the  nation  which  can  quickest 
get  its  reserve  fleet  of  older  and  less  for- 
midable ships  to  the  front  will  decide  the 
war  finally  in  its  favor.  Any  modern 
action  is  bound  to  disable  the  greater  num- 
ber of  vessels  on  both  sides ;  it  is  necessary, 
therefore,  to  keep  our  older  vessels  in  good 
repair  in  reserve,  with  reduced  crews  ready 
when  needed. 

The  political  situation  may  easily  render 
it  necessary  to  transfer  either  reserve  fleet 
to  the  other  coast,  a  contingency  which 
would  require  more  men  than  we  now 
have,  for  we  have  not  yet  enough  officers 
and  men  to  man  all  our  effective  vessels. 

Take  it  all  in  all,  the  opening  of  the 
Panama  Canal  will  be  the  beginning  of 
great  development  and  progress  in  which 
the  navy  will  follow  and  share;  as  always 
a  necessary  adjunct  for  peace,  which  must 
be  as  strong  relatively  as  the  interests  it 
guards  and  preserves. 


CHAPTER  XLV 


OUR  FOREIGN  COMMERCE 

COMPARISONS  OF  FOREIGN  TRADE  OP  LEADING  COUNTRIES — COMMANDING  POSITION 
ENJOYED  BY  UNITED  STATES — IMMENSE  SIZE  OF  HOME  MARKET — LESSONS 
OF  THE  EUROPEAN  WAR — CHANGED  CHARACTER  OF  AMERICAN  EXPORTS — 
TRADE  BALANCES — CONSTRUCTIVE  LEGISLATION  NEEDED — COMBINATIONS  AND 
FIXING  PRICES  IN  FOREIGN  TRADE  SHOULD  BE  LEGALIZED — MERCHANT  MARINE 
— AMERICAN  INVESTMENTS  ABROAD — EFFECT  OF  PANAMA  CANAL  UPON  AMER- 
ICAN COMMERCE — BAD  FINANCIAL  CONDITIONS  IN  SOUTH  AND  CENTRAL 
AMERICA  AND  CHINA — AMERICAN  ASSISTANCE  NECESSARY — PAN-AMERICAN 
SUPREME  COURT  SUGGESTED — PAN-AMERICAN  DEFENSIVE  ALLIANCE  AS  A 
SUBSTITUTE  FOR  MONROE  DOCTRINE. 

BY  JOHN  HAYS  HAMMOND 


IN  the  year  1913  the  total  commerce  of 
the  world  was  $40,468,000,000.    These 
figures  in  the  main  relate  to  net  im- 
ports and  domestic  exports.     They  do  not 
relate  to  any  single  uniform  year,  but  are 
for  the  latest  year  available.     The  follow- 
ing figures  show  the  foreign  trade  for  the 
year  1913,  of  three  leading  countries: 

Exports  Imports 

United  Kingdom $2,557,000,000  $3,742,500,000 

United  States 2,428,500,000  1,813,000,000 

Germany 2,403,31 1,000  2,563,354,000 

The  foreign  commerce  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  the  United  Stales,  and  Germany 
combined  equals  about  thirty-seven  per 
cent,  of  the  total  commerce  of  the  world. 
In  respect  of  an  export  trade,  the  United 
Kingdom  leads,  very  closely  followed  by 
the  United  States,  which  in  turn  is  approxi- 
mated by  Germany. 

It  is  because  of  the  magnitude  and  di- 
versity of  our  home  market  that  we  have 
heretofore  made,  comparatively  speaking, 
but  desultory  and  inadequate  efforts  to 
extend  our  foreign  markets.  The  posi- 
tion we  hold  to-day  in  the  world's  foreign 
commerce  is  most  reassuring  as  to  the 
opportunities  presented  to  us  in  the  future 
development  of  foreign  trade.  We  have 
achieved  this  commanding  position  in 
the  world's  export  trade,  for  such  it  vir- 
tually is,  despite  lack  of  systematic  effort, 


handicapped  by  inadequate  banking  and 
transportation  facilities,  and  without  the 
valuable  assistance  rendered  to  their  na- 
tionals by  the  governments  of  our  com- 
petitors. Having  regard  to  these  facts, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  remarkable 
potentiality  of  the  United  States  in  this 
field  of  commercial  activity  and  of  its  in- 
herent capacity  to  become  eventually 
the  dominating  factor  in  the  world's  com- 
merce. 

It  has  not  been  through  lack  of  ability 
on  our  part  that  we  have  not  already 
achieved  this  position,  but  because  our 
incomparable  home  market  has  been  able 
to  absorb  the  products  of  our  national  in- 
dustries, for  which  reason  we  have  not 
been  compelled,  as  have  Great  Britain  and 
Germany,  to  assiduously  develop  an  export 
trade.  The  value  of  the  products  absorbed 
by  our  home  market  is  about  twice  as  much 
as  that  of  the  total  exports  of  the  world.  With- 
in the  small  area  of  Greater  New  York 
alone,  for  example,  the  value  of  manufac- 
tures annually  exceeds  the  exports  of 
either  Great  Britain  or  Germany.  These 
figures  show  in  a  striking  way  the  magni- 
tude of  our  national  industries.  Not  only 
in  the  value,  but  in  the  diversification  of 
our  industrial  products,  we  hold  a  position 
incomparably  more  important  than  any 
other  nation  in  the  world. 


271 


272 


HISTORY   OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


One  of  the  economic  lessons  of  the  present 
war  is  the  complete  vindication  of  the  fiscal 
policy  which  has  resulted  in  the  building 
up  and  expansion  of  our  great  national 
industries.  We  learn  more  clearly  the 
interdependence  of  our  industries,  the  vital 
dependence,  for  example,  of  the  great  in- 
dustry of  agriculture  on  the  prosperity 
of  the  manufacturing  industry;  for  in  the 
manufacturing  centers  it  finds  its  best 
market.  We  learn  the  importance  of  all 
of  our  industries  to  the  extensive  classes 
employed  in  our  great  transportation 
systems,  in  our  agencies  of  distribution, 
etc.,  and  we  must  conclude,  therefore,  that 
the  keynote  of  our  economic  and  fiscal  legis- 
lation must  ever  be  to  preserve  unimpaired 
the  integrity  of  our  home  industries  and  the 
purchasing  power  of  our  domestic  markets. 

With  a  rapidly  increasing  population, 
and  especially  a  rapidly  increasing  num- 
ber of  wage-earners,  we  must  extend  our 
industrial  activities;  but  we  must,  never- 
theless, not  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  over- 
extension  in  industry  inevitably  causes 
depression  in  times  of  business  recession. 
Indeed,  authorities  agree  that  we  are  now 
rapidly  approaching  the  limit,  that  is  to 
say,  the  point  of  saturation  in  our  domestic 
markets,  at  least  in  so  far  as  present  de- 
mands under  normal  conditions  are  con- 
cerned. It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  we 
must  either  curtail  the  capacity  of  our  fac- 
tories, which  would  result  in  throwing  out 
of  employment  millions  of  wage-earners 
and  the  disorganization  of  complementary 
industries  as  well,  or  we  must  depend 
upon  the  exploitation  of  foreign  countries 
for  the  relief  of  our  congested  home  mar- 
kets. 

In  the  character  of  our  export  trade  there 
has  been  a  significant  change  in  recent 
years.  As  late  as  the  year  1901  foodstuffs 
constituted  nearly  seventeen  per  cent,  of 
our  total  exports,  whereas,  a  decade  later, 
in  1911,  foodstuffs  formed  only  about  five 
per  cent,  of  the  total  exports.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  very  encouraging  phase  of 
our  export  trade  is  the  rapid  increase  in 
manufactures  exported.  In  1901  manu- 


factures (and  manufactures  for  further  use 
in  manufacturing)  represented  but  31.8 
per  cent,  of  our  entire  exports,  whereas, 
in  1911,  44.5  per  cent,  of  our  total 
exports  were  manufactures.  Conformably 
with  this  change  in  character  of  exports 
we  find  a  gradually  diminishing  per- 
centage of  manufactures  imported,  but, 
on  the  contrary,  the  importation  of  a 
rapidly  increasing  percentage  of  crude 
materials  for  use  in  manufacturing.  The 
recently  enacted  (Underwood)  tariff  has 
unfortunately  resulted  in  an  increased 
importation  of  manufactures,  and  the 
present  war  has  stimulated  the  increase  of 
food  exports,  but  both  these  factors  are  to 
be  regarded  as  aberrations  only  in  our 
commercial  history. 

The  bulk  of  the  exports  of  Great  Britain 
and  Germany  has  been  wholly  or  par- 
tially manufactured  articles,  eighty  per 
cent,  of  the  exports  of  Great  Britain  and 
sixty-five  per  cent,  of  the  exports  of  Ger- 
many coming  under  this  category.  There- 
fore, our  future  competition  with  those 
countries  will  be  almost  entirely  confined 
to  exports  of  that  kind.  In  her  foreign 
trade  Great  Britain  follows  the  line  of  least 
resistance.  She  sends  to  British  colonies 
and  possessions,  where  she  enjoys  prefer- 
ential tariff  rates,  nearly  forty  per  cent, 
of  her  entire  exports,  while  only  thirty  per 
cent,  is  sent  to  other  manufacturing  coun- 
tries having  a  protective  tariff;  and  of 
the  remainder  of  her  exports  a  large  part 
is  sent  to  neutral  markets,  where  there 
is  no  competition  from  home  industries. 
Germany  and  America,  on  the  other  hand, 
have  succeeded  in  developing  the  bulk  of 
their  trade  with  countries  which  have 
highly  organized  competitive  industries 
in  the  same  lines  of  merchandise;  i.e., 
America  and  Germany  have  "bucked  the 
center"  while  Great  Britain  has  "played 
the  ends." 

In  the  year  1913  the  United  States  had  a 
"favorable"  trade  balance  of  about  $615,- 
000,000;  but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  there  are 
"invisible  exports"  that  tend  to  wipe  out 
this  apparent  credit  balance.  These  are,  ac- 


CONSTRUCTIVE   LEGISLATION   NEEDED 


273 


cording  to  Prof.  Jeremiah  W.  Jenks,  First : 
$225,000,000  on  account  of  payments  of 
loans  made  to  this  country  or  of  interests 
and  dividends  due  on  investments  made 
here,  the  United  States  being  a  debtor 
nation  to  Europe,  it  is  estimated,  to  the  sum 
of  about  $5,000,000,000.  Second:  Money 
drawn  on  letters  of  credit  and  other  forms 
of  foreign  drafts  by  Americans  traveling  or 
residing  abroad,  amounting,  according  to 
Sir  George  Paish,  to  a  net  sum  of  about 
$170,000,000.  Third  :Funds  remitted  abroad 
for  investment  by  immigrants  residing  in  this 
country.  These  remittances,  it  is  estimated, 
amount  to  from  $150,000,000  to  $250,- 
000,000  annually.  Fourth:  Remittances 
by  American  manufacturers  and  merchants 
for  payment  of  freight  shipped  in  foreign 
bottoms,  estimated  at  a  net  sum,  after 
deductions,  of  about  $25,000,000.  These 
are  the  "invisible"  exports,  the  amount  of 
which  is  a  factor  in  determining  the  net 
balance  of  our  national  commerce. 

England,  Germany,  and  France  (i.e.,  the 
peoples  of  these  nations)  have  a  large 
debit,  so-called  "unfavorable"  trade  bal- 
ance, owing  to  the  fact  that  they  are  credi- 
tor nations  and  receive  from  the  debtor 
nations  increased  imports  which  repre- 
sent the  interest  due  them  for  foreign  loans 
and  investments. 

In  competing  with  foreign  markets  we 
are  to  meet  our  great  trade  rivals,  who, 
by  years  of  experience  and  by  the  expendi- 
ture of  colossal  sums,  have  obtained  a  foot- 
hold more  or  less  firm  in  the  markets  we 
seek.  Therefore,  to  successfully  compete 
with  these  nations  we  must  secure  for  our- 
selves every  advantage  we  can  derive  from 
the  most  efficient  exploitation  of  our 
national  industries,  fostered  by  construct- 
ive legislation  at  home  and  promoted  by 
able  commercial  diplomacy  abroad.  This 
has  been  notably  the  policy  of  Germany, 
and  its  success  is  evidenced  by  the  unpar- 
alleled strides  she  has  made  in  the  develop- 
ment of  her  great  foreign  commerce. 

I  have  referred  to  the  stimulus  of  con- 
structive legislation  at  home.  It  is  not 
my  wish  to  inject  politics  into  a  discus- 


sion of  this  kind,  and  I  therefore  disavow 
criticism  inspired  by  partisan  motives. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  both  of  our  great  po- 
litical parties  are  transgressors.  It  is 
indeed  unfortunate  that  the  solution  of 
great  problems  purely  economic  in  char- 
acter should  not  always  be  entirely  dis- 
sociated from  politics;  that  legislation 
dealing  with  the  tariff,  currency,  trusts, 
and  other  economic  subjects  vital  to  the 
welfare  of  the  whole  nation  is,  on  the  con- 
trary, determined  on  strictly  political 
lines — settled,  indeed,  by  politicians  on 
the  stump  rather  than  by  business  men  in 
boards  of  trade.  Economics  is  too  often 
subordinated  to  politics.  The  vehement 
attacks  on  corporations  by  high  officials 
of  our  government,  indiscriminately  im- 
peaching the  integrity  of  our  corporate  prac- 
tice and  of  our  business  men,  has  not  only 
prejudiced  our  position  as  exporters  in 
foreign  markets,  but  has  increased  also  the 
difficulty  of  obtaining  foreign  capital  in- 
dispensable to  our  industrial  activities. 
This  has  a  far-reaching  consequence,  hav- 
ing regard  to  the  fact  that  we  have 
borrowed  from  abroad  upward  of  five 
billion  dollars  for  the  development  of  our 
home  industries.  It  is  by  excess  of  ex- 
ports that  we  are  able  to  pay  the  interest 
on  this  large  sum  and  to  gradually  wipe  out 
our  indebtedness.  There  has  been  much 
unintelligent  prejudice,  partly  inspired 
for  political  purposes,  against  what  we 
call  "big  business,"  but  the  people  of  the 
country  should  be  convinced  that  unless 
our  industries  can  be  developed  on  large 
scale  production,  as  is  the  practice  of  our 
great  European  trade  rivals,  we  shall  be 
seriously  handicapped  in  our  quest  for 
foreign  markets.  England  permits,  France 
encourages,  and  Germany  sometimes  even 
compels,  combinations  in  the  interest  of 
the  industry  and  the  general  public.  Gov- 
ernmental intervention  was  of  great  ad- 
vantage to  the  potash  industry  in  Ger- 
many, and  the  more  recent  intervention 
of  the  Government  to  prevent  cutthroat 
competition  between  the  Hamburg-Ameri- 
can and  the  North  German  Lloyd  lines  was 


274 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


undoubtedly  most  beneficial  to  German 
stockholders. 

In  the  enforcement  of  the  Sherman  law, 
our  government  should  remove,  as  far  as 
possible,  obstacles  to  the  cheap  production 
of  commodities  for  our  export  trade,  so  as 
to  place  our  country  at  least  at  no  disad- 
vantage compared  with  our  competitors. 
Cooperative  combinations,  and  the  fixing 
of  prices  for  products  exported,  should  be 
allowed  to  enable  the  smaller  industries 
to  more  advantageously  exploit  foreign 
fields.  Then,  too,  it  should  be  legal  for 
transportation  companies  to  give  special 
rates  to  the  seaboard  for  products  destined 
for  shipment  abroad. 

In  making  future  tariff  revisions,  we 
should  endeavor  to  obtain  reciprocal  ad- 
vantages from  nations  profiting  by  such 
revisions. 

One  of  the  practices  that  has  been  much 
criticised  is  the  sale  of  our  products  abroad 
at  lower  prices  than  at  home,  but  this 
practice  is  justified  because  of  the  fact 
that  we  are  dealing  chiefly  with  our  surplus 
products,  especially  in  times  of  depression. 
The  alternative  policy  would  be  to  close 
down  the  mills.  By  so  doing  the  effective 
organization  which  has  been  built  up 
would  be  impaired  and  likewise  many  wage 
earners  would  be  thrown  out  of  employ- 
ment. 

So  great  is  the  interdependence  of  the 
commercial  nations  of  the  world  that  we 
find  in  times  of  depression  in  this  country 
similar  conditions  prevailing  in  Europe, 
and  consequently  congested  home  markets 
for  their  products. 

To  compete  successfully,  therefore,  with 
the  minimum  prices  of  our  European  com- 
petitors in  foreign  markets,  it  is  often 
necessary,  especially  under  conditions  re- 
ferred to,  for  us  to  make  lower  quotations 
abroad  than  those  at  which  the  same 
commodities  are  sold  at  home.  This  is  the 
practice  of  European  nations.  A  further 
vindication  of  such  policy  is  that  by  secur- 
ing the  foreign  trade  which  would  other- 
wise go  to  our  competitors  we  are  enabled 
to  retard  the  expansion  of  their  industries, 


and  in  that  way  to  prevent  them  attaining 
the  low  costs  of  production  that  we  our- 
selves enjoy;  and  after  all,  in  the  long  run, 
the  maintenance  of  the  maximum  produc- 
tion of  our  mills  results  in  an  average  price 
in  our  home  market  lower  than  could  be 
attained  by  operating  on  a  smaller  scale, 
and  for  that  reason  the  consumer  gains 
rather  than  loses. 

An  American  merchant  marine  would  be 
most  valuable  in  the  development  of  our 
foreign  trade.  To-day  only  ten  per  cent, 
of  our  foreign  commerce  is  carried  in  Amer- 
ican-owned vessels,  ninety  per  cent,  being 
carried  in  vessels  for  the  most  part  owned 
and  controlled  by  our  trade  rivals.  The 
advantage  of  direct  and  frequent  sailings 
is  important  in  the  development  of  trade 
relations;  but,  while  this  is  true,  many  of 
us  do  not  approve  of  steamship  lines  being 
owned  or  controlled  by  the  government, 
as  it  would  obviously  deter  private  invest- 
ment in  lines  which  would  be  subject  to 
competition  by  government-owned  vessels. 
The  rehabilitation  of  our  merchant  marine 
can  best  be  accomplished  by  private  enter- 
prise after  the  necessary  amendment  of  our 
navigation  laws  and  the  provision  of  sub- 
ventions, etc.,  to  compensate  for  the  sub- 
sidies to  their  nationals  by  other  govern- 
ments. According  to  the  Hon.  Oscar  W. 
Underwood,  "All  of  the  great  shipping  na- 
tions of  the  world  are  to-day  granting 
subsidies  in  one  form  or  another  to  their 
ships  passing  through  the  Suez  Canal, 
except  our  own  government.  Already  two 
of  the  shipping  nations  are  providing  sub- 
sidies for  the  ships  passing  through  the 
Panama  Canal,  and  undoubtedly  the  other 
shipping  nations  will  shortly  adopt  the  same 
policy." 

Far  more  important  than  an  American 
merchant  marine  is  the  extension  of  Ameri- 
can banking  facilities  in  foreign  countries. 
This  is  now  made  possible  by  the  recently 
enacted  Federal  Reserve  Act,  and  the 
National  City  Bank  of  New  York  is  to  be 
commended  for  the  enterprise  it  is  show- 
ing in  establishing  branch  banks  in  South 
America.  The  investment  of  a  nation's 


ESSENTIALS  OF  EFFICIENCY 


capital  abroad  is  of  great  advantage  in  the 
expansion  of  its  commerce.  It  is  indeed 
the  "open  sesame"  to  the  nation's  export 
trade.  The  investment  of  British  capital 
in  the  nature  of  loans  to  foreign  govern- 
ments (with  the  collateral  advantages  usu- 
ally obtained  for  its  nationals  in  the  way 
of  commercial  concessions),  and  for  the 
development  of  the  resources  of  those 
countries,  amounts  to  about  $750,000,000 
annually.  It  is  estimated  that  more  than 
$20,000,000,000  of  English  capital  has  been 
invested  abroad,  (about  $5,000,000,000  of 
which  represents  investments  in  Latin 
America)  bringing  in  an  income  of  $1,000,- 
000,000  annually.  This  refers  to  the  re- 
munerative investments  only. 

One  of  the  fundamental  requisites  for 
successful  competition  for  the  world's 
markets  is  low  cost  of  production;  and 
in  this  connection  it  is  well  to  disabuse  the 
mind  of  the  public  of  the  long-cherished  de- 
lusion as  to  the  tremendous  superiority 
of  American  labor,  Yankee  ingenuity,  and 
American  machinery  over  those  of  all  for- 
eign countries.  The  fact  is,  that  this  superi- 
ority no  longer  obtains  in  the  same  degree 
as  formerly,  for  the  reason  that  technical 
training  abroad  and  the  introduction  of 
American  machinery  have  already  mini- 
mized the  advantage  that  American  indus- 
try formerly  enjoyed  in  this  respect. 
When  this  situation  is  realized  there  can 
be  but  little  doubt  that  for  their  own  pro- 
tection American  wage-earners  will  be 
compelled  to  increase  their  efficiency,  so  as 
to  make  possible  the  maintenance  of  the 
American  standard  of  living,  and  at  the 
same  time  lower  the  cost  of  production  so 
as  to  enable  our  country  to  compete  suc- 
cessfully with  our  trade  rivals  for  foreign 
markets. 

One  of  the  essentials  of  efficiency  in  pro- 
duction is  industrial  peace.  This  is  too 
large  a  subject  to  discuss  at  present,  but, 
while  realizing  the  complexity  of  the  prob- 
lem, I  do  not  believe  that  I  am  too  opti- 
mistic in  expressing  the  opinion  that  the 
relations  between  employer  and  employee 
are  better  to-day,  fundamentally,  than  for 


many  years  past.  The  employer  appre- 
ciates the  justice  and  also  the  advantage, 
when  properly  conducted,  of  the  principle 
of  collective  bargaining,  and  both  the  em- 
ployer and  the  employee  recognize  more 
than  ever  before  their  interdependence  and 
their  reciprocal  obligations  as  well;  and 
with  the  spirit  of  fairness  that  generally 
prevails  we  have  every  reason  to  believe 
that  the  labor  agitators,  on  the  one  hand, 
and  unreasonable  employers,  on  the  other, 
are  destined  to  become  less  serious  ob- 
stacles to  industrial  peace.  The  people 
of  the  country  of  all  classes,  irrespective 
of  political  affiliations,  are  beginning  to 
recognize  the  fact  that  politicians  have,  in 
a  large  measure,  by  their  indiscriminate 
and  demagogic  attacks  on  the  corporations 
controlling  national  industries,  created  a 
lack  of  confidence  which  has  contributed 
to  periods  of  depression.  For  that  reason 
there  is  to-day  a  strong  revulsion  of  feel- 
ing throughout  the  country  against  the 
attitude  of  such  legislators,  and  I  believe 
we  have  every  reason  to  hope  that  the  com- 
pelling force  of  enlightened  public  opinion 
will,  in  the  future,  result  in  legislation 
facilitating,  rather  than,  as  has  hitherto 
been  the  case,  obstructing  the  processes  of 
industrial  development,  while,  at  the  same 
time,  adequately  safeguarding  the  interests 
of  state,  community,  and  individual. 

Another  important  problem  indirectly 
affecting  our  trade  is  that  of  the  curriculum 
of  our  public  schools.  The  policy  of  our 
public  school  system  is  in  a  large  measure 
directed  to  the  preparation  of  boys  for 
college  and  the  university,  subordinating 
the  importance  of  preparing  them  for  some 
efficient  service  in  industrial  and  com- 
mercial pursuits.  This  is  obviously  wrong, 
and  inexcusably  so  when  we  consider  the 
small  percentage  of  pupils  that  enter  the 
colleges  and  universities  after  graduation 
from  the  high  schools.  At  least  the  cur- 
riculum of  the  public  schools  should  be 
arranged  so  as  to  better  equip  the  graduates 
to  earn  their  livelihood  in  commercial  and 
industrial  vocations.  I  believe  that  boys 
should  have  less  erudition  and  more 


276 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


knowledge.  We  should  remember  that 
"he  is  idle  who  is  not  best  employed," 
and  that  there  are  far  too  many  young 
men  educated  for  professional  lite  who 
add  to  the  already  congested  ranks  of  the 
professions,  and  whose  energies  could  be 
far  more  profitably  expended  in  other  vo- 
cations. They  should  be  included  in  the 
producing,  rather  than  in  the  non-produc- 
ing class  of  the  community. 

During  recent  years  our  consular  service 
has  been  greatly  improved,  and  it  reflects 
credit  upon  our  country;  but  there  is  still 
room  for  improvement,  and  I  would  advo- 
cate that  in  the  selection  of  men  for  that 
service  some  consideration  be  given  to  their 
qualifications  for  future  service  in  diplo- 
macy, so  that  in  the  selection  of  am- 
bassadors, men  who  have  attained  dis- 
tinction in  the  consular  service  should  be 
available. 

Coincident  with  the  declaration  of  war 
in  Europe  considerable  enthusiasm  was 
evoked,  verging  indeed  on  hysteria,  in  the 
agitation  to  build  up  our  export  trade  in 
South  America.  The  opening  of  the  Pan- 
ama Canal  has  also  given  a  stimulus  to  this 
movement;  but,  lest  we  repent  at  leisure, 
it  behooves  us  to  "make  haste  slowly" 
in  our  efforts  to  expand  our  trade  with 
Latin  America.  While  the  Panama  Canal 
will  be  of  great  advantage  to  this  country 
in  the  development  of  foreign  commerce,  it 
will  not  facilitate  our  trade  with  Mexico, 
Central  America,  or  with  the  northern  and 
eastern  sections  of  South  America,  with 
the  exception  of  that  commerce  to  be  de- 
veloped between  our  Pacific  Coast  states 
and  those  points.  The  Panama  Canal  will 
eventually  add  immensely  to  our  foreign 
commerce  in  the  Orient,  and  will  be  of 
incalculable  advantage  to  our  Pacific  Coast 
trade,  but  in  the  future,  as  in  the  past, 
the  bulk  of  our  South  American  trade  will, 
I  believe,  be  with  the  South  American 
states  on  the  Atlantic  and  not  with  those  on 
the  Pacific  Ocean. 

The  immensity  of  the  area  of  the 
South  American  states,  aggregating  6,850,- 
ooo  square  miles  (or  nearly  twice  that 


of  continental  United  States),  with  a 
population  of  almost  35,000,000,  appeals 
to  the  imagination  of  our  manufac- 
turers, merchants,  and  exporters;  but 
there  are  important  problems,  financial, 
engineering,  social  and  economic,  to  be 
solved  before  the  potentialities  can  be  real- 
ized. In  1912  South  American  exports 
amounted  to  $1,176,971,000.  The  im- 
ports amounted  to  $960,504,000,  of  which 
$153,000,000,  or  about  sixteen  per  cent., 
was  from  the  United  States.  The  total  South 
American  imports  slightly  exceed  in  value 
the  sum  of  the  exports  of  the  United  States 
to  the  United  Kingdom  and  Canada  alone ; 
less  than  half  the  value  of  the  manufactured 
products  of  Greater  New  York,  and  not 
more  than  one-fortieth  of  our  domestic 
trade.  These  figures  further  emphasize 
the  magnitude  of  our  home  market. 

In  order  to  develop  our  Latin  American 
trade,  with  characteristic  impetuosity  and 
strenuosity  we  agitated  the  instantaneous 
creation  of  a  merchant  marine  as  a  first 
step.  We  did  not  realize  that  the  lack 
of  a  national  merchant  marine  was  by  no 
means  the  greatest  obstacle  to  the  immedi- 
ate development  of  our  South  American 
commerce.  We  ignored  the  "absorptive 
power"  as  well  as  the  far  more  important 
factor,  the  "purchasing  power"  of  these 
states.  Hardly  more  than  a  cursory  in- 
vestigation of  this  subject  suffices  to  show 
that  we  cannot  expect  substantial  returns 
from  this  field  in  the  near  future.  The 
financial  conditions  in  South  America 
at  present  are  unfortunately  decidedly  ad- 
verse. This  state  of  affairs  exists  likewise 
in  China,  Central  America,  and  many 
other  countries,  not  entirely  due  to  but 
greatly  aggravated  by  the  European  war. 
The  fact  is,  many  of  these  countries  have 
borrowed  from  Europe  sums  far  in  excess 
of  their  ability  to  repay  for  some  time  to 
come.  Some  of  this  money  has  undoubt- 
edly been  wasted,  but  the  greater  part  has 
been  expended  in  industrial  and  commercial 
undertakings  which  have  not  as  yet  reached 
the  period  of  fruition.  Eyen  before  the  war 
many  of  these  countries  were  in  financial 


These  three  views  show  typical  sections  of  the  canal  completed  and  under  water.     All  of  them  lie  between  Gatun  Lake  and 
the  deep  section  of  Culebra  Cut. 


RELATIONS  WITH   LATIN  AMERICA 


277 


distress,  but  the  war  has  greatly  aggravated 
this  condition  by  causing  depreciation  in 
the  value  of  their  products  owing  to  lack 
of  European  markets. 

If  we  are  eager  to  promote  the  extension 
of  our  Latin-American  trade,  we  must  be 
prepared  to  assist  in  financing  the  govern- 
mental necessities  and  also  the  requirements 
for  the  completion  and  expansion  of  the 
industries  and  commerce  of  those  countries. 
It  will  be  a  long  time,  undoubtedly,  be- 
fore European  capital  will  be  available  in 
requisite  amounts  for  that  purpose.  Under 
conditions  existing  before  the  war  our  coun- 
try was  able  to  secure  comparatively  cheap 
money  from  abroad  for  its*  Industrial  needs, 
and  thus  would  have  been  able  at  that 
time  to  finance  in  a  measure  the  develop- 
ment of  the  natural  resources  of  Latin 
America  with  the  profits  derived  from  the 
exploitation  of  our  home  industries 
financed  by  European  capital.  Undoubtedly 
the  time  will  come  when  American  capital 
will  seek  extensive  investment  in  the  devel- 
opment of  the  industries  of  the  newer 
countries,  and  from  that  investment  will 
result  a  proportionate  increase  in  our  for- 
eign trade.  If,  however,  American  cap- 
italists are  to  assume  the  role  of  banker 
and  broker  for  Latin-America,  we  must 
reverse  our  governmental  policy  in  many 
respects.  We  must,  for  example,  en- 
courage and  assist  our  manufacturers,  mer- 
chants, banks,  and  transportation  agencies 
in  "drumming  up"  and  building  up  foreign 
trade.  To  do  this  we  must  have  the  cor- 
dial and  competent  cooperation  of  the 
Department  of  State.  The  government 
must  cease  to  stigmatize  Americans  who 
invest  their  money  abroad  in  foreign  in- 
dustries as  unprincipled  exploiters.  We 
must  rather  emulate  the  example  of  Ger- 
many in  its  systematic  and  stimulating 
cooperation  with  the  citizens  of  that 
country  in  their  activities  in  foreign  lands. 
Above  all,  we  must  guarantee  to  our  citizens 
at  least  the  same  degree  of  protection  as  to 


life  and  property  accorded  the  citizens  of 
other  nations  by  their  governments.  To 
obtain  cheap  money,  which  is  required  for 
commensurate  industrial  development,  the 
Latin-American  nations  must  guarantee 
the  security  of  investment  of  foreign 
capital  against  discriminatory  laws  and 
confiscation,  especially  in  times  of  revo- 
lutionary movements. 

To  attain  the  confidence  of  American 
investors  and  to  obviate  the  serious  ob- 
jection that  exists  to  investments  in  some 
of  the  Latin-American  countries,  I  would 
advocate  the  creation  of  a  Pan-American 
Supreme  Court,  to  deal  specifically  with 
and  to  decide  disputes  as  to  foreign  in- 
vestments in  Latin-American  states.  Such 
a  court  should  be  composed  of  leading 
jurists  of  our  own  and  of  the  Latin-Ameri- 
can nations,  and  should  sit  in  neutral  terri- 
tory. If  inspired  only  by  self-interests  the 
aim  of  such  a  court  would  obviously  be  to 
establish  confidence  as  to  the  security  of 
Latin-American  investments,  and  for  that 
reason  foreign  investors  would  be  assured 
of  fair  treatment.  Such  a  court  might  be 
qne  of  final  resort.  In  any  event,  it 
should  try  cases  and  endeavor  to  adjudi- 
cate claims  before  resorting  to  diplomatic 
agencies,  a  practice  which  almost  invaria- 
bly results  in  friction  and  often  in  extreme 
tension. 

Cordiality  of  feeling  between  nations  is 
essential  to  advantageous  commercial  rela- 
tions, and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  many 
of  us  advocate  the  substitution  of  a  Pan- 
American  Defensive  Alliance  for  the  Mon- 
roe Doctrine  in  South  America.  There 
no  longer  exists  the  necessity  of  maintain- 
ing this  doctrine  as  applied  to  the  whole  of 
South  America.  The  people  of  that  coun- 
try resent  the  "big  brother"  position  as 
supererogation  on  our  part.  We  should, 
I  believe,  restrict  the  application  of  the 
Monroe  Doctrine  to  the  states  of  Central 
America,  to  Mexico,  and  to  the  countries 
in  the  Caribbean  Sea  area. 


CHAPTER  XLVI 


THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL  ON  HAWAII 

COMPARISON  OF  TRANSPACIFIC  ROUTES  FROM  PANAMA  TO  YOKOHAMA,  VIA  SAN  FRAN- 
CISCO AND  VIA  HONOLULU — SUNSHINE  BELT  vs.  FOG  BELT — SOUTHERN  ROUTE 
SHORTER  IN  TIME,  WITH  CHEAPER  COAL  AND  QUICKER  DESPATCH — ATTRAC- 
TIONS TO  TOURISTS — CLIMATIC  ADVANTAGES — IMMIGRATION  QUESTIONS — 
THE  SUGAR  INDUSTRY — EFFECT  OF  THE  TARIFF — COMPARISONS  WITH  OTHER 
SUGAR-PRODUCING  COUNTRIES. 

BY  LORRIN  A.  THURSTON. 


THE  question  is  asked,  "What  effect 
will    the   opening   of   the    Panama 
Canal  have  on  Hawaii?" 
The  answer  to  this  question  lies  in  the 
future;    but  there  are  known  facts  which 
warrant   drawing    certain    conclusions    in 
advance. 

The  traffic  through  the  canal  which  will 
directly  affect  Hawaii  is  of  two  kinds,  viz. : 

1.  That  which  is  bound  to  or  from  the 
Asiatic  Coast  and  adjacent  islands,  which 
needs  a  way  station  for  supplies  or  instruc- 
tions, and 

2.  That  which  makes  Hawaii  its  direct 
objective  point,  in  connection  with  local 
freight  or  passengers,  or  through  tourist 
excursions. 

The  all  important  question  to  Hawaii 
is:  "Will  steamers  operating  between 
Panama  and  the  Asiatic  Coast  make 
Hawaii  a  port  of  call,  or  will  they  prefer 
ports  on  the  Pacific  Coast  or  in  Alaska?" 

A  number  of  articles  on  this  question 
have  been  published  in  which  it  has  been 
argued  that  no  steamer  operating  over 
the  routes  indicated  will  call  at  Hawaii — 
San  Francisco  or  Dutch  Harbor  in  the 
Island  of  Unalaska  being  given  the 
preference. 

The  chief  reason  upon  which  this  argu- 
ment is  based  is  that  the  distance  between 
Panama  and  Yokohama,  for  example,  via 
Honolulu,  is  greater  than  via  San  Francisco. 

This  claim,  as  to  distance,  is  correct. 
In  order  that  there  may  be  no  question 
as  to  the  exact  facts,  I  compile  the  following 


figures  from  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau 
Map  of  the  North  Pacific  for  December, 
1914: 

SOUTHERN  ROUTE  (via  Honolulu) 

Panama  to  Honolulu  (Great  Circle 
Route) 4,685  miles 

Honolulu  to  Yokohama  (Great  Circle 
Route) 3,394  " 


Total  distance  Panama  to  Yokohama 
via  Honolulu 8,079  miles 

NORTHERN  ROUTE  (via  San  Francisco) 

Panama  to  San  Francisco 3,277  miles 

San  Francisco  to  Yokohama  (Great  Cir- 
cle Route) 4,536     " 


Total  distance  Panama  to  Yokohama 
via  San  Francisco 7»8i3  miles 

Distance  in  miles  in  favor  of  San  Fran- 
cisco   266  miles 

Admitting  a  handicap  of  266  miles 
against  Hawaii,  why  should  ships  go  by 
the  long  route? 

The  reply  is  that  in  shipping  routes  as 
well  as  lovers'  walks  by  moonlight,  "the 
longest  way  round  is  frequently  the  shortest 
way  home." 

The  "short  line"  argument  ignores  the 
fact  that  many  things  affect  and  decide 
routes  of  travel  besides  distance. 

There  are  good  reasons  why  the  bulk 
of  transpacific  Asiatic  commerce  will  go 
via  Honolulu  instead  of  via  San  Francisco, 
in  spite  of  the  266  miles  handicap  against 
the  former. 

Some  of  these  reasons  are  given  here- 
under.  There  should  be  kept  in  mind,  in 


278 


AMERICAN-ASIATIC  STEAMSHIP  ROUTES 


279 


this  connection,  the  location  of  the  several 
steamer  routes  across  the  North  Pacific. 

There  are  three  distinct  lines  of  steamer 
travel  across  the  Pacific,  north  of  the 
equator,  between  the  American  and  the 
Asiatic  continents,  viz.: 

(1)  The  southern  route,  via  Hawaii,  is 
in  the  northeast  trade-wind  belt,  adver- 
tised by  the  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Com- 
pany as  the  "Sunshine  Belt,"  from  the 
fact  that  the  sun  shines  along  this  route 
during  the  great  majority  of  the  days  of 
the  year,  and  that  the  normal  wind  is  a 
gentle  breeze  varying  from  ten  to  twenty 
knots  an  hour. 

Since  white  men  have  visited  them 
there  has  been  nothing  in  the  nature  of  a 
typhoon  or  hurricane  in  the  Hawaiian 
Islands.  Even  heavy  gales  are  few  and 
far  between,  and  fog  is  not  known  there. 

The  Hawaiian  Islands  and  the  surround- 
ing ocean  are  the  most  favored  spot,  cli- 
matically, on  earth. 

(2)  The  northern  route,  from  San  Fran- 
cisco, is  along  the  Great  Circle  line.    This 
is  known  as  the  "fog  belt,"  for  the  reason 
that    fog   is   prevalent   there   during    the 
greater  part  of  the  year.     The  prevailing 
wind  along  this  line  is  from  the  west,  and, 
as  a  rule,  considerably  stronger  than  the 
trade  winds  of  the  southern  route.    Violent 
storms  are  also  prevalent  along  this  line. 

(3)  The  central   route  begins  at  San 
Francisco,  but  abandons  the  Great  Circle 
route  and  its  short  distance  of  4,536  miles, 
for   a   course   considerably   to   the   south 
thereof  and  making  a  distance  to  Yoko- 
hama of  4,791  miles,  an  increase  in  distance 
of  255  miles  over  the  northern  short  line 
route.     This  line  is  recommended  by  the 
hydrographic    bureau    at   Washington    to 
steamers   crossing   the    Pacific    from   San 
Francisco.      The    object    in    taking    this 
longer  route  is  to  escape  the  fog,  violent 
winds   and    currents   and   storms   of   the 
northern  route.     It  is  another  demonstra- 
tion that  "The  longest  way  round  is  the 
shortest  way  home." 

A  fourth  route  from  Portland  and 
Puget  Sound  parallels  the  second  route, 


further  north,  but  this  route  need  not  be 
considered  in  connection  with  the  question 
at  issue. 

The  foregoing  demonstrates  that  al- 
though, theoretically,  the  northern  route  is 
266  miles  shorter  than  the  southern,  the 
route  actually  to  be  sailed  is  within  eleven 
miles  as  long  as  the  southern  route.  With- 
out looking  for  any  further  reasons,  the 
supposed  advantages  of  the  northern  "  short 
line"  route  disappear  right  here.  All 
that  remains  to  be  done  is  to  catalogue  the 
many  advantages  which  the  southern 
route,  via  Hawaii,  has  over  the  northern 
route,  via  San  Francisco. 

The  following  are  submitted  as  reasons 
why  most  of  the  steamers  crossing  the 
Pacific  from  Panama  to  the  Asiatic  Coast, 
which  do  not  have  specific  business  at  San 
Francisco,  will  travel  via  Hawaii: 

The  sea  is  normally  smooth  and  the 
winds  gentle  on  that  portion  of  the  Pacific 
extending  from  Panama  to  Hawaii,  and 
from  Hawaii  to  the  Asiatic  Coast. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  normal  weather 
on  the  northern  route  across  the  North 
Pacific  involves  high  seas  and  stormy  winds. 

The  bulk  of  transpacific  traffic  will  be 
carried  on  in  comparatively  low-powered 
freight  steamers,  making  ten  to  twelve 
knots  an  hour,  to  whom  boisterous  weather 
conditions  are  a  serious  hindrance. 

A  few  days  of  heavy  weather,  bucking 
head  seas  and  winds,  and  the  racing  of  the 
propeller  as  it  is  pitched  up  out  of  water, 
will  use  up  far  more  fuel  and  time  on  the 
shorter  rough  route  than  will  be  expended 
on  the  longer  but  smoother  route. 

Stormy,  rough  weather  is  in  every  way 
detrimental  to  economical  steaming;  tends 
to  rack,  strain  and  otherwise  injure  the 
ship,  with  the  possibility  of  wetting  and 
otherwise  injuring  the  cargo,  regardless  of 
what  direction  the  wind  is  from.  Under 
these  conditions,  other  things  being  equal, 
or  even  against  a  considerable  handicap, 
the  smooth  water  and  gentle  wind  route 
will  be  chosen. 

It  is  a  fact  known  to  all  navigators  of 
the  Pacific,  and  demonstrated  by  the 


280 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA  CANAL 


records  and  charts  compiled  and  published 
by  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau,  that  the 
normal  wind  along  the  "southern  route" 
across  the  Pacific,  north  of  the  equator, 
i.e.,  the  route  via  Hawaii,  is  the  northeast 
trade  wind,  i.e.,  it  is  normally  a  fair  wind 
for  ships  going  from  Panama  to  the 
Asiatic  Coast. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  normal  wind 
along  the  "northern  route,"  i.e.,  the  Great 
Circle  route  from  San  Francisco,  is  a  strong 
westerly  and  northwesterly  wind,  with 
frequent  gales,  which  winds  extend  well 
down  toward  the  Mexican  coast,  i.e.,  the 
wind  is  normally  adverse  to  ships  bound  to 
the  coast  of  Asia.  The  same  general  con- 
ditions, differing  only  in  degree,  prevail 
upon  the  central  route. 

The  difference  in  a  ship's  progress  made 
by  an  adverse  or  a  fair  wind  is  but  little 
on  a  short  voyage;  but  the  difference  in 
favor  of  8,079  miles  of  fair  wind  by  the 
southern  route  as  against  7,813  miles  of 
head  wind  by  the  northern  route,  or  8,068 
miles  by  the  central  route,  will  not  only 
nullify  the  theoretical  266  miles  handicap, 
but  leave  a  credit  besides,  in  favor  of  the 
southern  route.  . 

The  prevailing  ocean  current  along  the 
southern  route  is  from  east  to  west,  while 
on  the  northern  route  it  is  from  west  to 
east,  bending  to  the  south  when  it  reaches 
American  shores  and  extending  well  down 
the  Mexican  coast. 

The  weather  bureau  observations  show 
that  along  the  southern  route  the  current 
runs  westward  at  a  rate  of  one-half  to 
three  knots  an  hour;  and  that  on  the 
northern  route  it  runs  to  the  eastward  at 
a  rate  of  from  one-half  to  two  knots  an 
hour. 

To  be  conservative,  estimate  the  average 
rate  of  current  on  both  routes  at  one  knot 
an  hour. 

^-.   •> 

A  steamer  making  ten  knots  an  hour  will 
steam  240  miles  a  day;  at  which  rate,  if 
there  were  no  current,  favorable  or  unfavor- 
able, it  would  take  her  thirty-three  days 
steaming  from  Panama  to  Yokohama. 
With  a  current  of  one  knot  an  hour,  equal 


to  twenty-four  knots  a  day,  she  would 
gain,  on  a  voyage  of  thirty-three  days, 
thirty-three  times  twenty-four  knots  or  a 
total  of  792  knots. 

On  the  northern  route,  if  there  were  no 
current  either  way,  other  things  being 
equal,  it  would  take  a  ten-knot  boat 
thirty-two  days  to  cross  from  Panama  to 
Yokohama.  With  an  adverse  current 
holding  her  back  at  the  rate  of  one  knot 
an  hour,  or  twenty-four  knots  a  day,  the 
voyage  would  be  prolonged  thirty-two 
times  twenty-four  knots  or  the  equivalent 
of  762  miles;  equal  to  three  days'  extra 
steaming. 

In  other  words,  a  steamer  will,  by  reason 
of  a  favoring  current,  gain  792  miles  on  the 
southern  route,  and  by  reason  of  adverse 
current,  lose  768  miles  by  the  northern 
route,  or  a  total  handicap,  by  reason  of 
currents,  of  1,560  miles  in  favor  of  the 
southern  route  as  against  the  northern. 

The  type  of  steamer  under  consideration 
burns  about  thirty-five  tons  of  coal  a  day. 
Six  days  extra  steaming  would,  therefore, 
involve  burning  210  more  tons  of  coal, 
amounting  at  $8.00  a  ton,  the  average 
San  Francisco  price,  to  $1,680  for  extra 
coal  alone,  besides  other  expenses  and 
losses  easily  amounting  to  as  much  more. 

In  the  face  of  these  figures  the  266  miles 
of  theoretical  handicap  against  Hawaii 
again  disappears  and  the  apparent  handi- 
cap again  changes  sides.  It  is  as  though 
what  appeared  to  be  a  mountain  in  the  air 
had  become  a  hole  in  the  ground. 

It  may  be  thought  that  the  points  above 
made  concerning  storms  and  adverse  winds 
and  currents  are  purely  theoretical.  This 
is  not  so.  There  is  scarcely  a  year  goes  by 
that  some  steamer  bound  across  the  North 
Pacific  for  Asia  does  not  limp  into  Honolulu 
more  or  less  crippled  and  short  of  fuel, 
after  days  and  weeks  of  bucking  the  tem- 
pests of  the  northern  route,  here  to  replen- 
ish and  pursue  her  way  rejoicing  along  the 
"sunshine  belt." 

A  concrete  instance  occurred  only  re- 
cently. The  steamer  Strathdon  left  Puget 
Sound  on  November  2,  1914,  bound  for 


ADVANTAGES  OF  SOUTHERN   ROUTE 


281 


Japan.  She  should  have  reached  her 
destination  not  later  than  the  igth.  On 
the  2  ist  she  arrived  in  Honolulu  out  of 
fuel,  her  captain  reporting  such  a  succes- 
sion of  heavy  seas,  storms  and  head  winds 
that  he  could  not  reach  Japan.  He  recoaled 
and  proceeded  via  the  southern  route. 

The  writer  well  remembers  an  arrival 
of  the  Pacific  Mail  Steamer  Rio  de  Janeiro 
at  Honolulu  (the  same  steamer  which  later 
struck  a  rock  and  foundered  while  trying 
to  enter  San  Francisco  Harbor  in  a  fog). 
Portions  of  her  deck  houses  had  been 
demolished  and  part  of  her  masts  cut  away 
for  fuel.  She  had  arrived  within  800  miles 
of  Yokohama  via  the  northern  route,  when, 
owing  to  the  heavy  adverse  winds  and  seas, 
the  fuel  supply  was  so  depleted  that  the 
captain  decided  he  could  not  reach  port, 
and  ran  for  Honolulu,  which  he  reached 
only  by  means  of  using  his  deck  houses  and 
masts  as  fuel. 

Practically  all  of  the  Pacific  Mail  and 
Japanese  Mail  line  steamers  plying  between 
San  Francisco  and  Yokohama  now  travel 
the  "sunshine  belt,"  via  Honolulu,  al- 
though it  is  5,474  miles  that  way,  instead  of 
the  direct,  "fog  belt"  route,  although  it  is 
only  4,536  miles  by  that  course.  In  other 
words  they  prefer  a  course  which  is  938 
miles  the  longer. 

The  entire  North  Pacific  is  beset  with 
fogs  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year. 
The  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  charts  show  fog 
prevailing  during  forty  per  cent,  of  the 
time  in  this  vicinity  during  some  months 
of  the  year.  Fog  is  especially  prevalent 
at  the  port  of  San  Francisco. 

One  of  the  favorite  arguments  of  the 
northern  route  theorists  is  that  Dutch 
Harbor,  on  the  Island  of  Unalaska  in  the 
Aleutian  Islands,  will  make  an  ideal  mid- 
way coaling  station  for  the  Panama-Japan 
route.  Examination  of  the  facts  shows  this 
claim  to  be  an  absurdity. 

In  the  first  place,  Unalaska  lies  over  300 
miles  north  of  the  Great  Circle  route  and 
is  thereby  out  of  consideration.  Again,  the 
port  named  is  not  only  located  at  the  storm 
center  of  the  North  Pacific,  but  is  one  of 


the  foggiest  in  the  world.  It  is  not  infre- 
quently so  beset  with  fog  that  for  days  and 
even  weeks  at  a  time,  navigation  is  almost 
suspended  in  its  vicinity.  It  is  useless  to 
belittle  fog  as  an  obstacle  to  navigation. 

Few  vessels  attempt  to  enter  or  leave  San 
Francisco  in  a  fog,  and  those  that  do  so, 
incur  heavy  risks.  Fog  conditions  are 
responsible  for  a  never  ending  series  of 
wrecks  and  disasters.  The  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
which  struck  a  rock  and  sank  just  outside 
the  Golden  Gate  some  years  ago,  is  only  one 
of  a  long  series  of  victims  to  the  fog  terror 
of  the  North  Pacific. 

As  against  this  deterrent  to  safe  and 
economical  commerce  on  the  northern 
route,  fog  is  unknown  in  the  latitude  of 
Hawaii,  from  Panama  to  Japan  and  China. 
The  weather  bureau  charts  demonstrate 
the  correctness  of  this  statement. 

The  mariner  upon  the  southern  route  is 
certain  that,  day  or  night,  whatever  ob- 
stacles there  may  be  to  navigation  will  be 
visible;  and  seeing  an  enemy  is  half  the 
task  of  conquering  him. 

The  variation  of  the  tides  at  Hawaii  is 
only  about  fifteen  inches.  It  is  only  two 
feet  in  extreme  spring  tides.  As  a  result 
there  are  no  violent  currents  to  be  reckoned 
with  in  entering  the  harbor,  going  to  or  from 
the  wharf;  there  is  no  waiting  for  high  tide 
on  the  bar;  there  are  no  delays  of  any 
kind  due  to  tides  or  currents. 

At  San  Francisco,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
tidal  variation  is  from  five  to  eight  feet, 
resulting  in  constantly  changing  and  strong 
currents,  constituting  a  hindrance  to  rapid 
maneuvering  and  a  menace  to  safety. 

Only  last  year  a  Pacific  Mail  liner  was 
held  up  in  San  Francisco  nearly  all  night 
while  a  diver  cut  away  a  cable  from  around 
her  propeller  which  had  become  entangled 
while  trying  to  straighten  her  course  against 
a  swift  tidal  current. 

But  recently  the  Oceanic  steamer  Ala- 
meda  ran  hard  aground  at  Fort  Point,  in 
the  Golden  Gate,  having  been  thrown  off 
her  course  by  a  violent  eddy  during  a  few 
moments  while  the  fog  suddenly  formed 
and  obscured  the  view. 


282 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


It  is  conservative  to  estimate  that  fog 
conditions  alone  will,  on  the  average,  pro- 
long a  voyage  by  the  northern  route,  over 
one  by  the  southern  route,  by  at  least  a 
day. 

There  are  two  ports  of  call  and  supply 
for  transpacific  steamers  in  Hawaii,  viz.: 
Hilo  and  Honolulu. 

At  Hilo  the  entrance  to  the  harbor  is  a 
mile  wide  and  forty  feet  deep.  There  is  no 
entering  channel  and  no  obstacle  to  navi- 
gation. Ships  can  enter  and  leave  by  day 
or  night. 

At  Honolulu  the  entrance  channel  is  only 
half  a  mile  long  and  400  feet  wide,  with  a 
minimum  depth  of  thirty-five  feet  at  low 
water.  The  channel  is  buoyed  and  lighted 
on  both  sides  throughout  its  entire  length. 
There  are  no  obstacles  to  navigation.  The 
harbor  is  entirely  land  locked  and  smooth, 
and  the  wharves  are  directly  opposite  the 
main  entrance.  There  are  no  navigating  or 
climatic  obstacles  to  prevent  a  vessel  en- 
tering or  leaving  the  harbor  at  any  time 
of  day  or  night. 

On  the  other  hand,  at  San  Francisco 
there  is  a  bar  across  the  entrance  to  the 
harbor  about  seven  miles  outside  of  Golden 
Gate,  which  prevents  steamers  of  large 
draft  entering  or  leaving  at  low  tide  in 
heavy  weather.  The  Golden  Gate  is  also 
seven  miles  from  the  foot  of  Market  Street, 
the  center  of  the  shipping  district.  It  is 
seldom  that  large  ships  enter  or  leave  San 
Francisco  after  dark,  and  if  they  do  so,  it 
is  at  considerable  risk. 

The  best  quality  of  coal,  available  for 
commercial  use  in  either  San  Francisco  or 
Honolulu,  comes  from  Australia.  It  is 
not  of  as  good  quality  as  the  coal  from  the 
eastern  states,  but  the  latter  can  only  be 
brought  to  Honolulu  for  commercial  use  in 
American  ships,  freight  rates  on  which  are 
so  much  higher  than  the  rate  on  foreign 
ships  that  it  cannot  compete  with  Aus- 
tralian coal. 

By  reason  of  the  2,000  miles  further  haul 
to  San  Francisco  from  Australia,  Honolulu 
is  able  to  sell  coal  to  steamers  at  about  a 
dollar  a  ton  less  than  the  San  Francisco 


price.  That  Honolulu  has  the  advantage 
over  San  Francisco  in  this  respect  is  evi- 
denced by  the  fact  that  the  Pacific  Mail 
Steamship  Company  buys  as  much  of  its 
coal  in  Honolulu  as  can  be  taken  aboard 
during  the  time  that  its  ships  are  in  port. 

As  to  coal  loading  facilities,  Honolulu 
possesses  the  best  in  the  Pacific.  The  Inter- 
Island  Steam  Navigation  Company  owns 
a  dock  at  which  automatic  machinery  can 
load  over  100  tons  of  coal  an  hour,  into  an 
adjacent  ship,  and  has  also  two  floating 
automatic  coal  conveyor  barges  with  a 
capacity  of  500  and  1,250  tons  respectively, 
one  of  which  can  discharge  100  tons  and 
the  other  200  tons  an  hour.  They  can  be 
concentrated  on  one  vessel  if  needed. 

Two  British  steamers  came  into  Hono- 
lulu December  8,  1914,  one  of  them  en 
route  from  Panama  to  Yokohama,  and  the 
other  to  Vladivostock.  They  each  called 
for  500  tons  of  coal.  One  began  loading  at 
nine  o'clock  and  the  other  at  ten  o'clock 
A.M.  Both  finished  coaling  at  four  o'clock 
P.M.  One  left  the  same  afternoon  at  five 
o'clock  and  the  other  stayed  over  night  to 
clean  her  boiler  tubes,  but  for  which  she 
also  would  have  left  the  same  day. 

I  interviewed  the  captains  of  both 
steamers  and  asked  them  why  they  came 
via  Honolulu  instead  of  via  San  Francisco, 
the  latter  being  the  shorter  route. 

The  captain  of  the  steamer  bound  for 
Vladivostock  replied,  "Because  the  north- 
ern route  is  stormy,  and  both  wind  and 
current  would  be  against  me  the  whole 
distance,  while  the  southern  route  has 
pleasant  weather  and  a  favorable  wind  and 
current.  By  taking  the  southern  route  I 
can  get  to  my  destination  not  less  than  two 
weeks  sooner  than  I  could  by  the  northern 
route." 

The  captain  of  the  steamer  bound  for 
Yokohama  gave  the  same  reasons  and  said 
also,  "  I  can  get  coal  cheaper  and  get  much 
quicker  despatch  in  Honolulu  than  I  can 
in  San  Francisco." 

To  Hawaii  oversea  commerce,  the  arrival 
and  departure  of  deep  sea  ships,  is  the 
alpha  and  omega  of  its  commercial  exist- 


CONDITIONS   IN   HAWAII 


283 


ence.  Everything  that  it  imports  and 
everything  that  it  exports  passes  by  sea. 
Every  one  who  goes  anywhere  and  every 
one  who  comes  from  anywhere  travels  by 
sea. 

These  conditions  have  created  a  habit 
of  mind,  a  spirit  and  method  of  treatment 
of  shipping  that  markedly  characterizes 
Hawaiian  ports. 

At  Honolulu,  especially,  where  all  com- 
mercial as  well  as  social  life  hinges  upon, 
circulates  around,  and  is  vitally  affected  by 
oversea  connections,  arrivals  and  depar- 
tures, promptness  of  inspection,  despatch 
and  service,  are  the  rule  and  take  place  as 
a  matter  of  course. 

An  instance  is  given  above  of  two  British 
steamers  arriving  off  Honolulu  at  seven  in 
the  morning;  securing  pilot  and  harbor 
master  service;  passing  health  and  cus- 
toms inspection;  entering  and  clearing; 
each  buying  and  loading  500  tons  of  coal; 
securing  necessary  commissary  supplies  and 
leaving  again  at  five  o'clock  in  the  after- 
noon of  the  same  day.  It  is  inconceivable 
that  such  despatch  could  be  secured  at  any 
principal  mainland  port.  In  fact  the  cap- 
tain of  one  of  the  steamers  named  stated 
that  at  the  canal  all  he  could  get  was  180 
tons  of  coal  a  day. 

Incidental  to  this  question  of  prepared- 
ness for  despatch,  Honolulu  is  equipped 
with  an  up-to-date  steel  floating  dry  dock, 
owned  and  maintained  by  the  Inter-Island 
Steam  Navigation  Company.  The  dimen- 
sions are:  Length,  352  feet;  inside  width, 
seventy-six  feet  at  bottom,  eighty-four  feet 
at  top;  draft  over  keel  blocks,  twenty- 
three  feet  six  inches;  dead  weight 
capacity,  4,500  tons.  The  dock  is  built  on 
the  unit  plan,  and  will  be  enlarged  as  re- 
quired. 

There  is  also  immediately  adjoining  the 
dry  dock  the  Honolulu  Iron  Works  Com- 
pany's plant,  a  fully  equipped  foundry, 
boiler  and  iron  works.  The  equipment  in- 
cludes planers  which  can  handle  objects 
twenty- two  feet  long;  foundry  to  make 
fifteen  ton  castings  and  lathes  to  accom- 
modate objects  fifteen  feet  long  and  five 


feet  in  diameter,  while  any  kind  of  boiler 
work  can  be  manufactured  or  repaired.  A 
full  stock  of  plates,  fittings  and  engineer- 
ing and  ships'  supplies  is  maintained. 
The  works  are  capable  and  make  a  specialty 
of  repairs  to  ships  and  their  machinery. 

It  is  submitted  that,  whether  Hawaii  is 
the  half-way  house  for  all  of  the  through 
transpacific  business  or  not,  enough  has 
been  shown  above  to  demonstrate  that  it 
will  not  become  the  sequestered  Sleepy  Hol- 
low of  the  world,  as  some  predict;  but  that 
it  will  get  a  fair  share  of  the  benefits  to  be 
derived  from  the  tide  of  commerce  which 
will,  within  the  next  few  years,  sweep  past 
our  shores. 

It  will  be  noted  that  two  of  the  reasons 
above  noted  apply  directly  to  westbound 
ships  only,  viz. :  reasons  numbered  two  and 
three,  relating  to  direction  of  winds  and 
currents.  The  other  six  reasons  stand, 
however,  as  to  ships  going  both  ways. 

EFFECT  OF  THE  CANAL  UPON  LOCAL  TRAF- 
FIC AND  CONDITIONS  IN  HAWAII 

Intelligent  understanding  of  this  subject 
requires  a  brief  resume  of  the  location  of 
and  conditions  in  the  Territory. 

Hawaii  is  not  a  "possession,"  a  "colony" 
or  a  "dependency."  It  is  a  full  fledged 
Territory  of  the  United  States,  subject  to 
the  obligations  and  entitled  to  the  privi- 
leges of  that  status. 

It  is  located  2,080  miles  southwest  of  San 
Francisco,  its  nearest  neighbor,  and  has  an 
area  of  6,649  square  miles,  equal  to  4,127,- 
ooo  acres.  This  area  is  a  little  larger  than 
the  States  of  Connecticut  and  Rhode 
Island  combined,  and  a  little  smaller  than 
the  State  of  Massachusetts. 

There  are  eight  principal  islands,  extend- 
ing over  a  distance  of  three  hundred  miles, 
running  southeast  and  northwest.  There 
are  a  number  of  small  islands  and  reefs  ex- 
tending westerly  for  a  thousand  miles. 

Honolulu,  the  capital  and  principal  port, 
is  located  on  the  Island  of  Oahu,  about  the 
middle  of  the  group.  Two  active  volcanoes 
are  on  the  island  of  Hawaii,  200  miles  from 
Honolulu. 


284 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA   CANAL 


The  islands  are  almost  entirely  volcanic 
in  formation,  being  tops  of  mountains  ris- 
ing 15,000  to  20,000  feet  from  the  bottom 
of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  to  heights  varying 
from  4,000  to  13,825  feet  above  sea  level. 
The  two  highest  mountains  are  nearly 
always  capped  with  snow. 

The  moisture  laden  winds  blowing  in 
from  the  warm  ocean  ,'meet  the  high,  cool 
mountains,  and  cause  excessive  condensa- 
tion on  the  windward  side  of  the  islands, 
resulting  in  heavy  rainfalls  and  erosion  of 
the  mountains,  thus  creating  a  great  num- 
ber and  variety  of  valleys,  precipices,  water- 
falls, and  jagged  mountain  peaks;  covered 
in  places  with  forest  and  jungle,  luxuriant 
as  in  any  tropical  country;  and  elsewhere 
contrasting  with  barren  peaks  thousands 
of  feet  high,  of  an  alpine  character.  The 
arable  land  is  chiefly  in  the  valleys  and 
along  the  sea  coast. 

Hawaii  appeals  to  the  stranger  from 
many  standpoints.  Its  grand  mountain 
scenery;  its  magnificent  precipices;  its 
waterfalls,  falling  sheer  a  thousand  feet 
into  blue  ocean;  its  awe-inspiring  active 
volcanoes;  its  sea  bathing;  its  surf-riding; 
its  social  life  and  up-to-date  conveniences. 
But  after  all,  the  one  point  upon  which  it 
can  preeminently  base  its  claim  of  superi- 
ority over  every  other  country,  is  its 
climate. 

Hawaii  is  located  in  the  same  latitude  as 
Cuba;  but  is,  on  an  average,  ten  degrees 


cooler,  for  the  reason  that  while  Cuba  is 
surrounded  by  the  warm  Gulf  stream  flow- 
ing northward  from  the  equator,  Hawaii  is 
surrounded  by  the  ocean  current  which 
sweeps  up  from  Japan  past  the  Alaskan 
coast,  where  it  becomes  thoroughly  cooled, 
flows  on  down  the  coast  of  California  and 
Mexico,  and  thence  returns  back  across  the 
Pacific,  still  retaining  a  portion  of  its  cool- 
ness, thereby  giving  Hawaii  a  subtropical 
climate  in  a  tropical  latitude. 

The  stock  statistics  of  countries  which 
advertise  climate  as  an  asset,  is  that  "the 
average  temperature"  is  so-and-so;  thus, 
while  the  maximum  temperature  may  be 
100  degrees  and  the  minimum  freezing, 
it  is  entirely  correct  to  say  that  the  aver- 
age temperature  is  sixty-six  degrees,  which 
sounds  very  comfortable.  The  real  test 
of  climate  is  the  actual — not  the  average 
— variation  between  the  maximum  and  the 
minimum  on  any  given  day  or  month. 

There  are  countries  which  vary  in  tem- 
perature each  day  as  little,  or  even  less, 
than  in  Hawaii;  but  such  countries  are  in 
the  low  tropics,  with  a  uniformly  high  tem- 
perature. Hawaii's  claim  is,  not  only  that 
the  variation  is  slight,  but  that  the  tem- 
perature is  uniformly  comfortable. 

For  thirty  years  weather  records  have 
been  kept  in  Honolulu,  showing  the  daily 
variation  in  temperature.  It  is  unnecessary 
to  publish  the  full  record,  but  the  following 
table,  showing  the  highest  and  lowest  tem- 


TEMPERATURE  RECORD  FOR  1913,  DEGREES  F.,  HONOLULU. 


Highest  Tem- 
perature on 
First  Day  of 
the  Month. 

Lowest  Tem- 
perature on 
First  Day  of 
the  Month. 

Variation 
for  the  Day. 

Highest  Tem- 
perature for 
Whole 
Month. 

Lowest  Tem- 
perature for 
Whole 
Month. 

Variation  for 
Whole 
Month. 

January  

77 

6^ 

78 

60 

18 

February  

72 

64 

8 

77 

60 

17 

March,  

76 

CO 

17 

80 

SO 

21 

April  

78 

68 

IO 

81 

64. 

17 

May  

7Q 

68 

II 

84. 

64. 

CO 

Tune  .  . 

82 

67 

is 

84. 

67 

17 

July  

83 

T\ 

IO 

86 

71 

IS 

August  .  .     

8S 

II 

86 

7O 

16 

September  

83 

7O 

n 

8s 

68 

17 

October  

84 

72 

12 

84 

61 

2\ 

November  

8"* 

68 

1C 

81 

6s 

16 

December  

77 

7O 

7 

70 

so 

2O 

TOURIST  TRAVEL  AND   IMMIGRATION 


285 


perature  on  the  first  day  of  each  month, 
and  for  each  whole  month,  during  1913,  is 
a  good  index  of  Hawaiian  climate. 

The  direct  result  of  this  slight  variation 
of  temperature  between  midnight  and  noon 
is  a  mildness  and  balminess  in  the  atmos- 
phere which  gives  it  a  soft,  velvety  touch 
and  texture,  and  permits  outdoor  life  all 
the  year  round  without  danger  to  health. 
It  is  this  outdoor  life  and  the  ability  to 
engage  in  outdoor  sports  without  intermis- 
sion, that  puts  the  young  men  of  Hawaii  at 
the  forefront  of  athletic  sports  both  at  home 
and  abroad. 

The  champion  swimmer  of  the  world  is 
Duke  Kahanamoku,  a  Hawaiian  boy  who 
never  received  any  instruction  before  break- 
ing the  world's  record  for  both  fifty  and  a 
hundred  yards. 

Although  Hawaii  has  only  a  few  boys  at 
a  time  at  colleges  on  the  mainland,  for 
years  past  Hawaii  has  had  from  one  to 
three  or  four  representatives  on  the  foot- 
ball and  baseball  teams  and  rowing  crews 
in  the  big  varsities  on  the  mainland.  Their 
selection  is  purely  on  merit,  and  shows  an 
astonishingly  high  percentage  of  efficiency 
when  it  is  considered  that  they  are  chosen 
in  competition  with  thousands  of  young 
athletes  from  the  mainland.  Their  pro- 
ficiency is  largely  due  to  the  favorable 
climatic  conditions  under  which  they  have 
developed. 

Another  fact,  not  altogether  peculiar  to 
Hawaii,  but  still  a  marked  feature  inciden- 
tal to  its  climate,  is  that  each  island  is  so 
mountainous,  rising  from  4,000  to  nearly 
14,000  feet  above  sea  level,  that  a  few  min- 
utes to  a  few  hours  will  take  a  person  from 
the  climatic  conditions  above  noted  to  that 
of  many  degrees  lower,  even  down  to  freez- 
ing. 

The  writer  has  cut  ice  ten  inches  thick 
on  the  first  of  August  on  the  top  of  Mauna 
Loa,  packed  it  down,  and  had  ice  cream 
made  therewith  in  the  low  country  before 
dark  of  the  same  day. 

It  may  be  well  asked,  "What  has  the 
foregoing  description  of  Hawaiian  scenery 
and  climate  to  do  with  the  Panama  Canal  ? " 


The  question  is  well  put.  This  is  the 
answer : 

The  remarkable  climatic  conditions ;  the 
beautiful  scenery;  the  possession  of  the 
necessities  and  luxuries  of  civilized  life, 
together  with  its  easy  accessibility,  have 
already  made  Hawaii  one  of  the  Pacific's 
great  tourist  resorts.  The  opening  of  the 
Panama  Canal  will  make  it  a  great  world 
resort. 

For  several  years  past,  round  the  world 
tourist  steamers  have  made  Hawaii  an  ob- 
jective point.  Two  were  due  here  last 
winter,  but  were  prevented  from  com- 
ing by  the  war.  These  steamers  have 
heretofore  been  compelled  to  come  two- 
thirds  of  the  way  round  the  world,  by  the 
south  of  Asia,  or  by  rounding  South 
America. 

With  the  opening  of  the  canal,  all  of  the 
great  touring  steamship  lines  which  run 
excursions  to  the  Arctic,  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  East  and  West  Indies  will  be  pro- 
vided with  a  short  cut  to  "the  Paradise  of 
the  Pacific."  Hawaii  will  be  within  two 
weeks  direct  steaming  of  New  York  and 
three  of  London  and  Paris. 

A  direct  result  of  the  opening  of  the 
canal  should,  therefore,  be  a  radical  in- 
crease in  tourist  travel  to  Hawaii.  In  fact, 
I  look  for  care  of  the  tourist  to  soon  be- 
come, next  to  sugar  production,  the  chief 
industry  of  the  islands. 

The  opening  of  the  canal  will  revolution- 
ize immigration  to  Hawaii.  To  understand 
the  significance  of  this  point,  a  brief  refer- 
ence to  the  island  population  and  labor  con- 
ditions is  necessary. 

When  Captain  Cook  discovered  the 
Hawaiian  Islands,  he  estimated  the  popu- 
lation at  400,000.  This  was  probably  an 
exaggeration,  for  upon  the  first  official  cen- 
sus taken  in  1831,  the  record  showed  but 
130.313  persons. 

The  population  continued  to  rapidly  de- 
crease, until  in  1872  it  was  found  to  be  only 
56,897.  Meanwhile  the  sugar  industry  was 
rapidly  growing,  and  required  a  large  num- 
ber of  field  laborers.  The  resident  popu- 
lation was  entirely  insufficient  to  meet  the 


286 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


situation,  and  induced  immigration  from 
foreign  countries  to  meet  the  deficiency 
began  as  early  as  1852.  The  first  immigra- 
tion was  from  China.  Later  it  extended  to 
the  South  Sea  islands,  Japan,  Korea,  Man- 
churia, Norway,  Germany,  Austria,  Italy, 
Spain,  Porto  Rico,  Portugal  and  the  Portu- 
guese islands  off  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Africa, 
and  the  mainland  of  the  United  States. 
Conditions  on  the  mainland  are  more 
favorable  for  field  laborers  than  in  Hawaii, 
and  consequently  the  many  efforts  to  secure 
laborers  from  that  point  have  failed.  For 
the  same  reason  there  is  no  likelihood  that 
they  will  ever  succeed. 

Asiatic  sources  of  labor  supply  were  near 
by,  and  the  passage  cost  low;  but  at  an 
early  date,  it  was  felt  that  it  was  good 
policy  to  encourage  immigration  from  coun- 
tries other  than  Asiatic. 

The  trip  from  Europe  to  the  mainland  of 
the  United  States  is  short  and  the  fare  low, 
and  the  expense  is  borne  by  the  immigrants. 
The  trip  to  Hawaii  is  so  long  and  expensive 
that  the  immigrants  are  unable  to  pay  their 
fares,  and  the  same  has  been  paid  partly 
by  the  Hawaiian  Government,  and  prior  to 
annexation,  partly  by  the  employers  need- 
ing labor. 

The  fact  that  there  are  no  regular  steamer 
lines  between  Europe  and  Hawaii  has 
greatly  added  to  the  expense  of  this  immi- 
gration. All  immigration  has  been  by 
specially  chartered  steamers,  carrying  from 
seven  to  twelve  hundred  people,  around 
South  America,  involving  a  two  months' 
voyage. 

Under  these  unfavorable  conditions,  be- 
tween 1852  and  1913,  Hawaii  introduced 
from  all  sources,  approximately  193,000 
assisted  immigrants,  costing  over  $10,000,- 
ooo.  The  last  immigrants  were  1283  Span- 
iards, who  arrived  in  Honolulu,  June  4, 
1913.  Including  men,  women  and  children, 
they  cost  the  Territory  $117.54  each.  The 
cost  of  adding  each  male  adult  laborer  to 
Hawaii's  population  was  $341.68. 

The  funds  with  which  to  carry  on  this 
immigration  are  obtained  by  a  special  in- 
come tax  on  corporations,  nearly  all  of 


which  is  paid  by  the  sugar  plantations.  It 
is  needless  to  say  that  this  is  a  heavy  tax 
on  the  government  and  sugar  industry  of 
Hawaii. 

The  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal  will 
make  possible  direct  steamer  service  from 
Europe  to  Hawaii,  at  reduced  charter  rates; 
resulting  eventually,  in  regular  steamer 
service  between  the  two  countries,  by  which 
immigrants  can  come  in  small  parties  at 
lower  rates.  This  will  be  doubly  valuable 
by  increasing  the  European  population  and 
decreasing  the  cost  of  getting  them. 

Whether  immigration  from  Europe  con- 
tinues or  not  depends  almost  entirely  upon 
whether  a  duty  is  maintained  on  sugar.  If 
sugar  is  admitted  duty  free,  there  will 
neither  be  demand  for  additional  laborers, 
nor  money  to  pay  for  them. 

The  business  life  of  Hawaii  can  be  divided 
into  three  periods,  viz.: 

1 .  Prior  to  the  execution  of  the  reciproc- 
ity treaty  between  Hawaii  and  the  United 
States,  in  1875; 

2.  The  interval  between  the  passage  of 
the  reciprocity  treaty  and  annexation    to 
the  United  States,  in  1898; 

3.  Since  annexation. 

The  reciprocity  treaty  admitted  sugar, 
rice  and  a  few  other  Hawaiian  products 
into  the  United  States,  free  of  duty.  Prior 
thereto,  Hawaii  had  been  one  of  many 
groups  of  Pacific  Islands  doing  a  trading, 
barter  and  supply  business  with  passing 
ships;  chiefly  whaling  ships,  with  a  small 
foreign  trade.  Hawaii  was  the  largest  and 
most  prosperous  of  these  groups,  differing 
chiefly  in  degree,  however,  from  its  neigh- 
bors. 

With  the  stimulus  of  a  guaranteed  free 
market  for  its  products  a  remarkable 
awakening  and  development  took  place. 

The  production  of  sugar  for  1875  was 
only  12,540  tons. 

The  total  Hawaiian  imports  were  valued 
at  $1,682,000  and  the  exports  at  $2,089,000, 
a  total  commerce  of  only  $3,772,000  for  the 
year. 

In  1898  Hawaii  was  annexed  to  the 
United  States.  The  production  of  sugar 


THE  TARIFF  ON    SUGAR 


287 


for  that  year  had  increased  to  229,414 
tons. 

Chiefly  through  the  growth  of  the  sugar 
industry,  commerce  had  so  increased  that 
in  1898  the  imports  amounted  to  $10,268,- 
ooo,  and  the  exports  to  $17,346,000,  a  total 
commerce  of  nearly  $28,000,000  for  the  year. 

Although  the  reciprocity  treaty  had  thus 
greatly  stimulated  commerce,  the  local 
government  was  unstable,  capital  was 
timid  and  development  retarded. 

Immediately  after  annexation,  in  1898, 
a  marvelous  expansion  and  increase  of  busi- 
ness took  place,  until  in  1912,  the  foreign 
commerce  of  Hawaii  amounted  to  $84,- 
143,000. 

The  sugar  crop  for  the  fiscal  year  ending 
September  30,  1914,  was  617,038  tons,  the 
record  crop. 

The  exports  for  the  fiscal  year  ending 
June  30,  1914,  amounted  to  $41,594,000, 
and  the  imports  to  $36,550,000;  making  a 
total  exterior  commerce  of  $77,144,000. 

The  population  has  increased  to  227,391, 
including  8,373  m  the  army  and  navy,  and 
excluding  transients. 

Hawaii  has  grown  from  a  population  of 
56,000;  a  production  of  12,000  tons  of 
sugar  and  a  commerce  of  $3,771,000,  in 
1875,  to  a  population  of  227,000,  a  pro- 
duction of  617,000  tons  of  sugar  and  a  com- 
merce of  $77,144,000  in  1914. 

Hawaii,  by  the  way,  is  the  only  territory 
acquired  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  War 
which  not  only  pays  all  of  its  own  expenses, 
but  is  a  direct  source  of  profit  to  the 
United  States  government. 

Since  the  organization  of  Hawaii  into  a 
Territory,  in  1900,  up  to  June  30,  1914,  the 
United  States  government  has  collected  in 
Hawaii,  as  customs  and  internal  revenue, 
the  sum  of  $21,320,325.  During  the  same 
period  the  expenditures  of  the  federal  gov- 
ernment for  local  purposes  in  Hawaii  have 
amounted  to  but  a  small  fraction  of  this 
amount;  leaving  a  handsome  net  profit  to 
the  United  States  government. 

Practically  all  of  this  extraordinary  de- 
velopment has  been  the  direct  result  of  the 
American  protective  tariff  on  sugar. 


EFFECT  ON  HAWAII  AND  THE  CANAL  OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES  SUGAR  TARIFF. 

Under  normal  conditions  the  great  major- 
ity of  the  sugar  plantations  in  Hawaii  can- 
not make  sugar  at  a  profit,  without  tariff 
protection. 

The  demonstration  of  this  statement  is 
too  long  for  this  article;  but  it  is  available 
in  every  detail  to  any  one  who  wants  it. 

In  a  nutshell,  the  reason  for  this  status 
is  that,  excepting  on  the  mainland  of  the 
United  States,  it  costs  more  per  ton  to  pro- 
duce and  market  sugar  in  Hawaii  than  in 
any  other  sugar  producing  country. 

As  compared  to  the  great  cane  sugar  pro- 
ducing countries,  Cuba  and  Java,  for  exam- 
ple, Hawaii  is  not  a  natural  sugar  producing 
country.  It  is  only  by  the  use  of  great 
capital  and  the  development  of  scientific, 
intensive  agriculture,  unequaled  on  the 
same  scale  elsewhere,  that  with  the  fostering 
help  of  the  American  tariff,  Hawaii  has 
been  developed  into  a  sugar  producer  and 
now  supplies  nearly  one-sixth  of  all  the 
sugar  consumed  by  the  United  States. 

This  statement  will  be  discredited  at  first 
blush,  by  those  unacquainted  with  the  facts, 
but  it  will  bear  thorough  analysis. 

The  main  reasons  for  the  high  cost  of 
sugar  production  in  Hawaii  are  as  follows: 

1.  SUGAR  is  NOT  AN  ANNUAL  CROP  IN 
HAWAII. — It  takes,  with  a  few  exceptions, 
from  eighteen  to  twenty-four  months,  and 
on  the  higher  lands,  as  many  as  thirty 
months  to  make  a  crop,  instead  of  a  year, 
as  is  the  case  in  almost  every  other  sugar 
country,  with  the  consequent  increase  of 
cost;   for  all  expense  of  upkeep  and  over- 
head  charges   for   the   longer   time   must 
come  out  of  one  crop.     There  are  always 
two  crops  in  the  ground,  and  during  several 
months  of  the  year,  three,  all  under  care. 
The  reason  for  this  is  climatic — too  long  to 
explain  in  detail. 

2.  HAWAII  IS  NOT  NATURALLY  FERTILE. 

It  costs  an  average  of  $39  for  fertilizer  for 
every  acre  of  sugar  cane  produced  in 
Hawaii.  Other  cane  producing  countries 
scarcely  use  fertilizers  at  all. 


288 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


3.  IRRIGATION. — With  the  exception  of 
certain  districts,  Hawaii  is  too  dry  to  pro- 
duce sugar  cane  without  artificial  irriga- 
tion. The  cane  from  which  one  half  of  the 
sugar  output  is  produced  has  to  be  irrigated 
every  week  or  ten  days. 

One-third  of  the  employees  of  irrigated 
plantations  are  continuously  engaged  in 
watering  the  cane. 

The  natural  flow  of  water  is  insufficient 
for  the  purpose,  and  has  to  be  supple- 
mented by  water  pumped  from  wells  at 
sea  level  to  as  high  as  550  feet. 

The  irrigation  pumps  are  the  largest  in 
the  world,  and  single  plantations  pump  as 
much  as  60,000,000  gallons  of  water  a  day. 

The  fuel  used  is  California  oil  and  Aus- 
tralian coal. 

There  is  more  water  used  per  day  for 
irrigating  cane  in  Hawaii,  than  the  daily 
capacity  of  the  New  York  aqueduct — 
700,000,000  gallons. 

All  this  costs  immense  sums  of  money 
which  other  cane  growing  countries  are  not 
subject  to.  Cuba  does  not  irrigate  at  all, 
and  the  few  others  which  irrigate  use  sur- 
face, flowing  water  at  nominal  expense. 

4.  LABOR. — The  labor  supply  in  Hawaii 
is  chronically  short,  and  has  to  be  continu- 
ously  replenished    at   enormous    cost,    as 
above  set  forth. 

Sixty  per  cent,  of  the  cost  of  sugar  in 
Hawaii  is  for  labor;  and  on  sugar  planta- 
tions in  Hawaii,  laborers  are  better  and  more 
expensively  cared  for,  and  are  paid  more 
than  in  any  other  cane  producing  country. 

5.  FREIGHT. — Under  the  United  States 
coastwise  shipping   law,    Hawaii   is   com- 
pelled to  use  high  priced  American  ships 
only,   to  carry   freight   to   and   from   the 
mainland;     while    other    sugar    producing 
countries  can  use  the  cheap  freight  rates  of 
foreign  shipping. 

The  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal  has 
reduced  the  freight  rate  on  sugar,  from 
Hawaii  to  New  York,  from  $9.50  to  $8.50 
per  ton,  and  it  may  go  somewhat  lower; 
but  the  freight  on  Cuban  sugar  to  New 
York,  Hawaii's  chief  competitor,  is  only 
$2.50  per  ton. 


The  average  cost  of  marketing  a  ton  of 
Hawaiian  sugar,  covering  freight,  insurance, 
charges  and  commissions,  is  from  $10  to 
$15  per  ton.  The  freight  on  merchandise 
from  New  York  to  Hawaii  ranges  from  $8 
to  $20  per  ton.  The  canal  has  reduced  the 
rate  by  an  average  of  about  ten  per  cent. 
Later  the  reduction  may  be  somewhat  in- 
creased. 

6.  SHORT  TERM  CROPS. — Hawaii  has  to 
plant  cane  anew  about  every  third  crop. 
In  Cuba  they  are  said  to  be  still  harvest- 
ing cane  growing  from  cuttings  planted  by 
the  grandfathers  of  the  present  sugar  plant- 
ers. It  is  common  to  continue  harvesting 
annually  in  Cuba  from  cane  planted  ten  to 
twenty  years  before. 

There  are  other  minor  handicaps  to 
Hawaii's  disadvantage,  among  them  that 
Hawaii  is  so  bedeviled  with  insect  pests, 
and  cane  diseases;  and  the  problems  of 
meeting  the  naturally  adverse  conditions 
are  so  ever  pressing  and  imperative,  that 
the  Hawaiian  sugar  planters  are  compelled 
to  maintain,  at  their  own  expense,  an  ex- 
periment station,  demonstration  farm  and 
corps  of  scientists  that  cost  from  $80,000 
to  $160,000  per  annum. 

The  foregoing  partially  explains  why  it 
costs  more  to  produce  sugar  in  Hawaii  than 
in  any  other  sugar  producing  country  in 
the  world,  except  on  the  mainland  of  the 
United  States. 

The  great  world  sugar  producers,  Cuba, 
Java  and  the  European  beet  sugar  coun- 
tries, have  cheap  material,  cheap  labor  and 
cheap  freights. 

Hawaii  is  inside  the  sacred  circle  of  the 
American  tariff,  with  its  resulting  higher 
basis  of  cost  as  to  everything  which  enters 
into  the  production  of  sugar.  If  it,  too, 
can  receive  reasonable  protection,  it  can 
continue,  and  better  its  past  magnificent 
record  of  development;  but  it  cannot  buy 
and  produce  in  a  protected  market  and  sell 
in  the  open  market. 

In  this  respect,  Hawaii  is  in  the  same 
boat  with  the  cane  sugar  industry  of  Louis- 
iana and  the  beet  sugar  producers  of  the 
North  and  West.  Although  Hawaii  has 


SUGAR   PRODUCTION   IN   HAWAII 


289 


some  advantages  over  them,  they  also  have 
advantages  over  the  sugar  producer  in 
Hawaii,  such  as  cheaper  material,  cheaper 
freights  and  near-by  market. 

With  reasonable  protection,  say  of  one 
cent  per  pound  of  sugar,  the  United  States 
can,  in  time,  produce  all  the  sugar  it  con- 
sumes, thereby  making  itself  a  self-con- 
tained country,  to  that  extent. 

Without  tariff  protection,  with  some  ex- 
ceptions, the  sugar  producers  will  be  abso- 
lutely obliterated  both  in  Hawaii  and  on 
the  mainland. 

It  may  be  replied  to  the  foregoing  that 
they  are  but  generalities,  and  some  "doubt- 
ing Thomas"  may  "want  to  see  the  fig- 
ures." 

The  point  is  well  made,  and  the  figures 
are  herewith  furnished: 

There  are  forty-five  complete  sugar 
plantations  in  Hawaii.  They  are  nearly  all 
incorporated  and  owned  by  thousands  of 
stockholders.  Twenty-four  of  these  are 
listed  on  the  stock  exchange,  and  their 
financial  affairs  are  open  to  all.  They  are 
a  fair  representation  of  the  whole. 

The  nominal  United  States  tariff  on 
sugar  during  1913  was  $33.70  per  ton;  the 
actual  protection  was  $26.96  per  ton,  being 
the  duty  on  Cuban  sugar,  or  twenty  per 
cent,  below  the  full  duty.  For  convenience 
of  calculation  call  it  $27.00  per  ton. 

Even  with  this  protection,  six  of  these 
twenty-four  plantations  failed  to  make  ex- 
penses in  1913;  two  made  a  profit  of  less 
than  $2.00  per  ton;  seven  made  an  average 
profit  of  $7.76  per  ton;  four  made  an  aver- 
age profit  of  $12.36  per  ton;  and  three 
made  respectively  $15.01,  $15.29  and  $17.56 
per  ton. 

Under  normal  conditions  the  price  of 
sugar  in  the  United  States  is  the  world's 
price,  plus  the  duty. 

In  other  words,  the  price  of  Hawaiian 
sugar  in  1913  was  approximately  $27.00  a 
ton  higher  than  it  would  have  been  if 
sugar  had  been  duty  free. 

The  present  tariff  law  puts  sugar  on  the 
free  list  in  1916.  If  sugar  had  been  on 
the  free  list  in  1913,  every  sugar  plantation 


in  Hawaii  would  have  lost  money.  The 
proof  of  this  statement  is  that  the  above 
figures  show  that  not  a  single  plantation 
made  as  much  as  $27.00  per  ton.  The  plan- 
tation making  the  best  showing  would  have 
lost  $9.44  per  ton,  and,  as  its  crop  was 
50,310  tons,  its  loss  for  the  year  would 
have  been  $474,926.00.  The  one  making 
the  poorest  showing  would  have  lost  $41.44 
per  ton. 

It  may  be  claimed  that  in  1913  the  price 
of  sugar  was  low.  It  was.  It  averaged 
3.506  cents  per  pound.  The  three  previous 
years  averaged  higher  than  for  any  one  of 
the  past  twelve  years,  viz.:  the  average 
price  of  ninety-six  degrees  raw  sugar  was 
4.188  cents  per  pound  for  1909,  4.453  cents 
for  1911,  and  4.162  cents  for  1912.  Mani- 
festly the  result  of  a  series  of  years  is  the 
only  fair  criterion  of  whether  the  Hawaiian 
sugar  industry  can  survive  free  sugar. 

The  crops  and  profits  of  each  of  twenty- 
two  listed  sugar  plantations  for  the  eight 
years  1906-13  are  published  in  the  1914 
annual  report  of  the  Honolulu  stock  ex- 
change. 

These  figures  demonstrate  that  even 
though  three  high-priced  years  are  included, 
there  is  only  one  of  these  plantations  which 
would  have  paid  expenses  during  the  past 
eight  years  if  sugar  had  been  on  the  free 
list,  while  most  of  them  would  have  been 
put  entirely  out  of  business. 

The  details  of  the  results  of  free  trade 
to  these  twenty-two  plantations  are  avail- 
able to  any  one  who  wants  them. 

Some  of  the  plantations  named  would 
not  fare  so  badly  under  free  sugar  now  as 
they  would  have  during  the  period  named. 
Economies  and  improvements  in  apparatus 
and  methods  are  being  continuously  made; 
but,  on  the  Hawaiian  plantations  as  a 
whole,  the  gains  are  comparatively  small; 
not  enough  in  the  aggregate  to  offset  the 
total  loss  of  tariff  protection. 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  effect  of  the  Panama  Canal  upon  the 
commercial  life  of  Hawaii  will  depend 
largely  upon  the  tariff  policy  of  the  United 
States  concerning  sugar;  and  that,  vice 


290 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


versa,  the  canal  will  likewise  be  consider- 
ably affected  thereby. 

If  a  reasonable  protection,  say  of  one 
cent  a  pound,  is  maintained  on  sugar, 
Hawaii  will  send  annually  between  250,000 
and  300,000  tons  of  sugar  east,  through  the 
canal,  and  take  in  return  a  proportionate 
amount  of  supplies  by  the  same  route. 
If  sugar  goes,  and  remains,  on  the  free 
list,  this  business  will  be  almost  blotted 
out. 

What  this  would  mean  to  Hawaii  cannot 
be  realized  by  one  unacquainted  with  the 
conditions.  Sugar  is  the  commercial  life 


blood  of  Hawaii.  There  are  46,000  per- 
sons actually  on  the  pay  roll  of  the  Hawaiian 
sugar  plantations,  with  twice  as  many  more 
directly  dependent  on  the  industry,  and 
almost  the  entire  population  indirectly 
dependent  thereon.  All  the  other  exports 
combined  in  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30, 
1914,  amounted  to  only  about  $6,000,000, 
with  little  opportunity  for  expansion.  The 
civilization  and  physical  existence  of  the 
people  of  Hawaii  revolves  around  and  de- 
pends upon  the  prosperity  of  the  sugar 
business,  with  no  other  industry  in  sight 
to  take  its  place. 


CHAPTER  XLVII 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE  AND  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 

GREAT  BRITAIN'S  ENORMOUS  CARRYING  TRADE — How  CANADA  WILL  BE  BENEFITED 
BY  THE  CANAL — TRADE  ROUTES  TO  LIVERPOOL  REDUCED — BRITISH  SHIPPING 
WILL  PROFIT  BY  AMERICA'S  INCREASED  FOREIGN  COMMERCE — THE  SHIP  SUB- 
SIDY FACTOR — MILITARY  AND  NAVAL  CONSIDERATIONS. 

BY  SIR  HIRAM  S.  MAXIM 


WILL  the  opening  of  the  Panama 
Canal  benefit  the  British  empire? 
Yes,  undoubtedly  so.  The  British 
empire  is  spread  over  the  whole  world  and 
Great  Britain  has  vastly  more  ships  than 
any  other  nation.  For  many  years  it  has 
practically  monopolized  the  carrying  trade, 
and  any  new  route  that  is  opened  to  the 
shipping  of  the  world  must  prove  a  great 
advantage  to  England  and  the  rest  of  the 
British  empire. 

In  studying  the  probable  effects  of  the 
opening  of  the  canal  to  commerce,  we 
should  not  confine  ourselves  to  things  as 
they  exist  at  the  present  moment,  but 
should  look  ahead  to  the  changes  that  are 
bound  to  take  place  in  the  immediate  fu- 
ture. The  United  States  has  a  population 
of  100,000,000,  and  Canada  about  8,000,- 
ooo.  That  the  canal  will  be  highly  bene- 
ficial to  the  eastern  states  of  America  goes 
without  saying,  as  it  greatly  reduces  the 
distance  to  the  Far  East  and  western  coast 
of  South  America.  The  distance  from 
New  York  to  Callao,  Peru,  by  the  way  of 
Cape  Horn  and  through  the  stormy  Straits 
of  Magellan  is  approximately  11,500  miles, 
while  the  distance  via  the  Panama  Canal 
will  be  about  4,000  miles,  a  saving  of  7,500 
miles. 

Whatever  benefits  the  Atlantic  States 
benefits  Canada  East  in  a  corresponding 
degree.  Canada  has  an  inexhaustible  store 
of  timber,  valuable  mines,  and  unlimited 
water  power.  She  exports  timber,  pulp, 
paper,  and  aluminum;  also  calcium  car- 
bide and  silicon  carbide;  and  the  Panama 
Canal  will  enable  her  ships  to  return  from 


South  America  laden  with  nitrates,  guano, 
etc. 

The  population  of  the  United  States 
will,  in  a  relatively  short  time,  amount  to 
150,000,000,  and  the  population  of  Canada 
East  will  have  increased  to  20,000000, 
without  counting  the  population  on  the 
Pacific  coast. 

Vancouver  will  also  be  benefited  by  the 
canal,  as  it  will  enable  her  to  trade  directly 
with  the  West  India  islands  and  the  east- 
ern coast  of  the  two  Americas. 

Liverpool,  which  is  the  greatest  seaport 
in  the  world  after  New  York,  will  also  be 
greatly  benefited.  The  distance  to  Callao, 
Peru,  will  be  reduced  from  11,500  to 
6,700  miles,  while  the  distance  to  Vancouver 
will  be  reduced  from  16,600  to  9,500  miles; 
also  the  distance  to  San  Francisco  will  be 
reduced  from  15,500  to  9,000  miles.  The 
distance  from  Halifax,  Canada,  to  Eastern 
Australia  will  be  reduced  from  13,600  to 
11,500  miles,  and  to  New  Zealand  from 
13,000  to  10,200  miles.* 

It  will  therefore  be  seen  that  the  opening 
of  the  canal  will  be  quite  as  beneficial  to 
the  British  empire  as  to  the  United  States, 
which  in  some  respects  means  nearly  half 
of  the  world. 

The  United  States  produces  more  petro- 
leum than  all  the  world  besides,  and  as 
much  iron  and  steel  as  is  produced  by  any 
other  two  nations;  she  manufactures  more 
printers'  paper  than  the  whole  world  be- 
sides; she  consumes  more  than  half  of 
the  rubber  of  the  world  and  more  than 


*The  measurements  which  I  have  given  have  been  obtained 
from  a  large  globe  in  my  own  library. — H.  S.  M. 


291 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


half  of  the  coffee,  and  manufactures  more 
motor  cars  than  the  whole  of  Europe. 
Three-quarters  of  mankind  throughout  the 
world  dress  in  cotton,  and  three-quarters 
of  the  cotton  of  the  world  is  raised  in  the 
United  States.  She  is  the  largest  producer 
of  wheat  in  the  world  and  probably  raises 
half  of  the  tobacco.  Being  a  very  rich 
and  populous  country,  there  will  always  be 
a  lively  demand  in  the  United  States  for 
the  products  of  the  East,  notably  silk  and 
tea;  therefore  there  is  sure  to  be  an  im- 
mense traffic  between  the  Atlantic  States 
and  the  Far  East.  And  although  foreign 
ships  will  not  be  allowed  to  trade  between 
American  ports — for  example  between  New 
York  and  San  Francisco — still  there  is 
nothing  to  prevent  British  ships  from 
trading  between  American  ports  and  the 
ports  of  other  nations.  It  is  cheaper  to 
build  a  ship  in  England  than  in  America, 
and  unless  the  Americans  subsidize  their 
ships  very  heavily — (an  event  which  is  not 
likely  to  take  place) — there  is  no  reason 


why  England  should  not  monopolize  the 
greater  part  of  the  traffic  through  the  Pan- 
ama Canal. 

There  are  many  long  and  expensive  rail- 
ways crossing  the  American  continent  from 
the  east  to  the  west.  The  railroad  interests 
are  very  important,  and  their  influence  is 
very  great  in  politics.  It  is  safe  to  say 
that  they  will  protect  their  interests  by 
blocking  every  effort  to  subsidize  American 
ships. 

I  think  it  is  also  safe  to  assert  that  Amer- 
ica, when  she  decided  to  execute  the  great- 
est and  the  most  expensive  engineering 
feat  that  the  world  has  ever  known,  was 
influenced  by  something  which  was  not 
altogether  for  the  benefit  of  commerce; 
there  was  another  factor  in  the  equation, 
and  that  was  to  enable  her  to  shift  her  bat- 
tleships quickly  from  one  side  of  the  con- 
tinent to  the  other.  Had  no  danger  loomed 
up  in  the  Far  East,  the  canal  would  not 
have  been  opened  in  the  early  part  of  the 
present  century. 


1.  Bird's-eye  view  of  the  single  flight  of  locks  at  Pedro  Miguel. 

2.  View  of  Gatun  Locks,  looking  toward  the  Atlantic. 


CHAPTER  XLVIII 


THE  DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC  AND  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 

FIRST  LAND  SETTLED  BY  EUROPEANS — EARLY  HAVEN  FOR  EXPLORERS — FAMOUS  NAMES 
IN  HISTORY  OP  SANTO  DOMINGO — COLUMBUS,  BALBOA,  CORTES,  PIZARRO, 
PONCE  DE  LEON — SAMANA  BAY  KEY  TO  THE  CANAL — A  NATURAL  SEA  HAVEN — 
ITS  ATTRACTIONS — POINTS  OF  HISTORIC  INTEREST — PLAN  FOR  FREE  HARBOR — 
COALING  STATION — TRADE  OPPORTUNITIES. 

BY  FRANCISCO  J.  PEYNADO 


FOUR  centuries  ago,  following  its  dis- 
covery   by  Christopher   Columbus, 
that  small  portion  of  this  hemisphere 
now  called  the  Dominican  Republic  was 
the  first  land  settled  by  Europeans,  and 
its  capital,  Santo  Domingo,   became  the 
gateway  of  civilization  on  the  American 
continent. 

Treasured  with  jealous  pride  in  this 
historic  city  are  the  most  precious  relics 
of  that  most  fruitful  of  all  human  enter- 
prises— the  discovery  of  America.  Here,  in 
the  remote  beginnings  of  American  civili- 
zation, bold  conquerors  made  their  haven, 
and  here  the  missionaries,  pioneers  in  sow- 
ing the  seeds  of  progress  in  every  clime, 
demonstrated  their  faith,  self-denial,  and 
enlightenment. 

In  the  patios  and  corridors  of  the  palaces 
at  Santo  Domingo,  built  by  the  first  hidal- 
gos who  crossed  the  Atlantic,  rest  the  mortal 
remains  of  many  a  bold  adventurer  and 
devoted  prelate.  Here,  guarded  with  ven- 
eration, lie  the  remains  of  the  immortal 
Genoese  sailor.  Here  crumble  the  walls  of 
the  University,  which  once  gave  to  Santo 
Domingo  the  name  of  "Athens  of  America." 
Here  tarried  Cortes,  Diego  de  Valazquez, 
Alvarado,  Vasco  Nunez  de  Balboa,  Ponce 
de  Leon,  Alonso  de  Ojeda,  Francisco 
Pizarro,  Rodrigo  de  Bastidas,  Valdivia, 
Oviedo,  Las  Casas,  and  a  galaxy  of  others 
who  carried  the  sword  and  the  cross  and 
the  vices  and  virtues  of  European  civiliza- 
tion to  the  New  World.  From  Santo  Do- 
mingo Vasco  Nunez  de  Balboa  sailed  on  the 
memorable  voyage  which  immortalized 


his  name  and  paved  the  way  for  de  Lesseps 
and  Goethals  at  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 

When,  four  centuries  later,  the  dream 
that  began  with  Balboa's  discovery  was 
realized  in  the  completion  of  the  Panama 
Canal,  the  Dominican  Republic,  through  a 
magnificent  haven  of  protected  sea  known 
as  Samani  Bay,  was  made  the  sea's  gate- 
way to  the  canal,  giving  to  the  historic 
republic  a  renewed  influence  on  the  devel- 
opment of  trade  and  commerce. 

Samana  Bay  is  a  strip  of  water  thirty 
miles  long  and  from  seven  to  ten  miles  wide, 
protected  from  wind  and  sea  by  the  islets 
which  guard  its  entrance.  Mountains  sur- 
round the  bay,  and  with  these  heights  and 
the  narrow  entrance,  the  port  is  a  natural 
haven,  practically  impregnable  to  storms 
or  hostile  attack. 

The  bay  runs  from  east  to  west,  with  its 
mouth  lying  towards  the  island  of  Porto 
Rico,  at  the  entrance  of  La  Mona  passage. 
This  passage  affords  the  shortest  route 
between  the  manufacturing  centers  of 
Europe  and  the  Panama  Canal  for  the 
traffic  from  the  Atlantic  ocean  to  the 
Caribbean  Sea. 

Samana  Bay  can  offer  to  shipping  the 
advantages  of  a  free  port,  exempt  from  all 
duties  and  taxes,  and  equipped  with  ware- 
houses for  the  storage  of  merchandise  for 
the  supply  of  ships  in  transit  to  or  from  the 
canal,  and  for  the  needs  of  neighboring 
or  even  distant  markets.  It  can  be  used 
for  the  repairs  made  necessary  to  ships 
during  long  voyages,  and  as  a  base  for  coal 
and  oil  supplies.  The  bay  affords  ample 


293 


294 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


room  for  the  navies  of  the  world,  and  it  is 
the  most  convenient  and  sheltered  haven  of 
refuge  along  the  canal  traffic  lines  from  the 
inclemencies  of  the  Atlantic. 

As  a  winter  and  pleasure  resort,  the  bay 
offers  unusual  attractions.  Fish  abound  in 
its  waters  and  game  on  its  shores,  while 
its  tranquil  surface  affords  aquatic  pleasures 
in  the  midst  of  scenery  of  extraordinary 
beauty. 

At  Samana  Bay  the  tourist  finds  the 
scene  of  the  first  naval  battle  between 
Europeans  and  Americans.  Here  the  In- 


town  of  Boya,  which  may  rightfully  be 
called  the  cradle  of  American  liberty.  It 
was  founded  by  the  famous  chief  Guaro- 
cuya,  who  brought  there  the  5,000  Indians 
left  under  his  leadership  after  a  struggle 
of  thirteen  years  against  the  Spanish 
power,  and  who  finally  compelled  Emperor 
Charles  V  of  Spain  to  sign  a  treaty  of 
peace  granting  the  abolition  of  Indian 
slavery. 

The  traveler  and  student  will  find  in  this 
favored  section  the  shores  of  Najallo,  where 
the  Dominican  militiamen  inflicted  a  crush- 


dians,  commanded  by  Mayabanex,  offered 
the  hrst  armed  resistance  met  by  the  Span- 
iards in  their  voyage  of  discovery  in  the 
New  World.  As  the  result  of  this  encoun- 
ter, Columbus  named  the  bay  the  "Gulf 
of  Arrows." 

A  few  miles  to  the  northwest  of  the  bay 
are  the  ruins  of  Isabela,  the  first  city  built 
by  the  white  man  in  America.  At  Isabela 
occurred  the  first  insurrections  among 
Christians  in  America.  It  is  notable  in  the 
light  of  later  history  that  the  first  uprisings 
in  the  New  World  were  plotted  by  full- 
blooded  Europeans. 

Near-by,   to  the  south,   is  the  historic 


ing  defeat  on  the  strong  English  expedition 
led  by  Admiral  Penn  and  General  Venables 
in  Great  Britain's  effort  to  wrest  the  island 
from  the  Spanish  crown.  Here  the  same 
courageous  militiamen  drove  off  the  victors 
of  Marengo,  and  shattered  the  plan  of  the 
great  Napoleon  to  secure  a  foothold  on  the 
island.  On  all  the  island  may  be  found  a 
thousand  traces  left  by  the  early  European 
discoverers  and  adventurers  who  sailed  into 
the  New  World,  bent  on  missions  of  peace 
or  on  bloody  incursions  against  its  inhabi- 
tants. 

With  this  history  to  inspire  them,  the 
Dominican   generation   of   the  present   is 


ADVANTAGES  OF  SAMANA  BAY 


295 


bent  upon  the  equipment  of  Samana  Bay 
in  keeping  with  the  requirements  of  modern 
times.  The  plan  of  establishing  a  coaling 
station  on  Samana  Bay  is  not  new.  North 
American  capitalists  and  statesmen  have 
had  it  in  mind,  and  several  times  have 
sought  to  secure  leases  on  the  bay.  The 
Dominican  public,  however,  has  been 
opposed  to  any  plan  which  would  involve 
alienation  or  curtailment  of  its  sovereignty, 
and  the  republic  awaits  the  realization  of 
the  work  through  the  national  government 
or  through  private  auspices  under  which 
the  interests  of  the  government  will  be 
fully  protected. 

When  the  French  undertook  the  digging 
of  the  Panama  Canal,  the  Dominican  gov- 
ernment granted  a  concession  on  Samana 
Bay  under  which  the  French  would  have  a 
free  port,  with  docks,  warehouses,  and 
other  facilities.  The  project  died  with  the 
failure  of  the  French  enterprise  at  Panama, 
but  its  revival  with  the  completion  of  the 
new  waterway  across  the  Isthmus  is  ex- 
pected as  a  natural  evolution  of  the  progress 
of  commercial  traffic  by  sea. 

To  make  Samana  the  exclusive  port  for 
the  foreign  trade  which  the  growing 
production  in  the  Dominican  Republic 
insistently  demands,  it  would  be  but 


necessary  to  connect  it  with  the  capital 
and  the  agricultural  portions  of  the  island 
by  a  short  and  inexpensive  railroad.  At 
the  present  time  there  are  two  lines  of  rail- 
way and  an  extensive  highway,  which 
afford  intercommunication  between  the 
principal  cities  and  agricultural  centers  of 
the  northern  part  of  the  republic,  and 
leading  to  Samana  Bay. 

Ships  touching  at  Samana  would  then 
find  the  following  articles  for  their  car- 
goes: 

Cocoa,  produced  in  great  quantities  in 
five  of  the  Dominican  provinces,  and 
which,  under  the  name  of  Sanchez  cocoa, 
is  exported  to  Europe  and  the  United 
States — the  Dominican  Republic,  in  spite 
of  its  small  population,  holding  the  sixth 
place  in  the  world's  output  of  cocoa;  the 
famous  Dominican  mahogany,  in  greatest 
demand  because  of  its  peerless  quality; 
pine,  lignum-vitae  and  espinillo,  and  great 
quantities  of  other  precious  woods  growing 
in  virgin  forests;  Barahona  coffee,  classed 
among  the  best  in  America;  cane  sugar 
from  plantations  whose  rich  and  fertile 
soil  makes  resowing  unnecessary;  tobacco, 
cotton  and  honey;  meats  from  the  Domini- 
can ranches;  and  iron  and  oil  from  mineral 
resources  as  yet  untouched 


CHAPTER  XLIX 
BOLIVIA  AND  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 

SIZE  AND  RICHES  OF  BOLIVIA — IMMENSE  MINERAL  RESOURCES — REDUCED  FREIGHT 
RATES  WILL  INCREASE  BOLIVIAN- AMERICAN  COMMERCE — EUROPE'S  TRADE 
WITH  BOLIVIA — RAILROAD  EXPANSION — POLITICAL  ORGANIZATION — IMMIGRA- 
TION NEEDED — OPPORTUNITIES  FOR  CAPITAL. 

BY  IGNACIO  CALDERON 
Bolivian  Minister  to  the  United  States. 


NOW  that  the  secular  work  of  divid- 
ing the  Isthmus  of  Panama  to  unite 
the  two  great  oceans  and  the  whole 
American  Continent  has  been  so  admirably 
and  successfully  carried  through,  it  seems 
a  proper  time  to  give  a  glance  to  the  coun- 
tries to  the  south  and  see  how  they  will 
profit  and  to  what  extent  they  will  con- 
tribute to  the  international  trade  develop- 
ment. 

Bolivia  is  one  of  the  countries  of  the 
Western  coast  of  South  America  offering 
great  possibilities  for  very  profitable  and 
extensive  enterprises.  Situated  in  the 
center  of  the  continent,  embracing  a  terri- 
tory of  over  1,400,000  kilometers,  rich  in 
all  kinds  of  minerals,  and  extending  from 
the  high  plateaus  to  the  tropical  forests  of 
the  Amazon  vales,  it  offers  every  oppor- 
tunity for  profitable  mining,  agriculture, 
cattle  raising,  and  the  exploitation  of  tropi- 
cal products,  such  as  rubber,  coffee,  cocoa, 
Peruvian  bark,  etc. 

The  central  plateau  of  Bolivia  has  an 
area  of  about  170,000  square  kilometers. 
It  is  formed  by  the  two  great  branches  of 
the  Andes  mountains,  which  run  through 
the  country  from  north  to  south  and  offer 
a  grand  panorama  of  lofty  snow-clad  peaks, 
forming  as  it  were,  the  frame  of  the  great 
mineral  deposits  of  gold,  silver,  copper, 
tin,  wolfram,  bismuth,  and  zinc.  During 
the  Spanish  domination  and  the  first  part  of 
the  last  century,  the  silver  mines  of  Po- 
tosi,  Colquichaca,  Lipez,  and  Oruro  in- 
creased by  thousands  of  millions  of  dollars 
the  wealth  of  the  world,  and  if  they  are  not 
worked  now  it  is  on  account  of  the  low 


price  of  silver  compared  with  the  cost  of 
its  production. 

But  tin  is  at  present  the  most  important 
mineral;  its  production  has  grown  enor- 
mously, and  represents  almost  one-third 
of  the  world's  output.  In  1913  it  reached 
over  40,000  tons ;  and  although  the  United 
States  uses  about  fifty  per  cent,  of  the 
world's  tin,  but  eight  tons  of  Bolivian  tin 
came  here,  the  rest  going  to  England, 
Germany,  and  France. 

The  high  cost  of  freight  is  mainly  re- 
sponsible for  such  an  anomaly,  and  the 
Panama  Canal  will  no  doubt  secure  to  the 
United  States  its  due  share  in  this  and 
other  Bolivian  products. 

The  mean  temperature  of  the  Bolivian 
high  plateau  is  rather  cold,  about  fifty  de- 
grees. The  sun,  even  in  winter,  feels  hot  on 
account  of  the  cloudless  sky,  but  in  the 
shade  one  is  apt  to  feel  chilly.  The  mean 
altitude  of  this  section  is  from  12,000  to 
13,000  feet  above  sea  level.  The  inter- 
mediate valleys,  where  the  altitude  does 
not  exceed  8,000  feet  above  sea  level,  offer 
a  very  moderate  and  enjoyable  climate, 
suitable  for  corn,  wheat,  barley  and  all 
kinds  of  fruits  of  the  temperate  zone.  The 
great  plains  and  forests  on  the  other  side 
of  the  eastern  cordillera  embrace  an  area 
of  about  800,000  square  kilometers,  and 
are  watered  by  a  river  system  navigable  by 
small  boats  for  more  than  9,000  kilometers. 

Before  reaching  the  great  tropical  forests 
there  are  large  grazing  fields,  where  wild 
cattle  roam  at  will.  These  will  be  one  of 
the  important  centers  of  the  cattle  industry. 
The  eastern  forests  of  Bolivia  are  abundant 


296 


OPPORTUNITIES   FOR   DEVELOPMENT 


297 


in  rubber  trees,  principally  the  hebea,  con- 
sidered the  best  for  quality  and  productive- 
ness. Amongst  the  tropical  products  and 
fruits,  the  coffee  and  cocoa  of  that  section  are 
considered  as  very  superior.  Cedar,  mahog- 
any, and  a  large  variety  of  other  fine  woods 
add  to  the  value  and  importance  of  the  forests. 

Bolivia  is  one  of  the  best  organized  of 
the  Southern  republics,  and  it  is  a  most 
remarkable  fact  that  the  great  develop- 
ment that  has  lately  taken  place  in  the 
various  branches  of  industry,  and  the 
peaceful  political  advance  of  the  country, 
is  owing  principally  to  the  efforts  and  good 
sense  of  the  native  population.  On  account 
of  its  very  central  and  interior  position 
Bolivia  lacks  immigration  and  the  neces- 
sary capital  to  develop  properly  the  vari- 
ous branches  of  industry  that  its  extensive 
and  rich  territory  offers  to  the  immigrants 
and  the  capitalists. 

In  spite  of  all  the  drawbacks  that  hinder 
its  progress,  Bolivia  has  grown  very  ma- 
terially in  the  last  few  years.  Its  foreign 
trade  shows  the  remarkable  development 
of  the  country.  In  1902  it  amounted  to  a 
little  over  42,000,000  bolivianos  (the  bolivi- 
ano is  about  thirty-nine  cents  gold)  and  in 
1912  reached  to  over  100,041,000  bolivi- 
anos. Germany,  England,  and  the  United 
States  furnish  most  of  the  imports,  but  the 
exports  of  Bolivia  go  principally  to  Eng- 
land, and  some  to  Germany  and  France. 
The  United  States,  out  of  the  total  exports 
of  more  than  $35,000,000,  received  only 
$29,000  in  1909  and  $152,967  in  1912.  All 
this  must  be  changed  with  the  opening  of 
the  canal. 

Railway  construction  has  been  lately 
very  active.  Bolivia  has  now  three  differ- 
ent railways  to  the  Pacific;  one  from  La 
Paz  to  Mollendo  in  Peru,  857  kilometers; 
the  La  Paz-Arica  road,  498  kilometers; 
and  the  Antofagasta  road,  that  crosses  a 
very  important  section  of  the  Bolivian 
high  plateau,  is  924  kilometers,  running 
from  Antofagasta  in  Chile  to  La  Paz. 

Several  other  interior  railroads  are  being 
constructed  and  studied,  in  order  not 
only  to  connect  the  principal  cities  but  to 


establish  an  easy  communication  with  the 
navigable  rivers,  and  thus  consolidate  the 
national  interests  and  foster  domestic  trade. 

Bolivia's  political  organization  is  based 
on  the  principle  of  the  sovereignty  of  the 
people,  represented  in  Congress  by  sixteen 
senators  and  seventy-two  representatives, 
elected  by  direct  vote,  and  a  president, 
first  and  second  vice-president,  also  elected 
by  direct  vote,  for  four  years,  without  re- 
election. The  judiciary  is  composed  of 
the  Supreme  Court,  and  inferior  tribunals 
appointed  for  a  fixed  period. 

Public  instruction  is  very  much  en- 
couraged, and  lately  many  new  schools, 
especially  for  the  Indians,  have  been 
opened,  and  the  number  of  scholars  has 
considerably  increased. 

The  press  is  represented  by  over  eighty 
different  newspapers  and  periodicals,  pub- 
lished in  the  principal  cities.  Public  wor- 
ship is  free  for  all  religions,  and  the  for- 
eigners enjoy  in  Bolivia  the  same  rights  as 
the  natives  as  regards  land  ownership, 
mining,  and  other  pursuits.  Notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  Bolivia  has  no  sea- 
coast,  having  lost  it  after  the  war  with 
Chile  in  1879,  the  country  has  enjoyed  a 
very  marked  advance,  and  if  it  has  not 
grown  more  rapidly  it  is  owing  to  the  want 
of  capital  and  population — two  main  ele- 
ments of  rapid  progress. 

The  total  population  of  Bolivia  is  not 
much  above  two  and  a  half  million,  of 
which  the  majority  are  Indians;  but  with 
all  these  drawbacks  no  country  in  South 
America  has  a  more  stable  government,  or 
offers  better  opportunities. 

The  Bolivians  are  sober,  hospitable,  and 
industrious;  they  are  a  peaceful  people, 
but  at  the  same  time  there  is  a  pronounced 
military  spirit  that  makes  the  Bolivian 
army  one  of  the  best  in  South  America. 

With  a  settled  political  organization,  im- 
mense natural  resources,  a  vast  and  varied 
territory,  a  peaceful  and  industrious  people, 
Bolivia  certainly  ought  to  attract  the  atten- 
tion of  capitalists  and  immigrants  looking 
for  profitable  investments,  happy  homes, 
and  an  assured  future. 


CHAPTER  L 


THE  REPUBLIC  OF  PANAMA 

RAPID  PROGRESS  OF  THE  REPUBLIC — REVENUES  INCREASED — INDUSTRY  DEVELOPED — 
FINANCES — EDUCATIONAL  FACILITIES  IMPROVED — TOPOGRAPHY — MINERAL  RE- 
SOURCES— EXPORTS  AND  IMPORTS — PANAMA  PEARLS — RAILWAY  AND  RIVER 
COMMUNICATION— THE  GOVERNMENT — THE  EXPOSITION — LEADING  MEN. 


THE  causes  that  determined  the  sep- 
aration of  Panama  from  the  Repub- 
lic of  Colombia  are  treated  else- 
where, as  are,  also,  the  great  interests  that 
were  factors  in  that  political  movement, 
the  result  of  which  was  the  appearance  of 
the  Republic  of  Panama  among  the  nations 
and  the  building  of  the  Isthmian  Canal 
under  the  flag  of  the  United  States. 

After  Panama  became  independent,  a 
vigorous  transformation  in  its  entire  being 
was  commenced.  The  country  strove  to 
place  its  institutions  in  harmony  with  its 
new  status  and  with  its  peculiar  condition 
of  inseparable  relationship  to  the  Panama 
Canal.  The  first  efforts  were  directed 
toward  an  improvement  of  health  condi- 
tions, and  to-day  the  city  of  Panama  is  one 
of  the  cleanest  and  healthiest  cities  in  the 
world. 

The  barriers  that  had  held  back  the  coun- 
try's activities  and  development  were 
overcome,  and  in  a  short  time  commerce 
had  grown,  the  public  revenues  had  in- 
creased, the  development  of  natural  re- 
sources had  been  stimulated,  and  encourag- 
ing prospects  were  opened  for  the  future 
of  the  new  Republic. 

Besides  the  growth  of  commerce  by  sea, 
industries  have  greatly  developed  within 
the  country,  particularly  those  of  mining, 
stock  raising  and  agriculture.  Panama 
now  has  extensive  plants  for  the  manu- 
facture of  sugar,  and  alcohol  is  produced 
from  material  grown  in  the  country.  The 
provinces  of  the  interior  find  a  supply  for 
their  own  needs  in  the  products  of  the 
stock  ranches  and  farms.  The  construc- 
tion of  roads,  bridges,  and  wharves  has 
greatly  facilitated  the  communication  be- 


tween the  towns,  and  everywhere  is  felt 
the  impetus  of  a  new  era  of  progress. 

A  solid  basis  for  financial  stability  was 
gained  through  the  placing  of  $6,000,000  of 
national  capital  at  good  interest  under 
mortgage  guarantee  in  New  York,  and  by 
the  monetary  agreement  which  provides 
for  a  fixed  value  for  Panama  money  in  the 
proportion  of  two  to  one  for  the  American 
dollar. 

Panama  has  also  improved  in  public 
educational  facilities.  The  National  In- 
stitute for  men,  the  Normal  school  for 
women  teachers,  the  National  Conserva- 
tory of  Music  and  Elocution,  the  National 
Industrial  School,  and  the  graduate  and 
primary  schools  are  all  thoroughly  organ- 
ized in  conformity  with  modern  and  scien- 
tific methods  of  teaching.  In  the  first 
six  years  of  the  new  regime,  schools  in- 
creased from  187  to  364,  with  an  increase 
in  attendance  of  7,000  pupils. 

The  Panama  republic  forms  the  connect- 
ing link  between  Central  and  South  Amer- 
ica. It  is  32,380  miles  in  area,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  nearly  500,000.  Two  mountain 
chains  cross  its  territory,  sheltering  a 
number  of  plains  and  valleys  affording 
excellent  pasturage  for  cattle,  and  where 
grow  all  the  products  of  the  tropics. 
Extensive  forests  cover  the  mountain 
slopes. 

The  mountains  are  a  continuation  of  the 
great  mineral  chain  running  from  Alaska 
through  South  America,  and  in  them  is 
found  gold,  silver,  aluminum,  coal,  lead, 
iron,  asbestos,  and  other  minerals.  Con- 
siderable gold  is  mined  and  exported. 

Other  exports  are  bananas,  rubber, 
cocoanuts,  ivory  nuts,  cocoabola  wood, 


298 


GROWTH   OF  THE   REPUBLIC 


299 


sarsaparilla,  mother-of-pearl,  tortoise  shells 
and  hides.  The  principal  imports  are 
textiles,  steel  and  iron  manufactures,  boots 
and  shoes,  rice,  wheat,  lumber,  liquors, 
mineral  waters,  and  notions. 

When  the  Republic  was  created  but  a 
small  part  of  the  area  of  the  country  was 
under  cultivation.  Since  that  time,  the 
interest  of  the  government  in  stimulating 
agriculture  as  one  of  the  most  stable 
resources  of  the  country  has  resulted  in  a 
large  increase  in  farming  and  allied  pur- 
suits. The  government  has  steadily  pro- 
moted interest  in  the  cultivation  of  coffee, 
cocoa,  cocoanuts,  rubber,  vanilla,  and 
sugar  cane,  and  has  kept  these  products 
exempt  from  taxation.  The  acreage  de- 
voted to  the  production  of  bananas,  the 
principal  industry  of  the  country,  has  shown 
a  steady  increase. 

The  making  of  Panama  hats,  an  indus- 
try which  in  fact  originated  in  Ecuador, 
has  now  become  an  established  industry 
on  the  Isthmus.  The  plant  from  which 
the  hats  are  made,  called  toquilla  in  Ecua- 
dor, grows  wild  in  many  parts  of  the  Pan- 
ama Isthmus,  and  the  government  sent  a 
commissioner  to  Ecuador  to  study  the 
process  of  using  it  in  making  the  hats.  On 
his  return,  he  brought  two  experts  with 
him  and  established  a  school  under  their 
direction  in  Arriajan.  The  school  was 
highly  successful,  and  the  growth  of  this 
industry  dates  from  its  establishment. 

Panama's  pearls  have  been  famous  since 
the  advent  of  Balboa.  The  main  sources 
of  supply  are  from  the  Pearl  Islands,  lying 
in  the  Gulf  of  Panama,  about  fifty  miles 
from  Balboa.  These  islands  have  been 
industriously  exploited  since  1632,  and  at 
the  present  time  fisheries  are  being  worked 
in  a  systematic  way.  The  business  is 
carried  on  under  concessions.  The  beds 
hold  great  potential  wealth  for  Panama, 
and  with  the  systematic  planting  now  in- 
augurated, will  continue  to  be  a  valuable 
asset  for  the  Isthmian  Republic. 

In  1893,  the  international  railway  com- 
mission made  a  survey  down  the  Isthmus 
of  the  route  for  the  proposed  Pan-Ameri- 


can line.  Since  then  the  Panama  govern- 
ment has  authorized  the  construction  of 
a  railway  along  this  route,  which  will  form 
a  short  but  most  important  link  in  the 
Pan-American  system.  A  number  of  short 
lines  have  been  built  in  various  parts  of 
Panama,  chiefly  in  connection  with  the 
banana  traffic,  and  these  ultimately  will 
be  connected  so  as  to  give  ready  inter- 
communication between  all  portions  of  the 
country.  The  railroad  across  the  Isthmus 
between  Panama  and  Colon  is  forty-eight 
miles  long,  with  a  three-mile  branch  line 
to  Balboa,  the  canal's  Pacific  entrance. 

A  number  of  rivers  have  their  sources  in 
the  interior  of  Panama,  many  of  them 
navigable  for  small  craft  except  during 
the  heavy  tropical  rains,  which  render 
them  turbulent  and  dangerous.  The  Tuyra 
is  navigable  for  small  vessels  for  100  miles, 
while  the  Bayamo,  Cocle,  Calebebora, 
Tarire  and  Los  Indies  are  all  navigable 
for  light  craft  for  from  twenty  to  seventy- 
five  miles. 

The  government  of  Panama  is  divided 
into  legislative,  executive  and  judicial 
branches,  under  the  constitution  adopted 
February  13,  1904.  The  legislative  power 
rests  with  the  National  Assembly,  com- 
posed of  one  chamber  of  deputies.  The 
deputies  are  elected  by  direct  popular 
vote  for  a  term  of  four  years.  For  each 
deputy  a  substitute  is  elected,  who  takes 
the  place  of  the  principal  in  the  case  of  his 
absence,  disability,  or  death. 

The  president  is  likewise  elected  for  a 
four-year  term  by  popular  vote.  He  is 
aided  by  a  cabinet  of  five  secretaries.  In- 
stead of  a  vice-president,  the  National 
Assembly  elects  three  "designados"  every 
two  years,  eligible  to  take  the  place  of  the 
president  in  their  respective  order  in  the 
case  of  his  absence,  disability,  or  death. 

The  five  departments  consist  of  Govern- 
ment and  Justice,  Foreign  Relations,  Treas- 
ury, Public  Instruction,  and  Promotion,  the 
latter  being  devoted  to  the  supervision  of 
all  matters  relating  to  the  promotion  of 
the  industries  of  the  country,  the  means 
of  communication  and  transportation,  and 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


the  maintenance  and  construction  of  public 
works. 

The  judicial  system  consists  of  a  supreme 
court  of  five  judges  appointed  by  the  Presi- 
dent for  a  term  of  four  years,  a  superior 
court,  several  circuit  courts,  and  a  number 
of  municipal  courts.  The  judges  of  the 
superior  and  circuit  courts  are  appointed 
by  the  supreme  court,  and  the  municipal 
judges  receive  their  appointment  from  the 
circuit  court.  All  are  appointed  for  four- 
year  terms. 

On  the  formation  of  the  republic  the  army 
was  disbanded,  and  a  national  police  corps 
numbering  about  1 ,000  officers  and  men  was 
organized.  Panama  has  about  100  post- 
offices  and  forty  telegraph  offices,  and  has 
radio  stations  for  wireless  communication. 

To  commemorate  the  4OOth  anniver- 
sary of  Balboa's  discovery  of  the  Pacific, 
Panama  had  planned  an  exposition  to  be 
opened  contemporaneously  with  the  Pan- 
ama-Pacific International  Exposition  at 
San  Francisco.  The  postponement  of  the 
naval  pageant  to  July,  1915,  led  to  the 
postponement  of  the  opening  of  the 
exposition  on  the  Isthmus  to  that  month. 
Panama  is  also  taking  an  official  part 
in  the  San  Francisco  exposition. 

The  head  of  the  present  government  of 
Panama  is  Dr.  Belisario  Porras,  who 
attained  the  presidency  after  a  decisive 
victory  at  the  polls.  At  the  beginning  of 
his  administration  he  found  the  finances  in 
feeble  condition,  and  immediately  inau- 
gurated a  policy  of  strict  economy  in  gov- 
ernmental expenditure.  The  result  was 
the  extinguishment  of  the  existing  deficit, 
and  the  accumulation  of  a  surplus  to  meet 
the  expenses  of  administration  and  to 
supply  funds  for  the  improvements  which 
are  being  made  throughout  the  country. 
Dr.  Porras  will  leave  the  presidency  with 
an  honorable  and  meritorious  record. 

Working  with  Dr.  Porras  for  a  progres- 
sive Panama  have  been  Rodolfo  Chiari, 
financier,  farmer,  and  merchant,  and  first 
designado,  or  vice-president;  Ramon  M. 
Valdez,  former  Minister  from  Panama  at 
Washington,  second  designado;  Aristides 


Arjona,  jurist  and  Secretary  of  Finance, 
third  designado;  Dr.  Francisco  Filos, 
noted  lawyer  and  jurist,  Secretary  of 
Government  and  Justice;  Ernesto  T. 
Lefevre,  writer,  Secretary  of  Foreign  Af- 
fairs; Guillermo  Andreve,  journalist,  Sec- 
retary of  Public  Instruction;  Ramon  F. 
Acevedo,  financier,  Secretary  of  State; 
Dr.  Eusebio  A.  Morales,  leader  in  the 
movement  for  independence,  and  Minister 
of  Panama  to  the  United  States;  Dr. 
Carlos  A.  Mendoza,  author  of  the  Panama 
declaration  of  independence;  Federico 
Boyd,  merchant,  and  former  Secretary  of 
Foreign  Affairs;  Samuel  Lewis,  financier, 
and  member  of  the  second  mixed  commis- 
sion created  by  the  Hay-Varilla  treaty; 
and  a  number  of  other  prominent  men  who 
have  stood  loyally  together  for  the  better- 
ment and  progress  of  the  new  Republic. 

Panama  has  close  financial  relations  with 
American  financiers,  who  to  a  considerable 
degree  have  aided  in  establishing  the 
credit  and  stability  of  the  young  govern- 
ment. 

In  the  latter  part  of  1902  the  Interna- 
tional Banking  Corporation,  of  60  Wall  St., 
New  York,  considered  the  advisability  of 
locating  a  branch  of  the  institution  on  the 
Isthmus.  As  a  result  of  its  investigations 
there  was  established,  first,  an  agency  of  the 
corporation  in  charge  of  its  own  represen- 
tative, and  later,  toward  the  close  of  1904 
a  branch  at  Panama.  For  convenience  in 
caring  for  the  operations  growing  out  of 
the  business  developed  by  this  branch 
there  was  afterward  established  a  sub- 
branch  at  Colon,  in  1906,  and  a  second  sub- 
branch  at  Empire,  in  the  latter  part  of 
1908.  The  Empire  branch  was  main- 
tained principally  as  an  aid  in  handling 
the  accounts  of  those  employed  in  the 
construction  of  the  canal. 

This  corporation,  with  total  assets  of 
over  $40,000,000,  has  branches  in  Great 
Britain  and  her  dependencies,  the  Philip- 
pines, China,  Japan,  Mexico,  the  Canal 
Zone,  and  the  United  States,  and  corre- 
spondents in  all  parts  of  the  world.  Its 
prosperous  state  has  grown  steadily  under 


FACTORS   IN   ISTHMIAN   BUSINESS 


301 


the  regime  of  H.  T.  S.  Green,  its  president 
and  general  manager. 

While  the  published  balance  sheet  of 
the  corporation  shows  only  its  position 
as  a  whole,  the  Isthmian  business  forms 
an  important  feature  of  its  yearly  transac- 
tions. The  establishment  of  its  branches 
at  Panama  and  its  sub-branches  at  Colon 
and  Empire  have  been  substantial  factors 
in  the  financial  history  of  the  Canal  Zone 
and  the  surrounding  country.  The  man- 


agement of  its  Isthmian  branches  has  been 
successively  entrusted  to  Messrs.  P.  G. 
Eastwick,  W.  Bundy  Cole,  F.  B.  Fearon, 
and  J.  Forsyth. 

The  Panama  Banking  Company,  of 
New  York  and  Panama,  has  been  and  is 
an  important  factor  in  financial  and  in- 
dustrial life  of  Panama.  The  banking 
house  of  Ehrman  &  Company,  of  Panama, 
is  also  prominent  in  the  affairs  of  the 
young  Republic. 


CHAPTER  LI 


THE  CANAL'S  FIRST  EFFECTS  ON  TRADE,  PORTS,  AND  TRANSPORTATION 

TRAFFIC  EXPERTS  UNDERESTIMATED  MOVEMENT  OF  FREIGHT — EFFECTS  ON  TRANS- 
CONTINENTAL RAILWAYS — HARBOR  IMPROVEMENTS — PORTS  PREPARE  FOR 
INCREASED  SHIPPING — HOUSTON'S  SHIP  CHANNEL — CELEBRATING  THE  CANAL'S 
COMPLETION — THE  PANAMA-PACIFIC  INTERNATIONAL  EXPOSITION  AT  SAN 
FRANCISCO — CANAL  TOURS  AND  SHIP  LINES — RAILROAD  OUTLETS  TO  THE  NEW 
WATERWAY — TOURIST  FACILITIES. 


LONG  before  the  completion  of  the 
canal,  traffic  experts  of  the  trans- 
continental railroads  as  well  as  the 
experts  of  the  United  States  government 
made  elaborate  studies  of  the  probable 
effect  of  the  new  inter-oceanic  waterway 
upon  transcontinental  railway  transporta- 
tion. It  was  thought  the  influence  of  the 
canal  upon  trade  relations  and  upon  rail- 
way traffic  had  been  accurately  mapped 
out,  but  the  canal  was  open  but  a  short 
time  when  it  became  evident  that  the 
experts  had  greatly  underestimated  the 
influence  of  the  new  route.  The  European 
war  broke  out  two  weeks  before  the  canal 
was  opened  to  commercial  traffic.  This 
necessarily  to  a  great  extent  affected  the 
flow  of  trade,  but  despite  the  check  on 
world  exchanges  accused  by  the  war,  traffic 
men  were  surprised  at  the  volume  of  coast- 
wise freight  which  flowed  through  the  canal 
from  the  beginning. 

In  the  period  between  August  15  and 
November  I,  1914,  forty-nine  ships  hav- 
ing a  carrying  capacity  running  from 
6,000  to  12,000  tons  were  engaged  in  the 
coastwise  commerce  of  the  United  States 
through  the  canal.  From  as  far  west  as 
Ohio  and  Indiana,  freight  moved  in  con- 
siderable volume  by  way  of  New  York  and 
the  canal  to  the  Pacific  Coast.  From 
points  equally  distant  in  the  interior, 
freight  for  the  canal  passage  began  to 
move  through  Houston,  NeW  Orleans,  New- 
port News,  Baltimore,  and  other  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  ports.  As  an  instance  of  the  con- 
ditions, a  shipment  of  15,000  tons  of 
wrought  iron  pipe  from  Youngstown,  Ohio, 


was  made  via  New  York  and  the  canal  to 
the  Pacific  coast.  The  transcontinental 
railroad  rate  for  such  freight  at  the  time 
of  the  shipment  was  sixty-five  cents  per 
cwt,  but  by  way  of  New  York  and  the 
canal  the  rate  was  forty-eight  cents. 
Canned  corn  and  other  products  from  the 
Indiana  and  middle  West  canneries  began 
to  flow  to  the  Pacific  by  this  route  in  large 
quantities.  From  Alabama,  heavy  com- 
modities such  as  iron  and  steel  material 
began  to  move  to  the  canal  route  to  the 
West.  From  points  nearer  the  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  ports,  great  quantities  of  freight 
of  all  kinds  began  to  move  toward  the 
canal.  The  time  of  passage  between  New 
York  and  San  Francisco  has  averaged 
about  twenty  days,  which  is  about  that  of 
the  average  freight  movement  across  the 
continent  by  rail. 

The  railroads  enjoyed  the  benefit  of  the 
movement  of  freight  from  the  interior  to 
the  coast  ports,  but  lost  the  long  and 
desirable  all- rail  haul  of  this  volume  of 
freight  across  the  continent.  To  meet  the 
new  conditions,  Eastern  and  transconti- 
nental lines  have  asked  the  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission  to  authorize  rail 
rates  from  the  sea  competition  zone  to 
the  Pacific  ports  low  enough  to  compete 
with  the  rates  by  way  of  the  canal,  without, 
however,  reducing  rates  in  the  intervening 
territory. 

PACIFIC  COAST  COMMERCE 

On  the  Pacific  side,  traffic  experts  declare 
that  the  opening  of  the  canal  has  revolu- 
tionized trade  and  industrial  conditions. 


302 


PACIFIC   COAST  COMMERCE 


303 


The  situation  which  has  developed  there 
is  summed  up  in  the  following  analysis  by 
Robert  Newton  Lynch,  vice-president  and 
general  manager  of  the  San  Francisco 
Chamber  of  Commerce: 

"The  Pacific  Coast  has  as  its  main  harbor 
San  Francisco  Bay,  which  is  almost  un- 
rivalled among  the  harbors  of  the  world. 
This  harbor  up  to  the  present  time  has  been 
the  goal  of  great  transcontinental  railroads, 
and  the  whole  Pacific  Coast  has  been  the 
natural  territory  for  eastern  centers  of  dis- 
tribution. It  has  been  impossible  to  get 
more  than  a  limited  area  for  local  centers 
of  distribution  on  the  Pacific  Coast,  the 
adverse  natural  conditions  enabling  large 
eastern  manufacturing  and  jobbing  centers 
completely  to  dominate  the  territory. 

"The  opening  of  the  canal  has  com- 
pletely reversed  this  situation  for  the 
Pacific  Coast.  The  low  rates  which  have 
been  announced  for  tonnage  passing 
through  this  waterway  have  upset  all  pre- 
vious railroad  conditions  and  dictate  the 
movement  of  the  great  majority  of  prod- 
ucts by  water  instead  of  by  rail.  These 
rates,  both  east  and  west  bound,  are  forty 
per  cent,  lower  with  tolls  than  shippers 
expected  they  would  be  without  tolls. 
This  means  that  the  products  of  California 
may  be  marketed  at  one-half  the  pre- 
vious cost  of  transportation.  The  de- 
cision of  the  Supreme  Court  on  the  long 
and  short  haul  case  provides  that  railroads 
may  not  meet  a  terminal  water  rate  without 
giving  the  benefit  of  this  low  rate  to 
intermediate  points,  the  practical  effect 
of  which  will  be  that  the  railroads  must 
begin  to  construct  their  distributive  sys- 
tem from  the  West  Coast  instead  of  the 
East  in  order  profitably  to  handle  the  busi- 
ness of  the  Pacific  Coast  territory. 
£  "The  business  man  of  the  west  may  now 
take  his  place  on  the  bay  of  San  Francisco 
and  face  the  east  with  the  confidence  that 
the  whole  western  territory  belongs  to 
the  Pacific  Coast,  and  that  goods  destined 
from  points  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
must  move  by  rail  to  the  bay  of  San 
Francisco  or  points  on  Puget  Sound,  and  be 


distributed  thence  by  water  eastward. 
The  wide  effects  of  this  new  order  may 
scarcely  be  realized.  It  doubtless  means 
that  Eastern  jobbers  and  manufacturers 
must  locate  branch  houses  and  factories 
on  the  Pacific  Coast,  thus  stimulating  the 
immediate  development  of  a  great  indus- 
trial era  in  the  west.  It  means  the  en- 
couragement of  western  capital  to  take 
advantage  of  the  new  opportunities  for 
expansion  with  the  western  coast  as  a 
base.  It  means  the  stimulation  of  agri- 
cultural industries  to  meet  the  broader 
markets  which  shipping  through  the  canal 
affords,  and  to  provide  the  return  cargoes 
for  ships  bearing  raw  material  and  products 
for  western  consumption. 

"The  canal  has  thus  converted  the 
Pacific  Coast  from  a  sparsely  settled  termi- 
nus for  trickling  lines  of  transcontinental 
traffic  into  a  potential  field  for  wide  rami- 
fications of  commerce  and  industries  radi- 
ating from  western  ports. 

"The  canal  will  have  an  immediate  effect 
upon  the  population  of  the  Pacific  Coast, 
not  merely  because  it  affords  a  cheaper  and 
more  direct  route  from  European  centers  of 
of  immigration,  but  for  the  reason  that  the 
inevitable  revolution  in  trade  and  indus- 
trial conditions  will  demand  the  presence 
of  great  multitudes  of  people  and  furnish 
them  with  unique  and  splendid  opportunity. 
The  canal  would  have  as  profound  an  effect 
in  bringing  as  many  people  to  the  Pacific 
Coast,  even  though  it  should  be  prohibited 
from  allowing  a  single  passenger  ship  to 
go  through  its  locks,  for  it  will  create  an 
economic  vacuum  in  the  west  which  will 
draw  hordes  of  people  from  the  nearest 
available  centers.  Today  there  are  fewer 
people  living  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
than  in  the  city  of  greater  New  York,  but 
when  the  effect  of  the  canal  has  begun  to 
be  felt  there  will  be  no  limit  to  the  increase 
of  population  to  fill  up  the  vast  reaches 
of  the  west. 

"Even  at  this  early  stage  a  few  figures 
as  to  freight  moving  through  the  canal  will 
prove  significantly  exegetic  of  the  new 
conditions  which  have  turned  the  western 


304 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


man  right  about  face  to  the  eastern  horizon. 
From  the  opening  of  the  canal  to  December 
i,  1914,  257  vessels  used  the  canal.  By 
principal  routes,  and  with  an  indication 
of  the  tonnage  on  which  tolls  are  assessed, 
this  traffic  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

Ships  Tons 

Coastwise,  eastbound 54  320,155 

Coastwise,  westbound 61  282,020 

U.  S.  Pacific  Coast  to  Europe 34  248,020 

Europe  to  U.  S.  Pacific  Coast- ....       8  38,318 

South  America  to  U.  S.  and  Europe     24  166,917 

U.  S.  and  Europe  to  South  America     15  74,644 

U.  S.  Atlantic  Coast  to  Far  East . .     24  148,207 

19,203 


8 

24 

IS 
24 

Miscellaneous  routings 7 

Vessels  without  cargo 30 


Total 257       1,297,484 

"The  exports  from  San  Francisco  in 
September,  1914,  through  the  canal  totalled 
in  value  $14,467,467,  which  was  the  largest 
month  in  the  history  of  export  business 
from  San  Francisco  Bay.  The  entire  ex- 
ports in  September  of  the  previous  year 
were  $8,662,094.  It  is  confidently  ex- 
pected that  both  the  export  and  import 
business  to  and  from  European  ports 
through  the  canal  will  grow  as  fast  as  ship- 
i  ping  facilities  may  be  procured. 

"It  is  interesting  in  this  connection  to 
compare  the  gradual  movement  of  freight 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  Coast, 
across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  and  the 
Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  in  the  six  years 
previous  to  the  opening  of  the  canal.  In 
this  period  coast  to  coast  tonnage  in- 
creased 446  per  cent.  In  1907  the  Ameri- 
can-Hawaiian Steamship  Company  in- 
augurated its  coast  to  coast  service  via  the 
Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec.  In  1911  the 
California  Atlantic  Steamship  Company 
inaugurated  a  line  via  Panama.  Though 
the  distance  from  San  Francisco  to  New 
York  by  the  Isthmus  routes  is  over  2,000 
miles  longer  than  by  rail,  the  shipments 
have  steadily  increased  with  the  advance 
of  each  new  steamship  line.  The  value 
of  all  goods  shipped  by  both  isthmuses  in 
the  year  ending  June  30,  1913,  amounted 
to  $131,556,285,  of  which  $87,000,000  was 
westbound  and  $34,000,000  eastbound. 

"The  leading  articles  so  shipped  ranked 


as  follows:  Westbound — Manufactures  of 
iron  and  steel,  $18,755,779;  manufactures 
of  cotton,  $11,067,774;  manufactures  of 
paper,  $6,467,774.  Eastbound  —  Wines, 
$4,044,320;  fruits,  $3,708,094;  wool, 
$3,469,217;  canned  salmon,  $2,129,703. 
The  largest  eastbound  item  was  sugar  from 
Hawaii  to  the  Delaware  Breakwater, 
amounting  to  $19,309,351. 

"The  canal  is  significant  to  California 
and  the  west  because  it  affords  encourage- 
ment for  the  vast  Pacific  resources  which 
only  need  cheap  transportation  to  insure 
immediate  development.  The  Pacific 
Coast  is  thus  entering  upon  a  new  era, 
wherein  her  great  natural  wealth  will  secure 
release  to  circulate  in  the  channels  of  the 
world's  commerce.  New  industrial  enter- 
prises will  spring  up,  and  the  Pacific  Coast 
ports  will  be  the  beginning  of  great  rail- 
road systems  to  distribute  products  to  a 
rapidly  increasing  population.  From  the 
industrial  and  commercial  stronghold  thus 
secured  by  western  merchants,  particu- 
larly around  San  Francisco  Bay,  the  Ameri- 
cans of  the  west  will  turn  their  energies 
to  the  foreign  markets  of  the  Orient,  and 
help  to  turn  the  'Ocean  of  Mystery'  into 
an  ocean  of  exploited  American  commerce 
to  meet  the  expanding  needs  of  Oriental 
customers." 

One  of  the  immediate  effects  of  the 
canal's  completion  related  to  the  great 
fuel  oil  supply  of  California,  which  now 
produces  one-half  of  the  world's  petroleum. 
The  California  oil  fields  have  at  times  been 
embarrassed  by  over-production,  due  to 
their  lack  of  direct  tank  steamer  access 
to  the  Atlantic  Coast,  and  European  and 
South  American  ports.  The  canal  has 
obviated  this  difficulty,  and  California 
fuel  oil  is  not  only  moving  to  supply  needs 
at  the  canal  itself,  but  is  passing  beyond 
into  world  trade.  John  Barneson  of  San 
Francisco,  head  of  the  General  Petroleum 
Company,  the  Barneson-Hibberd  Company 
and  Macondray  &  Company,  was  one  of  the 
organizers  of  the  movement  for  a  wider 
field  for  California  fuel  oil,  and  through 
him  and  others  California's  new  and  use- 


REVIVAL  OF  SHIPBUILDING 


305 


ful  source  of  trade  and  wealth  is  being 
pushed  into  the  markets  of  the  world 
through  the  canal  and  over  the  Atlantic. 

In  the  broader  field  of  world  trade,  the 
European  war  has  rendered  it  impossible 
to  accurately  estimate  the  commercial 
effect  of  the  canal's  opening.  The  mer- 
chant ships  of  one  of  the  belligerents  have 
been  driven  from  the  seas,  and  many  of  the 
ships  of  other  belligerents  have  been 
drafted  to  war  uses.  It  is  only  when  the 
war  has  ended,  and  world  commerce  has 
resumed  its  normal  trend  that  the  effect 
of  the  new  waterway  upon  international 
traffic  will  be  developed.  It  is  not  im- 
probable, however,  that  the  forecasts  of 
experts  as  to  international  traffic  through 
the  canal  will  be  found  as  wide  of  the  mark 
as  were  the  estimates  on  the  coast  to  coast 
trade  of  the  United  States,  and  its  effect 
upon  American  transcontinental  railroads. 

Suffice  it  to  say  that  the  canal  has 
brought  all  New  Zealand  and  Japanese 
ports  and  all  Australian  ports  east  of  Port 
Lincoln  nearer  to  New  York  via  Panama 
than  to  London  by  the  Suez  or  any  other 
route.  Yokohama  is  now  892  miles  nearer 
New  York  by  water  than  it  is  to  London, 
Melbourne  831  miles,  Brisbane  2,933  miles, 
Sydney  1,612  miles,  Auckland  3,660  miles, 
Wellington  3,717  miles,  and  Dunedin 
3,137  miles.  The  west  coast  of  South 
America  has  been  brought  immeasurably 
nearer  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United 
States,  while  the  east  coast  of  South 
America  will  be  within  direct  sailing  touch 
with  the  great  Pacific  Coast  region  of  the 
American  states.  Under  modern  condi- 
tions of  transportation,  the  lessening  of  an 
ocean  voyage  by  a  few  hundred  miles  has 
a  very  direct  effect  in  decreasing  the  cost 
of  transporting  merchandise  and  in  stimu- 
lating traffic.  A  modern  steamer  repre- 
sents large  capital,  with  heavy  daily  costs 
in  fuel,  labor,  food,  and  other  running  ex- 
penses; and  modern  traffic  on  the  ocean 
will  follow  the  shortest  routes  as  surely 
as  the  compass  needle  turns  to  the  Pole. 
A  route  saving  of  from  several  hundred  to 
several  thousand  miles  from  the  Orient  and 


Australia  to  New  York  appears  certain  to 
bring  great  advantage  to  American  ship 
owners  and  American  industries  as  against 
British  and  other  European  ship  owners 
and  industries.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
west  coast  of  the  United  States  has  been 
brought  thousands  of  miles  nearer  Lon- 
don and  other  European  ports,  and  from 
this,  Europe  may  gain  in  trade  exchanges 
largely  what  may  be  lost  to  her  in  other 
directions. 

There  is  another  factor,  developing 
slowly,  that  will  to  a  marked  degree  affect 
the  Panama  Canal  in  its  relation  to  inter- 
national trade.  China,  the  sleeping  giant 
of  the  Orient,  is  awakening  and  is  taking 
up  her  unlimited  capacity  for  trade  and 
industry.  Along  modern  lines,  Japan  is 
rapidly  becoming  a  great  commercial 
nation.  The  Chinese  before  long  will  de- 
velop enormously  their  capacity  for  manu- 
factures. Some  of  the  raw  material  will 
be  supplied  by  the  United  States,  some  by 
Europe,  and  much  by  China  herself.  The 
exchange  of  raw  material  and  finished 
products  between  China's  teeming  mil- 
lions and  the  Western  world  will  bring  a 
trade,  the  limits  of  which  can  be  but  dimly 
estimated,  and  the  ultimate  effects  of 
which  will  be  immeasurable  upon  the  de- 
velopment and  the  destinies  of  both  the 
Occident  and  the  Orient. 

That  the  shipping  interests  of  the  United 
States  are  alive  to  the  opportunities  offered 
by  the  canal's  completion  is  shown  by  the 
tonnage  of  merchant  ships  under  con- 
struction just  before  the  opening  of  the 
canal.  On  July  I,  1914,  merchant  ships 
were  under  construction  with  a  total  ton- 
nage of  88,510.  The  majority  of  these  were 
being  built  by  the  Newport  News  Ship- 
building and  Dry  Dock  Company,  of  New- 
port News,  Virginia,  and  the  New  York 
Shipbuilding  Company,  of  Camden,  New 
Jersey,  two  great  shipbuilding  yards  on  the 
Atlantic  Coast.  Two,  with  a  total  ton- 
nage of  12,076,  were  being  constructed  by 
the  Union  Iron  Works  at  San  Francisco, 
where  the  opening  of  the  canal  has  brought 
a  revival  of  the  shipbuilding  industry,  and 


306 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


where  the  Union  Iron  Works  is  construct- 
ing a  great  dry  dock  for  naval  and  mer- 
chant ships.  For  the  year  ending  July  I, 
1914,  the  number  of  steel  merchant  ships  of 
1 ,000  tons  or  more  completed  in  the  United 
States  was  twenty-nine,  with  a  total  ton- 
nage of  133,234.  Several  of  the  ships  were 
built  expressly  for  the  Panama  Canal 
trade,  and  nearly  all  will  have  a  direct  or 
indirect  part  in  the  new  waterway's  traffic. 
The  European  war,  beginning  at  the  open- 
ing of  the  fiscal  year  1914-15,  will  un- 
doubtedly cause  a  diminished  output  from 
American  ship  yards,  but  if  the  war  is  pro- 
tracted, increased  activity  in  ship  building 
is  anticipated  as  a  result  of  the  traffic  lost 
to  other  nations  and  which  it  is  hoped  will 
fall  to  the  lot  of  American  ship  building. 

PORT  IMPROVEMENTS 

Although  the  traffic  experts  underesti- 
mated the  effect  of  the  canal  on  American 
traffic,  the  port  cities  of  the  Atlantic, 
Pacific,  and  Gulf  sections  did  not.  The 
governments  and  commercial  organizations 
of  these  cities  were  keenly  alive  to  the  im- 
portance of  the  new  waterway,  and  without 
exception,  prepared  for  an  increase  in 
ocean  traffic. 

Particularly  were  the  Pacific  Coast  ports 
thoroughly  awake  in  making  adequate 
provisions  for  an  enlarged  trade  by  im- 
proving their  harbor  and  dock  facilities. 
San  Francisco,  contemporaneously  with 
the  opening  of  the  canal  expended  $9,000,- 
ooo  in  new  docks,  and  at  the  general  elec- 
tion in  November,  1914,  $10,000,000  addi- 
tional in  bonds  was  made  available  for 
further  development  of  harbor  and  dock 
facilities,  as  the  needs  require.  The  port 
of  San  Francisco  has  the  great  natural 
advantage  of  a  deep  water  front  sur- 
rounding practically  the  whole  city,  and 
all  harbor  expenditures  go  into  actual 
wharfage  construction  without  any  outlay 
for  breakwaters  or  dredging.  It  is  note- 
worthy that  of  the  $600,000,000  expended 
by  the  United  States  government  for  river 
and  harbor  improvements,  but  $600,000 
has  been  appropriated  for  San  Francisco 


Bay,  and  that  a  large  part  of  this  sum  was 
used  to  blow  up  a  rock  which  menaced 
navigation.  In  contrast,  the  Federal  gov- 
ernment has  expended  approximately  $50,- 
000,000  in  improving  New  York  harbor, 
while  other  ports  have  absorbed  equally 
huge  sums. 

At  Los  Angeles,  in  preparation  for  the 
canal,  the  city  absorbed  San  Pedro  port 
and  made  it  Los  Angeles  harbor.  With 
liberal  appropriations  from  the  munici- 
pality and  the  assistance  of  the  Federal 
government,  a  man-made,  land-locked 
harbor  has  been  created  that  is  one  of  the 
most  commodious  and  convenient  of  its 
kind  in  the  world.  The  opening  of  the 
canal  found  the  city  ready  with  five  miles 
of  wharves,  with  another  mile  in  construc- 
tion, and  with  means  for  the  construction 
of  additional  wharves  as  rapidly  as  the 
needs  of  commerce  require  them.  The 
harbor  is  controlled  by  the  city,  which 
has  lowered  the  cost  of  handling  traffic  to  a 
minimum. 

In  the  ten  years  ending  June  30,  1912, 
the  commerce  of  Los  Angeles  harbor,  ex- 
clusive of  a  heavy  oil  and  lumber  traffic, 
increased  2,281  per  cent.  This  astonishing 
showing  opened  the  eyes  of  the  country 
to  the  great  possibilities  of  Los  Angeles  as 
a  maritime  city,  and  greater  strides  in  sea 
traffic  are  expected  during  the  next  decade. 

San  Diego,  Santa  Barbara,  Monterey, 
Portland,  Astoria,  Seattle,  and  other  Pa- 
cific Coast  cities  prepared  for  the  canal's 
opening  by  improving  harbor  and  dock 
facilities. 

On  the  Atlantic  Coast,  the  older  cities 
with  an  already  established  heavy  sea 
trade  were  stirred  to  action,  and  from 
Maine  to  Florida  all  the  ports  looked  to 
their  docks  in  preparation  for  the  new 
waterway.  New  Orleans  and  other  ports 
in  the  Gulf  region  were  similarly  alert. 
One  of  the  Atlantic  Coast  cities  whose 
development  is  expected  to  be  radically 
affected  by  the  canal  traffic  is  Providence, 
Rhode  Island,  situated  at  the  head  of 
navigation  in  Narragansett  Bay,  with  deep 
water  up  to  the  wharves  in  her  inner  har- 


ATLANTIC  AND   GULF  PORTS 


307 


bor.  Providence  is  also  the  converging 
point  in  her  territory  for  railroad  lines 
which  connect  with  all  the  great  railway 
systems  of  the  country.  For  many  years 
the  port  has  been  slowly  improving  the 
harbor  facilities,  but  more  recently  this 
work  has  been  taken  up  with  the  fact  in 
mind  that  Providence  is  the  center  of  one 
of  the  most  populous  districts  of  the  United 
States,  and  that  great  coastwise  and  inter- 
ocean  traffic  should  belong  to  a  city  so 
situated. 

Until  1911,  the  city  owned  but  a  small 
portion  of  its  water  front,  but  in  that  year 
the  municipality  purchased  thirty-five  acres 
of  land  on  the  west  shore  of  the  harbor 
with  a  frontage  of  3,000  feet.  A  sea  wall  to 
be  used  as  a  minicipal  wharf  was  included 
in  this  improvement.  The  construction 
of  additional  municipal  piers  and  other 
landing  facilities  has  been  since  carried  out, 
and  others  are  in  prospect.  The  thirty- 
five-acre  purchase  in  1911  gave  the  city 
177  acres  of  land  available  for  general 
port  facilities.  In  anticipation  of  increased 
commerce  to  follow  the  completion  of  the 
canal,  the  state  of  Rhode  Island  in  May, 
1911,  purchased  water  front  property  in 
Providence  comprising  approximately  748,- 
523  square  feet  with  a  frontage  of  700  feet, 
where  piers  and  docks  were  built. 

With  the  facilities  secured  through  these 
and  other  improvements,  the  opening  of 
the  canal  found  Providence  ready  by  both 
land  and  water  to  carry  on  a  great  foreign 
commerce.  With  a  long  established  manu- 
facturing center,  and  with  manufacturing 
sites  of  unrivalled  excellence  along  the 
four  rivers  which  converge  at  the  city, 
and  spacious  territory  in  and  around  the 
city  for  manufacturing  plants,  the  com- 
merce of  this  Atlantic  port  is  expected  to 
develop  as  remarkably  during  the  next 
decade  as  that  of  Los  Angeles  did  in  the 
last.  The  present  manufactures  of  Provi- 
dence are  nearly  all  such  as  lend  themselves 
readily  to  the  foreign  trade,  and  in  the 
markets  which  await  the  United  States  in 
South  America  and  other  parts  of  the 
world  as  the  result  of  the  European  war, 


Providence  may  find  her  stride  as  a  world 
port. 

One  of  the  most  enterprising  and  prac- 
tical projects  for  meeting  the  new  trade 
conditions  growing  out  of  the  completion 
of  the  canal  was  the  construction  of  the 
Houston  ship  channel  from  Houston, 
Texas,  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  This  chan- 
nel, fifty  miles  long,  gives  the  rapidly 
growing  city  of  Houston  a  straight  course 
to  the  ocean,  with  a  safe  and  commodious 
passage  twenty-five  feet  deep  and  200  feet 
wide. 

The  work  was  completed  almost  con- 
currently with  the  opening  of  the  Panama 
Canal  to  commercial  traffic  in  the  summer 
of  1914.  The  construction  was  carried 
out  under  an  appropriation  of  $2,500,000, 
paid  jointly  by  the  United  States  govern- 
ment and  the  Harris  County  Navigation 
District,  which  is  practically  made  up  of 
the  city  of  Houston.  The  construction 
was  directed  by  United  States  engineers. 

The  United  States  government  will  take 
care  of  the  maintenance  of  the  channel, 
and  for  this  purpose  two  large  suction 
dredges  have  been  constructed  at  a  cost  of 
$200,000  each  to  keep  the  channel  at  the 
regular  depth. 

Houston,  from  its  foundation  in  1836 
by  General  Sam  Houston,  had  access  to 
deep  water  through  the  tortuous  channels 
of  what  was  then  called  Buffalo  Bayou. 
The  purpose  of  the  Houston  ship  channel 
was  to  straighten  out  and  deepen  this 
outlet  to  the  sea,  and  to  complete  in  one 
comprehensive  plan  of  construction  the 
work  of  improvement  which  had  been  car- 
ried out  in  partial  form  from  time  to  time  in 
the  past.  Even  under  the  disadvantages  of 
the  old  Bayou  channel,  the  outlet  has  al- 
ways carried  a  great  tide  of  commerce,  in- 
creasing from  year  to  year. 

Following  up  the  completion  of  the  ship 
channel,  the  city  is  planning  the  construc- 
tion of  greater  terminals  and  dock  improve- 
ments at  a  cost  of  about  $3,000,000.  The 
plans  include  the  enlargement  of  the  turn 
ing  basin  and  a  system  of  docks,  a  coaling 
station  for  ships,  and  a  water  system  and 


308 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


power  plant  for  the  generation  of  electricity 
for  lighting  and  power,  both  for  the  termi- 
nals and  for  the  factories  which  will  locate 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  turning  basin.  The 
piers,  warehouses,  terminals  and  other 
shipping  facilities  will  be  owned  and  con- 
trolled by  the  city,  and  will  be  available  on 
equal  terms  to  all.  No  wharfage  tax  will 
be  charged  against  ships. 

With  the  stimulus  to  inter-ocean  trade 
which  has  followed  the  opening  of  the  Pan- 
ama Canal,  and  Houston's  favorable  loca- 
tion, a  phenomenal  growth  is  predicted  for 
the  city  and  its  business  as  a  result  of  its 
ship  channel  enterprise.  The  present  popu- 
lation is  estimated  at  close  to  140,000.  On 
account  of  its  situation  on  deep  water, 
the  city  enjoys  the  advantages  of  deep-water 
rates,  and  as  a  shipping  port  is  500  miles 
nearer  the  granaries  of  the  West  than 
ports  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  300  miles 
nearer  than  New  Orleans,  and  570  miles 
nearer  than  San  Francisco. 

Seventeen  railroads  meet  the  sea  at 
Houston,  all  of  them  having  a  down-grade 
haul  to  the  port,  a  traffic  attraction  of  great 
advantage.  A  large  share  of  the  products 
of  the  central  west,  seeking  an  outlet  to 
foreign  trade  through  the  Panama  Canal 
and  otherwise,  is  destined  to  come  into 
Houston,  departing  through  the  Houston 
ship  channel. 

The  annual  traffic  over  the  ship  channel 
has  already  reached  the  total  of  $53,000,- 
ooo.  The  greatest  present  item  of  com- 
merce is  cotton,  in  the  handling  of  which 
the  channel  affords  a  saving  to  the  cotton 
producers  of  Texas  of  over  $6,000,000 
annually,  because  of  the  reduced  rate  for 
the  fifty  miles  of  water  haul. 

For  the  manufacturer,  Houston  offers 
a  combination  of  advantages  which  give  a 
remarkable  field  for  the  manufacture  and 
sale  of  raw  materials.  A  few  miles  from 
the  city  glass  sand  is  found  in  abundance. 
To  the  east  and  north,  there  are  pine  and 
hardwood  forests,  rich  coal  and  lignite  de- 
posits practically  untouched,  great  fields  of 
fuel  oil,  and  rich  iron  ore  fields  which 
heretofore  have  not  been  worked  on  ac- 


count of  lack  of  transportation  facilities 
from  the  deposits  to  the  ports.  Back  of 
all  these  advantages  is  the  state  of  Texas 
itself,  great  in  virgin  mineral  resources, 
and  with  vast  reaches  of  land  adapted  to  all 
uses  to  which  a  rich  soil  can  be  put. 

Already,  Houston  looms  as  the  manufac- 
turing and  industrial  center  of  the  south, 
having  352  factories  manufacturing  283 
different  products,  with  an  approximate 
value  of  $53,000,000  a  year.  These  fac- 
tories employ  11,000  workers,  with  an 
approximate  pay  roll  of  nearly  $11,000,000 
a  year. 

With  Texas  as  the  greatest  cattle  pro- 
ducing state,  it  speaks  well  for  Houston's 
transportation  and  commercial  facilities 
that  here  is  located  the  largest  independent 
packing  plant  in  the  Southwest.  This  is 
the  plant  of  the  Houston  Packing  Com- 
pany, an  institution  that  helps  to  solve 
for  Houston  the  high  cost  of  living  prob- 
lems met  in  less  favored  cities.  In  addi- 
tion to  its  great  stock  yards  and  meat  can- 
ning factory  the  company  puts  up  the 
famous  tamale  and  chili  con  carne,  two 
food  favorites  in  the  West  and  South, 
and  rapidly  becoming  known  and  popular 
in  the  East  and  North.  The  company's 
plant  is  one  of  the  best  equipped  of  its 
kind,  with  its  own  power  house,  ice  plant, 
lard  refinery,  cooperage  shop  and  other 
facilities. 

Civic  pride  is  strong  in  Houston,  and 
under  a  well-conducted  government,  good 
streets,  excellent  schools  and  other  pub- 
lic facilities  are  a  matter  of  course.  The 
public  and  private  buildings,  the  railroad 
stations,  and  other  institutions  are  on  a 
par  with  the  fine  spirit  of  a  growing,  thriv- 
ing city,  proud  of  its  past  and  confident  of 
its  future. 

An  attractive  climate,  fine  shell  roads 
and  boulevards  in  the  suburban  reaches 
of  the  city,  varied  and  interesting  attrac- 
tions for  recreation,  including  fine  hunting, 
fishing,  canoeing  and  boating  facilities, 
all  add  to  the  advantages  of  the  city  as  a 
living  and  business  community. 

For  the  tourist  and  traveler,   Houston 


MODERN  TRAVEL  TO  THE  CANAL  AND  LATIN-AMERICA 

1.  Luxurious  sleeping  quarters  on  a  United  Fruit  Company  Boat. 

2.  One  of  the  United  Fruit  Company's  Fleet. 


GROWTH   OF  HOUSTON 


309 


offers  exceptional  attractions.  The  city 
is  a  gay  metropolis,  provided  with  every 
indoor  amusement  and  outdoor  enjoyment. 
Hundreds  of  miles  of  perfect  motoring 
roads  encircle  the  city.  The  picturesque 
Bayou,  with  its  placid  and  safe  waters, 
affords  boating  and  fishing  every  day  in  the 
year,  and  pleasure  seekers  picnic  summer 
and  winter  on  its  grassy,  wood-covered 
banks.  The  winter  months  are  warm 
and  sunny,  with  occasional  cool  weather 
that  brings  an  invigorating  snap  to  the 
bracing  sea  air. 

With  these  advantages,  Houston  early 
made  provisions  for  its  visitors  in  the  form 
of  good  hotel  accomodations.  There  are 
several  first  class  hotels,  and  more  in  the 
course  of  construction.  Leading  the  list 
is  the  New  Rice  Hotel,  the  finest  building 
of  its  kind  in  the  South,  and  one  of  the 
largest  in  the  country.  It  was  built  on 
the  site  of  the  historic  old  Rice  Hotel,  at  a 
cost  of  $3,000,000.  It  is  eighteen  stories 
high,  of  the  most  modern  and  fireproof  con- 
struction, with  equipment  and  accommo- 
dations of  the  latest  high-class  design. 
Standing  in  a  block  by  itself,  with  a  cen- 
tral court,  its  rooms  are  all  airy  and  bright. 
Car  lines  radiate  from  the  hotel  to  all  parts 
of  the  city  and  suburbs.  The  beautiful 
assembly,  dining  and  other  halls  of  the 
hotel  are  the  center  of  much  of  Houston's 
social  life.  The  rates  and  cuisine  are  in 
keeping  with  the  city's  spirit  of  enterprise 
and  hospitality. 

The  Texas  gulf  coast  has  been  called  the 
American  Riviera.  Of  this  favored  sec- 
tion, Houston,  where  soft  sea  breezes 
and  sunny  skies  prevail,  is  a  center  that  is 
attracting  the  traveling  public  in  ever 
greater  numbers. 

The  character  of  a  city's  chamber  of 
commerce  is  often  the  best  index  to  the 
city  itself.  Houston  is  fortunate  in  hav- 
ing as  a  directing  factor  in  its  progress  one 
of  the  most  adequate  and  efficient  bodies 
of  this  kind  in  the  country.  A  list  of  its 
recent  accomplishments  would  form  a 
model  for  similar  organizations.  • 

Especially  active  in  the  chamber  of  com- 


merce work,  and  in  fostering  the  ship 
channel  and  other  improvement  projects 
in  the  city,  is  a  long  list  of  public  spirited 
citizens.  Among  these  may  be  named  J. 
W.  Scott,  vice-president  of  the  First 
National  Bank,  one  of  the  strongest  banks 
in  the  South,  housed  in  a  modern  office 
building  of  its  own;  Jesse  H.  Jones,  chair- 
man of  the  Board  of  the  Bankers  Trust 
Company;  S.  F.  Carter,  president  of  the 
Lumbermen's  National  Bank,  and  D.  C. 
Dunn,  cashier  of  the  Union  National  Bank, 
all  leaders  in  the  financial  and  industrial 
progress  of  Houston;  M.  E.  Foster,  of 
the  Houston  Chronicle,  the  largest  news- 
paper in  the  Southwest,  which  in  addition 
to  constantly  championing  the  interests  of 
Houston,  gave  practical  demonstration  of 
its  confidence  in  the  future  of  the  city 
through  the  construction  of  a  modern 
skyscraper  building  for  the  newspaper 
plant;  John  H.  Kirby,  organizer  and  presi- 
dent of  the  Kirby  Lumber  Company,  re- 
tired lawyer,  and  the  organizer  and  builder 
of  the  Gulf,  Beaumont  and  Texas  Railway, 
afterward  sold  to  the  Atchison,  Topeka  & 
Santa  Fe  system;  J.  C.  Hutcheson,  lawyer 
and  former  representative  in  Congress; 
W.  C.  Munn,  under  whose  presidency  of 
the  Chamber  of  Commerce  many  im- 
portant improvement  projects  were  inaug- 
urated and  carried  out;  Sam  Streetmen, 
attorney  and  former  associate  justice  of 
the  Court  of  Civil  Appeals;  Jonathan 
Lane,  lawyer  and  financier,  former  member 
of  the  Texas  State  Senate,  and  president  of 
the  Guarantee  Life  Insurance  Company  of 
Houston,  president  of  the  American  Secu- 
rity and  Casualty  Company  of  Houston, 
vice-president  and  director  of  the  Conti- 
nental Trust  Company,  director  of  the 
Union  National  Bank  and  the  Bankers 
Trust  Company  and  officer  in  several  other 
large  Houston  concerns;  H.  B.  Rice,  for- 
mer mayor  of  the  city,  under  whose  ad- 
ministration many  civic  betterments  were 
carried  out;  C.  W.  Hahl,  of  the  firm  of  C. 
W.  Hahl  &  Company,  and  vice-president 
of  the  R.  C.  Miller  Lumber  Company,  a 
real  estate  expert,  town  builder  and  devel. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


oper  of  farming  communities,  who  has 
brought  during  his  twenty-five  years' 
identification  with  Texas  land  and  invest- 
ments thousands  of  settlers  to  his  state, 
who  did  most  to  put  the  rice  industry  on  a 
solid  base  in  south  Texas,  and  who  main- 
tains a  model  demonstration  farm  on  land 
of  his  own  near  Houston;  O.  M.  Carter, 
another  realty  and  land  expert,  who  has 
done  much  to  attract  business  and  people 
to  Houston;  T.  H.  Stone,  attorney  and 
president  of  the  Humble  Oil  Company; 
and  J.  S.  Cullinan,  G.  C.  Street,  R.  S. 
Sterling,  Thomas  H.  Ball,  William  A. 
Wilson,  and  H.  T.  MacGregor,  all  leaders 
in  Houston's  financial,  commercial,  and 
civic  life.  Hon.  O.  B.  Colquitt,  who  at- 
tained national  fame  through  his  vigorous 
administration  as  governor  of  Texas,  has 
also  had  an  active  part  in  securing  na- 
tional aid  for  the  ship  channel  project, 
and  in  aiding  Houston's  progress  in  other 
ways. 

Many  cities,  rejoicing  in  the  canal's  com- 
pletion, prepared  to  celebrate  the  event. 
New  Orleans,  which  lost  to  San  Francisco 
the  honor  of  holding  the  formal  interna- 
tional exposition,  prepared  a  carnival  cele- 
bration of  the  waterway's  completion. 
The  Republic  of  Panama  had  planned  an 
exposition  to  open  contemporaneously  with 
the  great  naval  pageant  through  the  canal 
in  February,  1915,  but  the  European  war 
put  an  end  to  the  pageant  plans,  and  the 
Panama  exposition  was  postponed  until 
July,  1915,  when  it  was  proposed  to  have 
the  Atlantic  fleet  of  the  United  States  as 
well  as  vessels  of  other  neutral  nations 
pass  through  the  canal  en  route  to  the  San 
Francisco  exposition. 

An  exposition  was  opened  at  San  Diego, 
California,  the  nearest  United  States  Pa- 
cific Coast  port  to  the  canal,  on  January  i, 
1915,  to  continue  throughout  the  year. 
It  is  devoted  chiefly  to  fostering  better 
commercial  and  other  relations  with  the 
South  American  republics,  and  its  build- 
ings, remarkably  striking  in  their  design, 
followed  the  Spanish  and  Moorish  types 
of  architecture. 


PANAMA-PACIFIC    INTERNATIONAL 
EXPOSITION 

Ready  in  every  detail,  free  of  debt,  and 
with  forty-one  nations  participating,  the 
great  Panama-Pacific  International  Ex- 
position at  San  Francisco,  in  celebration 
of  the  canal's  completion,  opened  on  Feb- 
ruary 20,  1915,  the  date  scheduled.  The 
pressing  of  a  wireless  telegraph  button  in 
Washington  by  President  Wilson  set  the 
machinery  of  the  exposition  in  operation. 
A  great  concourse  of  people  attended  the 
opening  ceremonies  at  the  exposition 
grounds,  all  records  for  opening  day  attend- 
ance at  previous  expositions  being  broken. 

England,  Germany,  Russia,  and  Austria, 
among  the  European  belligerents,  were  not 
officially  represented,  although  numbers 
of  their  commercial  organizations  are 
participating  in  the  exhibits.  France, 
Japan,  and  Italy  are  officially  represented, 
together  with  forty-one  states  and  terri- 
tories under  the  flag  of  the  United  States. 

The  exposition  grounds  lie  in  a  natural 
amphitheater  along  San  Francisco  Bay, 
affording  the  most  beautiful  setting  in 
which  any  exposition  has  been  staged. 
Adjoining  the  grounds  is  the  large  United 
States  military  reservation  known  as  the 
Presidio,  facing  San  Francisco  Bay,  with 
the  Golden  Gate  on  the  west.  Under  the 
direction  of  the  world's  foremost  landscape 
and  building  architects,  the  broad  stretches 
of  mural  expanse  are  grained  and  stained 
to  the  texture  and  color  of  Italian  traver- 
tine. Where  the  statuary  has  not  been 
wrought  from  the  same  material,  it  has 
been  finished  in  a  soft  buff  or  burnt  orange. 
Thus,  with  the  artistic  arrangement  of 
the  lawns,  palms,  and  hedges  blending  with 
the  color  tone  of  the  buildings,  there  has 
been  created  a  color  scheme  that  will  linger 
long  in  the  memory  of  the  exposition 
visitors  as  an  impressionistic  pastel  beau- 
tiful beyond  description. 

Dominating  the  whole  scheme  of  con- 
struction is  the  colossal  Tower  of  Jewels, 
435  feet  high,  set  in  the  central  Court  of 
the  Universe,  where  Corinthian  towers 


THE  PANAMA-PACIFIC   EXPOSITION 


1.  Tree  in  Fine  Arts  Palace. 

2.  Horticultural  Palace. 


TOURIST  TRAVEL  TO   PANAMA 


stand  taller  than  those  of  St.  Peter's  at 
Rome.  Each  column  is  surmounted  by 
the  figure  of  a  star,  and  from  the  tower 
itself  80,000  sparkling  jewels  of  all  colors 
hang,  flashing  in  the  sun  and  scintillating 
in  the  lights  at  night. 

The  idea  of  an  exposition  at  San  Fran- 
cisco to  celebrate  the  opening  of  the  canal 
had  its  inception  in  1904.  The  great  fire 
of  1906,  by  which  San  Francisco  was  prac- 
tically destroyed,  delayed,  but  did  not 
stop,  the  exposition  plans.  The  authori- 
zation of  the  state  legislature,  together 
with  an  appropriation  of  $5,000,000,  was 
obtained,  and  in  April,  1910,  $4,089,000 
was  raised  by  subscription  in  San  Francisco 
in  two  hours.  President  Taft  signed  the 
exposition  act  on  October  4,  1911.  In 
the  work  done  by  the  exposition  com- 
pany, by  the  nations,  states,  and  territories 
participating,  and  by  concessionaires,  an 
investment  of  approximately  $80,000,000 
is  represented  in  the  exposition.  This  far 
exceeds  that  of  any  previous  exposition. 
A  $2,000,000  auditorium  has  been  erected 
as  part  of  San  Francisco's  new  civic  cen- 
ter. This  building  is  a  permanent  struc- 
ture, and  during  the  exposition  will  house 
the  400  or  more  national  and  interna- 
tional meetings  and  congresses  which  will 
convene  at  San  Francisco.  The  exposition 
will  continue  throughout  the  year,  ending 
December  4,  1915.  The  officers  under 
whom  the  enterprise  grew  into  its  prompt 
and  magnificent  completion  are  the  fol- 
lowing: Charles  C.  Moore,  president; 
Frederick  J.  V.  Skiff,  director  in  chief; 
R.  B.  Hale,  vice-president;  William  H. 
Crocker,  vice-president;  I.  W.  Hellman, 
Jr.,  vice-president;  M.  H.  de  Young, 
vice-president;  Leon  Sloss,  vice-president; 
James  Rolph,  Jr.,  vice-president;  A.  W. 
Foster,  treasurer;  Rudolph  J.  Taussig,  sec- 
retary; Joseph  M.  Cumming,  assistant 
secretary;  Rodney  S.  Durkee,  comptroller; 
Harris  D.  H.  Connick,  director  of  works. 

STEAMSHIP  CONNECTIONS 

The  completion  of  the  Panama  Canal 
has  awakened  in  the  minds  of  millions  of 


people  in  all  parts  of  the  globe  a  desire 
to  stand  at  the  rail  of  a  well-appointed 
ship  and  gaze  upon  the  completed  task. 
The  railroads  and  steamship  companies 
anticipated  this  desire  and  prepared  for 
its  gratification. 

The  ocean  trip  to  Panama  is  now  prob- 
ably the  most  delightful  of  all  those  offered 
to  the  American  public,  and  can  be  accom- 
plished with  "all  the  comforts  of  home," 
in  seven  days  from  New  York  or  Boston 
or  a  little  less  than  five  from  New  Orleans. 
A  fleet  of  modern  steamers  owned  and 
operated  by  the  United  Fruit  Company 
furnishes  a  regular  service  from  all  these 
ports  to  the  Isthmus  and  offers,  incident- 
ally, many  enjoyable  side-trips  from  Colon 
to  the  interesting  points  nearby  on  the 
shores  of  the  Caribbean. 

The  old  idea  that  travel  in  the  tropics 
means  all  sorts  of  discomforts  from  the 
torrid  heat  no  longer  holds  good.  Those 
who  have  made  the  trip  to  the  Isthmus  on 
this  new  type  of  ship  will  endorse  the 
statement  that  the  teachings  of  long  ex- 
perience have  enabled  the  United  Fruit 
Company  to  build  a  fleet  of  some  twenty 
steamers  which  meet  every  requirement  of 
the  service  in  which  they  are  employed, 
and  which  have  been  built  not  only  with 
the  view  to  providing  for  the  pleasure  and 
convenience  of  the  tourist,  but — what  is 
more  important — with  every  precaution  for 
his  safety. 

Life  aboard  ship  in  the  tropics,  to  be 
enjoyed  to  the  full,  must  be  spent  in  the 
open  air.  On  the  spacious  decks  room  can 
always  be  found  where  the  mild  breeze 
adds  to  the  enjoyment  of  a  book  or  a 
siesta  in  a  deck  chair.  The  lounge,  the 
music  room,  with  its  piano  and  library, 
and  the  smoking-room  afford  comfort  and 
amusement  for  those  rare  hours  which 
must  be  spent  within  doors.  The  state- 
rooms, which  are  exceptionally  large  and 
comfortable,  have  the  best  of  natural  ven- 
tilation and  are  provided  with  the  custo- 
mary electric  fans,  but — and  in  this,  these 
ships  are  in  a  class  by  themselves — they 
are  cooled  by  a  system  of  artificial  ven- 


312 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


tilation  which  assures  a  comfortable  night's 
rest  even  in  the  warmest  weather. 

With  a  comfortable  and  enjoyable  week's 
travel  aboard  ship,  and  opportunity  to  see 
and  study  the  magnificent  work  of  the 
Panama  Canal,  and  another  week  of  ideal 
travel  with  home  ahead,  there  can  be  no 
question  that  the  trip  to  Panama  offers 
more  pleasant  variety  than  any  other. 

The  climate  of  the  delightful  West  In- 
dies region  varies  little  from  season  to 
season,  and  the  entire  region  offers  an  ideal 
opportunity  for  either  summer  or  winter 
vacation.  The  tourist  may  enjoy  all  the 
delights  of  a  sea  trip  and  a  visit  to  foreign 
lands,  within  the  limits  of  a  short  vacation. 
The  equable  climate  of  the  Caribbean  Sea 
even  throughout  the  summer  months  will 
be  found  cooler  than  that  of  many  Ameri- 
can cities. 

The  beautiful  tropic  islands,  with  their 
picturesque  Spanish  cities,  and  wealth  of 
foliage,  are  not  less  attractive  than  the 
Mediterranean,  and  they  have  the  great 
advantage  of  being  much  nearer  home. 
The  Panama  Canal  is  proving  a  great  at- 
traction for  all  Americans.  The  great 
engineering  feat  of  its  construction  is  a 
strong  patriotic  appeal  to  the  people  of  the 
United  States.  The  cruising  service  of  the 
West  Indies  has  been  so  carefully  or- 
ganized that  it  is  possible  to  visit  this 
region  without  foregoing  any  of  the  luxuries 
of  the  finest  hotels  at  a  very  reasonable 
expense. 

Before  the  outbreak  of  the  European 
war  it  was  possible  to  visit  the  West  Indies 
and  the  Panama  Canal  by  a  series  of 
cruises  varying  in  length  from  eleven  to 
twenty-five  days  by  the  palatial  Prinz 
steamers  of  the  Hamburg-American  Line. 
To  this  service  was  to  be  added  the  large 
1 0,000- ton  Konig  steamers  which  assure 
every  luxury  of  ocean  travel.  All  of  these 
vessels  have  been  especially  constructed  for 
cruising  in  the  tropics,  being  large,  per- 
fectly ventilated,  and  equipped  with  all 
the  newest  safety  devices,  and  it  is  expected 
that  their  regular  service  will  be  resumed 
when  the  war  is  ended.  It  will  be  found 


very  convenient  to  make  a  complete  cruise 
of  the  Caribbean,  visiting  the  Panama 
Canal  and  the  Spanish  Main,  using  one  of 
these  steamers  as  a  hotel  at  the  various 
ports  of  call.  The  steamers  made,  and 
doubtless  will  again  make,  regular  con- 
nections with  vessels  sailing  to  ports  on 
the  West  Coast  of  South  America. 

During  the  winter  months  an  additional 
series  of  special  pleasure  cruises  were  made 
by  the  ships  of  this  line  to  the  "American 
Mediterranean."  varying  in  length  from 
sixteen  to  twenty-eight  days.  The  special 
cruising  steamer  Victoria  Louise,  of  the 
Hamburg-American  Line,  one  of  the  most 
palatial  steamers  afloat,  and  the  S.  S. 
Moltke,  won  great  popularity  with  tourists 
sailing  on  these  special  cruises.  Cruising 
steamers  carry  no  freight,  and  their  sched- 
ule is  wholly  for  the  pleasure  of  the  tourists. 
The  luxurious  public  cabins  and  unusual 
amount  of  deck  space  make  it  possible  to 
enjoy  a  series  of  balls,  deck  games,  and 
other  features  which  lend  added  enjoy- 
ment and  interest  to  the  cruise.  It  is 
expected  that  these  cruises  will  be  resumed 
later  by  this  line. 

The  accession  to  the  British  throne  in 
1837  of  Queen  Victoria  marked  the  be- 
ginning of  an  era  of  busy  British  steamship 
enterprise.  The  Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet 
Company,  which  is  the  oldest  steamship 
company  working  under  a  royal  charter, 
was  incorporated  by  royal  warrant  dated 
September  26,  1839.  Founded  to  form  the 
"link  of  empire"  between  the  mother 
country  and  the  West  Indian  colonies,  the 
itineraries  of  the  company  first  included 
Colon,  the  Atlantic  port  of  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama. 

The  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Company, 
whose  charter  is  dated  February  17,  1840, 
was  founded  to  work  concessions  obtained 
from  the  government  of  the  various 
Republics  on  the  west  coast  of  South 
America.  Their  northern  terminal  point 
was  Panama,  the  Pacific  port  of  the 
Isthmus.  Thus  from  the  very  beginning 
these  two  steamship  companies  have  been 
intimately  connected  with  the  narrow  neck 


ATLANTIC   STEAMSHIP   LINES 


313 


of  land  which  unites  the  continents  of 
North  and  South  America. 

The  opening  of  the  year  1846  found  the 
services  of  the  two  companies  completely 
established,  but  with  no  systematized  con- 
nection between  them.  The  Royal  Mail 
Steam  Packet  Company,  before  the  end  of 
1846,  established  a  regular  mode  of  com- 
munication. The  organized  service  of 
mules  and  canoes,  which  it  arranged, 
supplied  a  badly  needed  means  of  convey- 
ance between  the  two  oceans.  This  speed- 
ily resulted  in  the  conclusion  of  a  mail  con- 
tract in  1847,  whereby  the  British  mails 
were  conveyed  under  contract  with  the 
British  government  outward  and  home- 
ward by  the  R.  M.  S.  P.  in  conjunction  with 
the  P.  S.  N.  C.  Two  years  later  with  the 
renewal  of  the  original  R.  M.  S.  P.  contract 
it  was  necessary  to  double  the  service  to 
Colon.  To  meet  this  increase  in  the  num- 
ber of  calls  on  the  Atlantic  side,  the  Pacific 
Steam  Navigation  Company  augmented 
its  sailings,  and  in  1852  the  establish- 
ment of  a  bi-monthly  service  between  Pan- 
ama and  Valparaiso  put  it  under  the 
necessity  of  providing  additional  steamers. 

The  volume  of  the  traffic  utilizing  this 
route  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  con- 
tinually increased,  and,  during  the  "gold 
fever"  year  of  1848,  pioneers  in  search  of 
the  precious  metal  made  use  in  considerable 
numbers  of  the  Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet 
Company's  route  to  California  via  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama. 

The  Panama  Railroad  Company,  pro- 
jected in  1850,  received  substantial  pe- 
cuniary assistance  from  the  Royal  Mail 
Steam  Packet  Company,  and,  after  five 
years  had  been  consumed  in  overcoming 
the  difficulties  incidental  to  the  forty- 
seven  and  one-half  miles  of  construction,  at- 
tained its  final  completion  in  1855.  Again 
the  increase  in  facilities  was  followed  by  an 
increase  in  traffic.  The  Royal  Mail  Steam 
Packet  Company  found  itself  under  the 
necessity  of  sending  trans-Atlantic  mail 
steamers  direct  to  the  Isthmus,  so  as  to 
avoid  the  transfer  at  St.  Thomas  which 
had  hitherto  been  needful. 


From  1868  onward  the  R.  M.  S.  P. 
maintained  a  transatlantic  service  fort- 
nightly between  Southampton  and  Colon, 
connecting  across  the  Isthmus  with  the 
steamers  of  the  Pacific  Steam  Navigation 
Company.  In  consequence  of  changes  in 
the  mail  arrangements  to  the  West  Indies 
during  the  early  part  of  the  twentieth 
century,  the  Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet 
Company  in  1905  extended  the  voyage 
of  its  transatlantic  steamers  tc  New 
York,  thus  linking  the  Isthmus  not  merely 
with  Great  Britain,  but  with  the  United 
States. 

It  will  be  seen  from  these  facts  that 
these  two  historic  British  steamship  com- 
panies have  been  associated  in  the  closest 
manner  with  trans-isthmian  traffic  from 
the  very  beginning. 

The  P.  S.  N.  C.  was  among  the  first  to 
take  advantage  of  the  opening  of  the 
Panama  Canal  with  the  plan  to  extend 
Liverpool-Callao  itineraries  to  Panama  and 
New  York,  via  East  coast  ports,  Straits  of 
Magellan,  Valparaiso,  Callao,  Panama 
Canal,  and  Havana.  The  European  war 
has  interrupted  the  service  of  this  company 
to  some  extent  but  the  resumption  of  its 
normal  traffic  will  be  resumed  in  due  time. 

Thirty  years  ago  a  line  of  steamers  was 
established  to  transport  iron  ore  from  the 
mines  in  Cuba  to  the  North  Altantic  ports. 
Alfred  Earnshaw,  in  cooperation  with  the 
Pennsylvania  Steel  Company  and  the 
Bethlehem  Iron  Company,  developed  the 
first  successful  iron  ore  mine  in  Cuba. 
The  product  of  this  mine  had  to  be  trans- 
ported to  the  United  States,  and  for  that 
purpose  Alfred  Earnshaw,  George  E.  Earn- 
shaw, both  of  Philadelphia,  and  Joseph  R. 
Foard,  of  Baltimore,  established  a  line  of 
steamers  early  in  1885. 

For  a  time  the  steamship  business  was 
carried  on  in  the  name  of  Alfred  Earnshaw, 
and  later  as  a  limited  partnership.  In  1892 
the  business  was  incorporated  under  the 
laws  of  New  Jersey,  as  the  Earn-Line 
Steamship  Company.  The  first  president 
of  the  company  was  Alfred  Earnshaw,  who 
held  that  office  until  his  death  in  1896, 


314 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


when  his  brother,  George  E.  Earnshaw, 
was  elected  and  still  holds  that  position, 
the  other  officers  being  H.  S.  Sha-p,  vice- 
president  and  treasurer,  Ambrose  B.  Um- 
stead,  secretary,  and  W.  C.  Barratt, 
assistant-treasurer. 

At  first  the  steamers  went  to  Cuba  in 
ballast,  but  it  soon  became  apparent  that 
this  was  wasteful  and  that  an  outward 
cargo,  even  at  a  low  rate  of  freight,  would 
reduce  the  cost  of  carrying  the  ore.  At 
that  time  no  regular  outward  cargo  was  to 
be  had,  but  by  quoting  a  much  lower 
freight  rate  than  had  theretofore  been  pos- 
sible, a  large  coal  shipper  was  induced  to 
reach  out  after  West  Indian  trade,  which  at 
that  time  was  wholly  supplied  from  Wales. 
This  was  the  beginning  of  the  large  ex- 
port coal  trade  with  the  West  Indies,  and 
the  trade  has  grown  until  it  has  almost 
wholly  driven  Welsh  coal  out  of  the  market. 
The  Earn-Line  may,  therefore,  fairly  take 
'credit  for  being  the  pioneer  in  opening  this 
large  market  to  American  coal. 

During  the  year  1913  this  line  carried 
all  the  iron  ore  shipped  from  Cuba  to  the 
United  States,  amounting  to  more  than  a 
million  and  quarter  tons.  During  the 
same  period  it  transported  a  great  part  of 
the  coal  shipped  from  Philadelphia,  Balti- 
more, Newport  News,  and  Norfolk  to 
West  Indian  and  Central  American  ports. 

Two  lines  of  steamers  were  put  in  op- 
eration through  the  new  waterway  by 
W.  R.  Grace  &  Company,  of  New  York. 

One  of  these  services  is  through  the  canal 
to  South  American  ports,  carried  on  by 
the  Merchants  Line,  through  its  high-class 
steamers  Curaca,  Chincha,  Characas,  Chip- 
ana,  Chimu,  Coya,  Capac,  and  Condor,  with 
a  fortnightly  service  from  New  York  to 
ports  in  Colombia,  Ecuador,  Peru,  and 
Chile.  Branches  for  the  sale  of  American 
products  and  the  bookings  of  cargo  are 
maintained  by  W.  R.  Grace  &  Company 
in  all  principal  cities  on  the  west  coast  of 
South  America. 

The  service  to  the  Pacific  coast  of  the 
United  States  is  carried  on  by  the  Atlantic 
&  Pacific  Steamship  Company,  which  gives 


a  fortnightly  service  from  New  York  to 
ports  in  California  and  Washington.  W.  R. 
Grace  &  Company  have  branches  in 
San  Francisco,  Los  Angeles,  Portland,  and 
Seattle,  to  look  after  the  operations  con- 
ducted by  this  service.  Among  the  vessels 
employed  are  the  Santa  Clara,  Santa  Cata- 
lina,  Santa  Cecilia,  and  Santa  Cruz.  These 
are  new  high-powered  10,000  ton  American 
steamers,  especially  constructed  for  the 
canal  trade. 

On  the  Pacific  side,  the  line  of  steam- 
ships of  the  Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Com- 
pany were  in  jeopardy  so  far  as  the  canal 
traffic  is  concerned  through  the  provision 
of  the  Panama  Canal  Act  which  closes 
the  canal  to  railroad  owned  ships.  This 
was  remedied  by  a  ruling  of  the  Inter- 
state Commerce  Commission  on  February 
I3>  I9I5>  under  which  the  Pacific  Mail  will 
be  permitted  to  operate  ships  in  the  coast- 
wise passenger  and  commercial  traffic  to 
Balboa  and  intermediate  points  on  the 
Pacific  side  of  the  canal.  Through  traffic 
from  this  line  is  planned  to  be  transferred 
by  rail  to  the  ships  of  the  American-Ha- 
waiian Line  at  Colon,  connecting  with 
Atlantic  ports.  The  Pacific  Mail  was 
brought  under  the  inhibition  of  the  Panama 
Canal  Act  because  of  its  control  by  the 
Southern  Pacific  Railroad  Company,  but 
the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  held 
that  the  steamship  line  could  ply  in  the 
coast  trade  within  the  limits  prescribed 
without  divesting  itself  of  its  railroad  con- 
nection. The  palatial  service  of  the  Pacific 
Mail  to  Honolulu,  Manila,  Russia,  Japan, 
China,  and  India  continues  as  usual  with 
the  Korea,  Siberia,  Manchuria,  Mongolia, 
and  other  ships  in  commission.  These 
ships  are  among  the  finest  in  any  inter- 
oceanic  passenger  and  commercial  service. 

RAILROAD  DEVELOPMENT 

Because  the  starting  point  of  a  circuit 
tour  is  usually  the  terminating  point,  a 
trip  of  this  kind  might  be  compared  to  an 
endless  chain.  This  viewpoint  assumed, 
the  Erie  Railroad  becomes  an  important 
link  in  the  endless  chain  of  a  canal  tour. 


THE  ERIE  RAILROAD 


315 


The  water  route  from  New  York  City, 
through  the  canal  to  the  Pacific  Coast,  is 
one  division  of  the  chain.  The  railroad 
route  from  the  Pacific  Coast  to  Chicago  is  a 
second  portion,  and  the  Erie  Railroad  from 
Chicago  to  New  York  City,  the  starting 
point,  is  a  third  division. 

When  the  public  goes  traveling,  especially 
if  the  trip  be  one  of  pleasure,  the  chosen 
route  must  be  interesting  or  disappoint- 
ment will  follow.  The  cities  and  towns 
along  the  line  must  have  an  industrial, 
historical,  or  educational  appeal.  To 
vividly  illustrate  the  ability  of  the  Erie 
Railroad  to  satisfy  this  laudable  desire  of 
the  public,  a  review  of  the  extent  of  the 
system,  and  the  parts  of  the  country  trav- 
ersed will  be  convincing. 

Chartered  in  1832  by  the  State  of  New 
York  for  the  purpose  of  constructing  a  rail- 
road that  would  connect  Lake  Erie  with 
tide  water  on  the  Hudson  River,  twenty- 
six  miles  north  of  New  York  City,  the  Erie 
Railroad  was  hailed  as  the  greatest  engi- 
neering feat  of  the  time.  It  gradually 
pushed  its  lines  west  until  it  now  stands 
among  the  great  railroad  systems  of 
America.  When  the  original  New  York 
and  Erie  Railroad  was  completed  in  1851 
there  was  but  one  other  railroad  of  conse- 
quence completed  in  the  world,  and  singu- 
lar to  say,  that  one  was  in  Russia,  con- 
necting St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow.  Thus 
the  completion  of  the  New  York  and  Erie 
marked  one  of  the  first  epochs  in  rail  trans- 
portation of  national  importance. 

Starting  from  Jersey  City,  the  main 
line  of  the  Erie  Railroad  leads  across  the 
northeast  corner  of  New  Jersey,  paralleling 
the  Pennsylvania-New  York  boundary  line 
to  Jamestown,  N.  Y.  From  Jamestown 
to  Chicago  the  course  of  the  railroad 
is  through  western  Pennsylvania,  Ohio, 
Indiana,  and  far  enough  into  Illinois  to 
reach  America's  second  greatest  city — 
Chicago.  This  section  of  the  United  States 
is  rich  in  historic  interest.  In  New  York 
City,  the  transatlantic  and  coastwise 
docks,  and  the  New  York  hotel,  theater  and 
shopping  districts  are  convenient  to  the 


Erie  Railroad.  In  Chicago,  good  terminal 
connections  with  westbound  trains  are 
made.  Through  tickets  provide  for  free 
transfer  of  passengers  and  baggage  from 
the  Erie  terminal  to  terminals  of  west- 
bound lines.  Thus  the  two  terminating 
points  of  the  Erie  system  link  solidly  and 
smoothly  with  the  other  divisions  of  the 
"circuit  tour,"  and  perform  their  part  in 
making  the  complete  tour  pleasant,  com- 
fortable, and  instructive. 

From  its  earliest  days  the  Erie  Railroad 
has  been  a  pioneer  in  the  adoption  of 
systems  and  the  construction  of  additions  to 
the  line  that  have  resulted  in  better  service 
to  the  public.  History  records  that  the 
Erie  was  the  first  road  to  light  its  coaches 
with  Pintsch  compressed  gas,  the  system 
having  been  brought  to  this  country  from 
Germany  by  H.  J.  Jewett.  The  idea  of  a 
milk  train  making  possible  the  shipment  of 
good,  pure  milk  from  the  country  into  New 
York  City  was  originated  by  the  Erie  Rail- 
road, the  idea  emanating  from  President 
F.  D.  Underwood.  The  Erie  was  the  first 
to  establish  large  tonnage  steamers  on  the 
Great  Lakes.  The  idea  of  using  telegraphy 
as  an  aid  in  forwarding  train  orders  origi- 
nated with  Charles  Minot,  of  the  Erie 
Railroad,  in  1851. 

From  1901  over  $90,000,000  was  ex- 
pended on  the  Erie  system  in  lowering 
grades,  completing  new  tracks,  and  other 
improvements  in  expediting  both  pas- 
senger and  freight  business.  In  1914  the 
largest  locomotive  in  the  world  was  put 
into  service  on  the  Erie  tracks.  An  idea 
of  its  power  may  be  gained  from  the  fol- 
lowing details:  It  has  twenty-four  driv- 
ing wheels,  eight  of  which  are  under  the 
tender.  This,  the  "Centipede"  locomo- 
tive, is  a  new  style  of  construction  which 
eliminates  the  tender  as  a  dead  drag. 
The  total  weight  of  this  locomotive  is 
853,050  pounds.  The  tank  has  a  water 
capacity  of  10,000  gallons,  and  a  coal  ca- 
pacity of  sixteen  tons.  The  engine  is  105 
feet  long,  and  has  a  capacity  of  hauling 
640  loaded  freight  cars,  the  combined 
weight  of  which  is  90,000,000  pounds,  a 


316 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


train  four  and  three-quarter  miles  long. 
Approximately  336  trains  arrive  or  depart 
from  the  Erie  Jersey  City  terminal  every 
day.  This  means  a  train  arriving  or  leav- 
ing every  four  minutes  of  a  twenty-four 
hour  day.  During  the  morning  rush  hours, 
8:03  A.  M.  to  9:03  A.  M.,  thirty-seven 
trains  arrive.  In  the  evening  rush  hours 
trains  leave  on  the  average  of  one  every 
two  minutes. 

New  England,  with  the  completion  of  the 
canal,  is  standing  on  the  threshold  of  a 
new  era  of  commercial  expansion  and 
prosperity.  Undaunted  by  competition 
with  other  sections  of  the  country  more 
favored  in  some  respects  by  nature,  the 
people  of  New  England  have  resolved  on 
securing  their  full  share  of  the  increased 
trade  to  come  from  the  opening  of  the 
Panama  Canal  and  to  establish  and  to 
maintain  again  a  commercial  empire  over 
the  seas  such  as  her  old  time  merchants 
once  enjoyed  when  they  sent  New  England 
ships  into  every  port  and  made  their  names 
famous  in  every  commercial  capital  of  the 
globe. 

There  has  been  no  decline  in  New  Eng- 
land. Only  in  her  agricultural  population 
has  there  been  a  slight  falling  off,  but  with 
this  has  come  a  wonderful  increase  in  the 
population  of  many  of  her  cities,  and  in 
the  development  of  her  manufactures, 
which  are  now  seeking  new  channels  for 
expansion.  And  these  her  people  are  re- 
solved shall  come  through  the  upbuilding 
of  her  foreign  trade,  no  matter  what  it 
may  cost. 

Hand  in  hand  with  this  expansion  of 
her  foreign  trade  is  to  go  the  development 
of  her  marvelous  water  power,  an  almost 
priceless  asset.  By  the  utilization  of  this 
"white  coal"  she  expects  to  further  de- 
velop the  manufactures  for  which  she  is 
renowned.  In  this  effort  to  secure  new 
trade  her  railroads  will  naturally  play  a 
leading  part.  The  prosperity  of  the  rail- 
road is  inseparably  linked  with  the  pros- 
perity of  the  people  it  serves. 

In  the  person  of  Howard  Elliott,  called 
from  the  West  to  take  charge  of  New 


England's  transportation  system,  upon 
which  so  much  depends,  the  line  has  at 
its  head  not  alone  a  most  competent  rail- 
road man  but  a  real  empire  builder,  a  man 
to  whom  the  northwest  has  looked  for  in- 
spiration and  initiative  during  the  last 
ten  years  of  its  remarkable  development. 
Mr.  Elliott  went  West  as  a  young  man  and 
learned  empire  building  and  railroading 
at  the  same  time.  After  being  graduated 
from  the  Lawrence  Scientific  School  at 
Harvard  as  an  engineer  he  became  a  clerk 
for  the  Burlington  road,  and  soon  became 
general  freight  and  passenger  agent,  and 
then  general  manager  of  the  Burlington 
line.  In  1901  he  became  vice-president 
of  the  Burlington,  which  gave  him  charge 
of  the  maintenance  and  operation  of  more 
than  8,500  miles  of  line. 

It  was  in  this  connection  that  Mr.  Elliott 
made  a  study  of  the  ways  and  means  of 
commercial  and  industrial  development. 
This  he  continued  when  called  to  assume 
the  presidency  of  the  Northern  Pacific  in 
1903. 

The  railroads  upon  which  New  England 
depends  as  the  arteries  of  its  commercial 
organization  are  not  large  railroads  in 
point  of  mileage  when  compared  with 
others  of  this  country,  but  in  many  respects 
they  are  peculiar,  and  the  operating  prob- 
lems they  present  are  exceedingly  complex 
and  difficult  of  solution.  For  example, 
the  mileage  of  the  New  York,  New  Haven 
&  Hartford,  chief  of  the  New  England 
lines,  is  only  2,092,  yet  the  New  Haven 
runs  more  than  2,000  passenger  trains 
daily,  to  say  nothing  of  its  freight  trains, 
and  carried  in  1913  a  total  of  86,813,807 
passengers  paying  fare.  The  peculiarity 
of  the  New  England  railroad  is  shown 
still  more  strikingly  by  the  fact  that 
while  two  tons  of  freight  are  transported 
to  every  passenger  on  the  other  railroads 
of  the  country,  considering  them  as  one 
system,  the  New  Haven  transports  only 
one-third  of  a  ton  to  one  passenger. 

The  enormous  passenger  traffic  of  the 
New  England  roads,  and  particularly  that 
of  the  New  Haven,  is  due  naturally  to 


1.  Breakwater  at  Naos  Island,  on  the  Pacific  side,  looking  back  toward  the  land,  with  Panama  city  in  the  right  background. 

2.  Toro  Point  Breakwater,  at  the  Atlantic  entrance,  showing  stone  being  dumped  from  a  Lidgerwood  train. 


1.  Rear  Admiral  Harry  Harwood  Rousseau,  builder  of  the  canal  terminals. 

2.  Sinking  concrete  caissons  for  the  foundations  of  the  terminals. 

3.  Pacific  terminals,  with  a  glimpse  of  the  canal  in  background. 


THE   NEW   HAVEN   SYSTEM 


317 


the  density  of  the  population  of  this  region 
of  the  country.  New  England  is  remark- 
able in  another  respect,  so  far  as  her  people 
go,  and  it  has  a  vital  bearing  on  her  rail- 
roads. Of  her  total  population  83.3  per 
cent,  live  in  cities  and  towns.  The  New 
Haven's  main  lines  scarcely  pass  outside 
of  an  urban  community. 

It  has  been  truly  said  of  New  England 
with  respect  to  her  railroads  that  she  is 
but  a  vast  terminal  yard.  Her  railroads 
are  not  trunk  lines.  They  deliver  to  the 
many  manufacturing  cities  of  New  Eng- 
land the  raw  material  delivered  to  the 
New  England  lines  by  their  trunk  lines. 
Likewise  they  collect  from  the  mills  and 
factories  the  finished  products  and  deliver 
them  in  turn  to  the  trunk  lines.  The 
freight  traffic  into  New  England  is  much 
larger  in  both  tons  and  dollars  than  that 
going  out.  The  freight  carried  by  the 
New  England  lines  consists  chiefly  of  raw 
materials,  imported  food  stuffs,  and  manu- 
factured articles.  Because  of  her  indus- 
trial activity  and  her  lack  of  raw  material 
it  devolves  upon  the  railroads  to  haul  wood, 
iron,  copper,  and  other  materials  on  which 
the  factories  depend. 

The  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford 
taps  the  greatest  manufacturing  districts 
in  the  United  States.  Of  the  fifty  largest 
manufacturing  cities  the  New  Haven 
reaches  all  but  two. 

Boston  is  fortunate  in  being  so  situated 
as  to  make  it  possible  for  her  great  piers 
to  have  direct  physical  connection  with 
her  railroads,  and  she  is  also  favored  as  a 
port  in  being  200  miles  nearer  western 
Europe  than  any  other  large  American 
seaport.  She  is  reaching  out  for  the  canal 
trade,  determined  to  claim  a  share  com- 
mensurate with  her  importance  and  the 
advantages  she  can  offer  in  bringing  ships 
alongside  of  the  railroad  lines. 

The  New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford 
system  includes  several  large  steamship 
lines.  These  lines  run  from  Fall  River, 
Providence,  New  Bedford  and  New  London 
to  New  York  by  way  of  the  Sound.  A 
great  deal  of  New  England's  freight  is 


moved  over  these  lines  to  and  from  New 
York. 

The  policy  of  the  New  Haven  and  its 
associated  lines  is  to  develop  a  transporta- 
tion machine  which  will  be  at  once  efficient 
and  economical,  and  which  will  enable  the 
foreign  commerce  New  England  hopes  to 
secure  to  be  handled  on  the  most  favorable 
terms  and  in  the  most  expeditious  manner. 
The  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal,  it  is 
believed,  will  bring  a  large  increase  to 
ocean  traffic  to  American  seaports,  of 
which  the  New  Haven  will  be  one  of  the 
beneficiaries. 

Another  railroad,  which,  touching  water 
outlets  at  Washington,  Baltimore,  Wil- 
mington, Philadelphia,  and  New  York, 
and  reaching  far  into  a  rich  industrial  and 
agricultural  territory,  is  certain  to  have  a 
great  part  in  both  touring  and  commercial 
traffic  through  the  canal,  is  the  historic 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  line.  This  line  is  the 
pioneer  in  American  railroading  and  has 
been  first  along  several  lines  of  transpor- 
tation development.  It  was  the  first  rail- 
road in  America,  the  first  to  obtain  a  char- 
ter, and  the  only  existing  railroad  bearing 
without  a  change  its  original  charter  name. 
The  Baltimore  and  Ohio  was  the  first  rail- 
road to  utilize  locomotive  power,  the  first 
to  penetrate  the  Allegheny  Mountains,  to 
issue  a  time  table  and  to  employ  electricity 
as  a  motive  power.  For  sea  and  other 
traffic,  the  line  has  at  Baltimore  miles  of 
storage  tracks  and  three  large  grain  eleva- 
tors. It  has  one  of  the  largest  coal  piers 
in  the  world  at  Curtis  Bay,  and  extensive 
ocean  terminals  and  piers  at  Locust  Point. 

From  the  historic  point  of  view  the 
road's  route  is  teeming  with  interest.  It 
passes  through  the  cities  in  which  the 
capital  of  the  United  States  was  located 
at  various  times,  when,  compelled  to 
keep  up  a  peripatetic  existence,  it  moved 
from  Philadelphia  to  Baltimore,  then  back 
to  Philadelphia,  then  to  Havre-de-Grace,  to 
Annapolis,  to  New  York,  and  finally  to 
Washington.  In  the  early  history  of  the 
country,  the  route  now  traversed  by  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  over  the  mountains 


318 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


was  known  as  the  great  "Nemacolin  Path," 
a  trail  over  which  thousands  of  Indians 
traveled.  George  Washington  as  a  sur- 
veyor laid  out  a  route  for  a  stage  road  to  the 
Ohio  valley  over  this  same  trail.  Still 
later,  when  the  French  under  Pierre 
Duquesne  were  usurping  British  territory 
in  the  interior,  Washington  was  sent  over 
this  route  to  warn  them  to  leave.  The 
ill-fated  General  Braddock,  with  Wash- 
ington under  him  as  colonel,  traveled  this 
route  on  the  expedition  in  which  the  British 
general  met  his  death.  Later  the  old  stage 
road  developed  into  the  National  Pike, 
along  which  hordes  of  colonists  passed 
westward. 

The  first  stone  of  this  first  railroad  of 
the  land  was  laid  July  4,  1828,  at  Balti- 
more, the  ceremonies  being  conducted  by 
the  Masonic  fraternity.  The  venerable 
Charles  Carroll,  last  surviving  signer  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence,  cast  the 
first  spadeful  of  earth,  saying:  "I  consider 
this  among  the  most  important  acts  of  my 
life,  second  only  to  that  of  signing  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  if,  indeed, 
second  to  that."  Thus  began  America's 
remarkable  railroad  development.  The 
line  originally  extended  from  Baltimore 
to  Allicott  Mills,  a  distance  of  fifteen 
miles,  and  from  thence  to  Frederick,  sixty- 
one  miles.  When  the  track  was  completed 
numerous  experiments  were  used  for  the 
propelling  of  cars.  Relays  of  horses  were 
first  used,  followed  by  sail  cars.  When  the 
track  was  completed  and  the  movement 
of  trains  actually  begun,  the  arrival  of  a 
train  was  heralded  by  the  ringing  of  a  bell 
at  the  station.  In  August,  1830,  steam 
was  introduced,  and  Peter  Cooper,  with 
his  crude  engine,  hauled  the  first  train. 
Cooper's  was  the  first  locomotive  built  in 
America. 

Through  the  Civil  War,  a  large  part  of  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio  line  was  debatable 
ground,  and  the  route  is  replete  with  his- 
toric incidents  of  the  great  struggle. 
Harper's  Ferry,  Philippi,  Winchester, 
Antietam,  South  Mountain,  Maryland 
Heights,  Monocacy,  Balls  Bluff,  Martins- 


burg,  the  great  field  of  Gettysburg,  and 
many  other  historic  points  are  on  or  adja- 
cent to  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  line.  One 
hundred  and  eight  battles  were  fought  on 
or  near  the  road  from  1861  to  1865. 

From  the  scenic  viewpoint,  the  line  is 
equally  interesting.  Its  lines  pass  through 
nearly  all  the  important  cities  from  the 
East  to  the  Mississippi  River,  ramifying 
through  the  great  centers  of  Pennsylvania, 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  West  Virginia,  and 
other  states  to  St.  Louis  and  Chicago. 
From  all  this  great  section  people  and 
traffic  are  moving  out  toward  the  new 
waterway  at  Panama,  and  over  these  lines 
will  be  distributed  much  of  the  world 
commerce  coming  into  the  United  States 
through  the  canal. 

The  Southern  Railway,  called  the  "pre- 
mier carrier  of  the  South,"  offers  a  short, 
direct,  and  comfortable  route  to  the  Canal 
Zone  and  Central  and  South  America  from 
New  York  and  intermediate  and  connect- 
ing points  to  New  Orleans,  and  thence  by 
the  steamers  of  the  United  Fruit  Company. 
This  route  affords  a  combination  of  high 
grade  railroad  service  with  a  delightful 
ocean  trip.  The  system  is  in  the  form 
of  a  griddle,  with  the  handle  running  from 
New  York,  and  with  the  lines  spreading 
from  the  handle  throughout  all  the  rich 
Southern  and  South  Atlantic  portion  of  the 
United  States.  It  reaches  the  famed 
winter  resorts  of  Florida,  and  the  mountain 
summer  and  winter  resorts  of  North  and 
South  Carolina,  all  the  great  cotton  growing 
and  manufacturing  centers  of  the  South, 
the  industrial  territory  in  Alabama  and 
other  Southern  States,  and  with  its  lines 
pointing  south  toward  the  canal,  the  system 
is  rapidly  developing  a  large  share  in  the 
canal's  touring  and  commercial  traffic. 

Another  railway,  with  a  sea  outlet  that 
began  to  grow  in  importance  with  the  com- 
pletion of  the  Panama  Canal,  is  the  Norfolk 
and  Western  railway  system,  with  its  port 
terminal  at  Norfolk,  Va.  In  a  V-shaped 
loop,  this  road  taps  a  rich  section  of 
the  United  States,  with  one  end  of  the 
loop  at  Hagerstown,  Md.,  near  Pennsyl- 


SOUTHERN  AND   PACIFIC   RAILROADS 


319 


vania's  southern  border,  and  the  other 
at  Columbus,  Ohio.  Swinging  down  to- 
ward the  South,  from  the  lower  part  of  the 
loop  its  lines  tap  Kentucky,  Tennessee  and 
North  Carolina,  with  the  main  line  running 
straight  through  the  heart  of  Virginia. 
From  all  its  lines,  direct  connections  are 
made  north,  south,  east,  and  west.  The 
system  has  done  much  for  the  development 
of  Virginia  and  the  other  territory  through 
which  it  passes,  and  the  road  will  have  its 
share  of  the  inbound  and  outbound  Pan- 
ama Canal  traffic. 

With  its  Atlantic  Seaboard  terminals 
located  at  Newport  News,  Va.,  the  finest 
natural  harbor  on  the  Atlantic  Coast, 
the  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Railway  possesses 
unequalled  facilities  for  the  development  of 
international  commerce  via  the  canal.  The 
policy  of  the  company  toward  development 
of  such  commerce  is  to  do  everything 
in  its  power  to  foster  international  traffic 
movements  by  giving  shippers  equal  ad- 
vantage in  the  way  of  rates  and  services 
with  the  other  points  with  which  it  com- 
petes. 

In  addition  to  the  railway  facilities,  coast- 
wise steamship  service  between  Boston, 
Providence,  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
Baltimore,  and  Newport  News  is  available 
for  transshipment  of  freight  at  Newport 
News  for  export. 

Besides  serving  Chicago,  Louisville,  Cin- 
cinnati, and  Richmond  with  its  own  rails, 
thereby  participating  in  the  movement  of 
all  classes  of  traffic  and  manufacturing 
to  and  from  those  cities  and  beyond,  the 
Chesapeake  and  Ohio  system  traverses  the 
States  of  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  Ken- 
tucky, Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois.  Here- 
tofore the  leading  exports  handled  over  the 
company's  system  have  gone  chiefly  to 
European  points,  with  its  import  traffic 
arriving  from  the  same  points.  With 
the  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal,  however, 
and  the  general  stimulus  to  trade  with 
South  and  Central  America,  it  is  expected 
that  great  quantities  of  exports  will  move 
out  of  the  territory  covered  by  this  rail- 
way system  direct  for  South  and  Central 


American  countries,  while  in  return  the 
imports  from  these  countries  will  be  dis- 
tributed in  increasing  quantities  over  its 
line.  For  export  trade,  the  system  con- 
nects directly  with  the  territory  from  which 
the  following  exports  can  be  handled 
cheaply  and  expeditiously;  Bituminous 
coal  and  coke;  fire  clay  and  fire  bricks; 
stone  for  building  and  bridges;  iron  fur- 
naces; glass;  petroleum;  railway  cars;  the 
products  of  several  paper  mills;  cement; 
slate;  canned  goods;  mining  machinery; 
pianos;  organs;  shoes;  tobacco  and 
tanned  goods;  and  forest  products.  Nu- 
merous factories  producing  these  articles 
are  on  the  line  of  the  railway  system. 
No  less  than  nine  iron  furnaces  are  located 
at  various  points  on  the  line,  and  each  of 
the  other  articles  is  represented  by  several 
factories,  some  of  them  the  largest  of  their 
kind  in  the  world. 

On  the  Pacific  side,  where  railway  lines 
are  less  numerous,  the  bulk  of  the  traffic 
moving  to  the  coast  for  passage  through  the 
canal  will  pass  over  the  lines  of  the  Southern 
Pacific,  the  Western  Pacific,  the  Atchison, 
Topeka  &  Santa  Fe,  and  the  Northern 
Pacific  and  Great  Northern  systems,  the 
main  trunk  lines  of  which  reach  the  Pacific 
Coast  ports.  The  Gulf  Coast  has  also 
splendid  railway  facilities,  seventeen  rail- 
roads entering  the  one  city  of  Houston,  on 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Whether  the  canal 
traffic  will  lead  to  the  building  of  new 
trunk  lines  cannot  yet  be  determined, 
but  it  is  believed  that  it  will  stimulate 
the  construction  of  numerous  short  lines, 
particularly  on  the  Gulf  and  Pacific 
coasts. 

TOURIST  ACCOMMODATIONS 

In  traveling,  whether  for  pleasure  or 
business,  hotels  form  an  important  con- 
sideration. A  hotel  system  which  operates 
in  all  the  great  capitals  of  Europe  and  in 
the  principal  cities  in  the  United  States 
and  South  America  forms  an  important 
connecting  link  for  the  traveling  public. 
Such  a  system  is  the  Ritz-Carlton.  The 
principal  hotel  of  the  system  in  the  United 


320 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


States  is  the  Ritz-Carlton,  in  New  York, 
occupying  the  entire  block  on  Madison 
Avenue  between  Forty-sixth  and  Forty- 
seventh  streets. 

The  traveler  leaving  the  Ritz-Carlton  in 
New  York,  and  later  entering  the  Plaza 
at  Buenos  Aires,  Argentina,  finds  that  he 
has  left  nothing  of  hotel  comfort,  attention, 
or  completeness  of  management  behind, 
for  he  finds  in  the  Plaza  everything  he 
had  found  in  the  Ritz-Carlton. 

Similar  claims  can  likewise  be  made  for 
excellence  of  management,  completeness 
of  equipment,  and  quality  of  service  for 
the  other  hotels  in  South  America  under 
Ritz-Carlton  direction,  namely,  the  Rotis- 
serie  Sportsman  Hotel  at  Sao  Paulo, 
Brazil,  and  the  Grand  Hotel  et  Hotel  de 
la  Plage  at  Guaruja  (near  Santos),  Brazil. 

As  might  naturally  be  expected,  there 
have  been  developed  great  hotels  in  this 
country,  which  owe  their  existence  in  part 
to  the  immense  changes  in  travel  and 
commerce  foreshadowed  by  the  Panama 
Canal. 

One  of  these  is  the  Hotel  McAlpin,  of 
New  York  City.  This  most  up-to-date 
of  all  of  New  York's  magnificent  homes  for 
the  traveling  public  was  planned  and  con- 
structed with  the  definite  thought  of  ob- 
taining a  large  share  of  the  increased  hotel 
patronage  that  must  come  from  the  Central 
and  South  American  republics  to  the  me- 
tropolis of  the  United  States  following  the 
completion  of  the  canal. 

In  the  beauty  and  safety  of  its  construc- 
tion, the  advantages  of  its  location,  the 
efficiency  of  its  management,  and  the  per- 
fection of  its  appointments  for  luxury, 
comfort,  and  convenience,  the  Hotel  Mc- 
Alpin represents  the  last  word  in  its  par- 
ticular field. 

It  is  located  at  Broadway  and  Thirty- 
fourth  Street,  at  the  nearest  available  point 
to  the  new  Pennsylvania  station,  and  in 
the  heart  of  the  new  up-town  shopping 
district. 

From  the  engine  rooms  of  the  sub-base- 
ment to  the  topmost  floor  every  practi- 
cable idea  known  to  modern  hotel  manage- 


ment has  been  made  a  part  of  its  equip- 
ment. 

The  exterior  of  the  building  consists  in 
an  application  of  the  Italian  Renaissance 
to  the  modern  type  of  tall  building  con- 
struction. Its  interior  appointments  com- 
prise the  best  that  modern  workmanship 
can  give  and  art  bestow.  These  are  evi- 
denced in  its  imposing  lobbies,  its  marble 
columns,  its  exquisite  mural  paintings,  and 
its  costly  tapestry  decorations.  Among  its 
accessories  are  gentlemen's  and  ladies' 
cafes,  lounging  rooms,  writing  rooms, 
swimming  pools,  laundry  department,  and, 
in  fact,  every  other  possible  feature  con- 
ducive to  the  complete  entertainment, 
pleasure,  comfort,  and  safety  of  its  guests. 

The  entire  structure,  containing  1,500 
rooms  and  erected  at  a  cost  of  $13,000,000, 
is  looked  after  by  2,000  employees.  These 
are  representative  of  almost  every  na- 
tionality under  the  sun,  so  that  the  sophis- 
ticated globe  trotter,  as  well  as  the  fas- 
tidious traveler  from  a  foreign  clime,  may 
have  his  wishes,  fads,  and  fancies  gratified 
in  whatever  style  he  may  choose. 

Throughout  the  whole  range  of  its 
accommodations,  from  the  main  floor  to 
the  least  expensive  guest  room  in  the  house, 
which  may  be  had  for  $1.50  a  day,  the 
principle  of  maximum  efficiency  with  mini- 
mum inconvenience  has  been  applied.  As 
already  intimated,  the  hotel  management 
has  had  especially  in  mind  the  tourist 
patronage  from  Central  and  South  Amer- 
ican points — a  purpose  that  has  already 
been  largely  achieved  through  its  having 
become  a  chosen  gathering  point  for  trav- 
elers from  those  countries. 

The  Prince  George  Hotel  is  one  of  New 
York's  great  hostleries  that  has  always 
been  to  the  front  in  anticipating  and  pro- 
viding for  the  comforts  and  convenience 
of  travelers  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  and 
in  anticipation  that  the  canal  would  en- 
courage an  increase  in  passenger  traffic 
between  the  whole  of  Central  and  South 
America  and  the  chief  port  of  the  United 
States,  this  hotel  early  took  steps  to  meet 
the  demands  of  that  portion  of  the  travel- 


321 


ing  public  that  for  purposes  of  business  or 
pleasure  will  visit  us  from  the  countries 
to  the  southward. 

The  central  location  of  the  Prince  George 
Hotel  admirably  adapts  it  to  the  needs  and 
convenience  of  the  transient  sojourner.  It 
stands  at  Twenty-eighth  Street  and  Fifth 
Avenue,  half  a  block  from  the  Subway,  and 
a  block  and  a  half  from  the  Sixth  Avenue 
Elevated,  in  the  very  center  of  the  shopping 
district. 

The  Prince  George  Hotel  contains  800 
rooms,  each  being  equipped  with  every 
modern  convenience.  Its  dining  rooms  are 
of  such  commodious  structure  as  to  seat 
500  guests  at  a  time.  It  maintains  an  un- 
excelled service  in  every  particular,  and 
controls  its  own  farm  from  which  are  sup- 
plied all  the  poultry  and  vegetables  that 
are  served  at  its  tables. 

Among  the  many  stopping  places  in 
New  York,  the  Hotel  Wellington,  at  Fifty- 
fifth  and  Fifty-sixth  streets,  on  Seventh 
Avenue,  offers  attractions  and  comforts 
to  the  traveler  from  Central  and  South 
American  countries.  Besides  being  an 
exceedingly  attractive  and  homelike  house, 
it  is  admirably  located  with  respect  to  the 
various  points  of  interest  and  amusements. 
Central  Park  is  only  a  short  distance  from 
the  hotel,  while  the  principal  shipping 
district  and  nearly  all  of  the  theatres  are 
within  ten  minutes'  walk. 

The  Wellington  is  fireproof  throughout, 
and  its  appointments  are  of  the  first  order 
in  every  particular.  Rooms  and  suites 
are  specially  arranged  and  adapted  to  the 
requirements  of  families  accustomed  to 
every  convenience  and  luxury.  The  res- 
taurant is  conducted  on  the  European  plan. 

The  rates  at  the  Wellington  Hotel  are 
moderate,  meeting  the  inclinations  of 
travelers  who  choose  cultured  and  pleasant 
surroundings  without  extravagance  in  pref- 
erence to  the  more  garish  stopping  places. 

Situated  on  East  Twenty-ninth  Street, 
in  the  Madison  Square  section  of  New 
York  City,  is  the  first  and  only  hotel 
for  the  use  of  women  exclusively,  known  as 
the  Martha  Washington. 


This  famous  and  interesting  hostelry  is  a 
well  appointed  structure,  thoroughly  mod- 
ern, strictly  fireproof,  and  equipped  with 
every  facility  for  the  comfort  of  its  guests. 
It  is  well  known  to  women  travelers  from 
the  Canal  Zone  and  South  America. 

It  contains  450  rooms,  single  and  en 
suite,  and  is  operated  on  the  same  plan 
as  any  other  hotel,  with  the  one  exception 
that  men  visitors  are  not  permitted  above 
the  drawing-room  floor. 

Being  a  woman's  hotel,  women's  wit  has 
been  used  to  provide  the  little  necessities 
and  comforts  so  much  appreciated  by  her. 
It  is  here  that  freedom,  yet  seclusion,  is 
found.  It  is  here  the  stranger  finds  that 
genial  atmosphere  which  is  unusual  and 
therefore  appreciated  by  women  who  visit 
New  York  alone  and  desire  temporary 
hotel  accommodations.  Those  who  have 
been  fortunate  enough  to  have  once  made 
its  acquaintance  invariably  return  from 
time  to  time  to  enjoy  its  charm. 

With  the  expected  reciprocal  travel  from 
the  United  States  to  South  America  fol- 
lowing the  canal's  completion,  all  the  im- 
portant South  American  ports  made  prep- 
arations for  visitors  in  the  form  of  hotel 
accommodations,  and  the  traveler  of  to- 
day will  find  pleasant  quarters  at  reason- 
able rates  in  any  of  the  large  cities  of  a 
South  American  tour. 

The  Pacific  Coast  is  famous  for  its  good 
hotels.  At  San  Francisco  the  Palace, 
St.  Francis,  Fairmont,  and  a  host  of  others 
offer  hospitality  to  the  exposition  and  other 
visitors.  The  Alexandria  and  Van  Nuys 
at  Los  Angeles,  the  beautiful  Hotel  del 
Monte  near  Monterey,  the  Portland  and 
Perkins  at  Portland,  the  Savoy  and  Wash- 
ington at  Seattle,  the  famous  Hotel  del 
Coronado  at  Coronado,  and  other  fine 
stopping  places  in  all  the  Pacific  Coast 
States  afford  comfort  and  convenience  to  the 
traveler.  Even  at  this  modern  day  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  canal,  the  tide  of  travel  through 
the  waterway,  to  and  from  the  United  States 
and  South  America,  will  find  every  wherecom- 
fortable  and  satisfactory  facilities  in  steam- 
ship, railroad,  and  hotel  accommodations. 


CHAPTER  LI  I 


AMERICAN  INDUSTRIES  AND  THE  CANAL 

CANAL  THE  RESULT  OF  A  MULTITUDE  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EFFORTS — AMERICAN  MACHINERY, 
EQUIPMENT,  AND  INDUSTRIAL  GENIUS  MET  EVERY  NEED — HEARTY  COOPERA- 
TION WITH  CANAL  AUTHORITIES — THE  "INDUSTRIAL  ROLL  OF  HONOR" — 
ELECTRICITY  ON  THE  CANAL — EFFICIENT  DRILLING  MACHINERY — BLASTING 
OPERATIONS — MILES  OF  WIRE  AND  MANILA  ROPE — CRUSHING  AND  DREDGING 
EQUIPMENT — STEAM  SHOVELS — ENGINES — ENORMOUS  CONSUMPTION  OF  CE- 
MENT— GREAT  VARIETY  OF  MECHANICAL  AND  SCIENTIFIC  TOOLS  AND  INSTRU- 
MENTS— SPECIAL  DEVICES — TRANSPORTATION — COMMISSARY — HOUSING — GEN- 
ERAL EQUIPMENT. 


STRONGLY  as  the  Panama  Canal 
appeals  to  the  imagination  as  the 
carrying  out  of  an  ideal,  it  is  above 
all  things  a  practical,  mechanical,  and  in- 
dustrial achievement.  The  completed  work 
is  made  up  of  a  multitude  of  industrial 
efforts  applied  to  every  phase  of  the  actual 
work  of  construction,  to  the  machinery 
used  on  the  canal,  and  to  the  health  and 
comfort  of  the  men  engaged  in  the  work. 

From  the  gigantic  dredges,  cranes,  and 
other  appliances  designed  especially  for 
the  construction  of  the  canal  to  the  use  of 
bronze  instead  of  iron  in  delicate  machinery 
to  offset  the  rust  conditions  of  a  tropical 
climate,  the  practical  genius  of  the  Ameri- 
can industrial  world  rose  to  meet  the  new 
and  extraordinary  conditions  under  which 
the  work  progressed  to  a  triumphant 
conclusion. 

It  is  a  matter  of  pride  to  the  United 
States  that  although  the  competitive  sys- 
tem of  bidding  was  in  vogue  on  the  canal, 
American  machinery,  American  sanitary 
appliances  and  American  goods  of  all 
descriptions  were  almost  without  exception 
found  the  best  and  most  economical.  There 
was  no  graft  and  no  waste  in  the  canal 
work.  The  products  of  industry,  both  of 
the  myriad  implements  and  for  the  men 
who  labored  on  the  canal,  were  the  best 
the  world  could  provide. 

It  may  well  be  that  the  construction  of 
the  Panama  Canal  will  remain  for  centuries 
the  most  stupendous  engineering  and 


practical  feat  of  man.  For  this  reason,  it 
was  deemed  wise  to  incorporate  in  this 
history  an  outline  of  the  machinery  and 
industrial  products  and  appliances  which 
were  used  on  the  canal,  not  only  as  a  matter 
of  present  pride  and  satisfaction,  but  be- 
cause this  phase  will  be  of  extreme  his- 
torical value  to  the  student  in  future  years. 
Even  in  the  short  period  of  time  between 
the  cessation  of  work  on  the  canal  by  the 
French  and  the  beginning  of  the  American 
operations,  a  remarkable  development  in 
machinery  and  construction  equipment 
had  occurred. 

The  French  railways,  engines,  dredges, 
hoists,  steam  shovels  and  practically  all 
other  equipment  had  become  far  out  of 
date.  The  little  Belgian  locomotives,  resur- 
rected from  their  rust  and  decay,  testified 
to  the  good  workmanship  of  their  makers  by 
getting  into  action  in  the  beginning  of  the 
American  operations,  and  some  of  the 
remaining  French  machinery  was  used  for 
a  time,  but  only  pending  the  arrival  at  the 
Canal  Zone  of  the  more  modern  equipment 
which  had  come,  into  being  since  the  French 
operations  ceased. 

In  the  period  following  the  failure  of  the 
de  Lesseps  plan  until  the  United  States 
began  the  construction  of  the  canal,  the 
era  of  steel  and  machinery  development 
had  attained  full  growth  in  America.  The 
sky-scraper  building  had  come  into  being, 
with  its  attendant  construction  machinery. 
Plentiful  supplies  of  oil  and  gasoline  as  fuel 


322 


1.  Lock  gates  at  Gatun  in  course  of  construction. 

2.  After  completion.    There  are  92  leaves,  weighing  from  300  to  600  tons  each. 


USE  OF  ELECTRICITY 


323 


had  resulted  in  new  types  of  engines.  The 
great  development  of  American  railroads 
had  brought  forth  heavier  engines,  and  in 
their  path  a  multitude  of  machines  for 
excavating,  bridge  construction,  grading, 
and  expeditious  shifting  or  loading  of 
freight.  The  use  of  concrete  had  increased 
sevenfold,  together  with  the  machinery 
necessary  to  its  use.  The  giant  dredges  of 
the  western  gold  fields,  the  swamp  lands, 
and  the  rivers  and  harbors  of  the  country 
had  been  perfected. 

When  the  American  engineers  came  to 
the  building  of  the  canal,  all  the  fruits  of 
this  development  were  ready  to  aid  them. 
Based  on  practical  experience  at  home, 
there  was  no  problem  at  the  canal  which 
American  inventive  and  constructive  genius 
was  not  ready  to  solve.  If  the  canal 
engineers  wanted  larger  machines,  the 
manufacturer  was  ready  to  make  them. 
If  some  types  of  machinery  or  equipment 
staggered  under  the  continuous  strain  of 
the  canal  drive,  the  manufacturers  knew 
how  to  strengthen  them.  They  were 
always  ready  to  fill  all  requisitions  promptly 
and  efficiently.  Beyond  question,  the 
early  completion  of  the  canal  is  greatly  due 
to  the  hearty  spirit  with  which  American 
manufacturers  cooperated  with  the  desire 
of  the  canal  builders  for  speed  and 
efficiency. 

Just  as  the  French  equipment  passed 
into  an  obsolete  day,  so  with  another  turn 
of  Time's  wheel,  the  great  engines  and 
machinery  which  completed  the  cut  from 
ocean  to  ocean  may  take  their  place  on  the 
scrap  heap;  but  at  present  they  embody 
the  high  mark  of  mechanical  efficiency  in 
the  world,  with  a  record  that  is  well  worth 
the  attention  of  the  present  generation  and 
that  of  posterity. 

Second  only  to  the  roll  of  honor  of  the 
men  who  had  part  in  the  actual  construc- 
tion of  the  canal  is  the  roll  of  American 
industrial  concerns  which  had  so  great  a 
part  in  making  the  labor  of  the  men  more 
healthful,  more  expeditious,  and  less  ardu- 
ous. The  canal's  "Industrial  Roll  of 
Honor"  is  worthy  of  a  high  place  in  the 


pride  which  all  the  world  must  take  in  the 
culmination  of  the  dream  of  centuries, — 
the  linking  of  the  two  oceans  by  those  who 
work  as  well  as  dream. 

The  various  industrial  elements  which 
made  up  the  completed  canal  drop  easily 
into  several  great  divisions.  The  chief  of 
these  are  the  application  of  electricity  to 
the  completed  work  and  during  construc- 
tion ;  the  efficient  drilling  machinery  which 
paved  the  way  for  the  enormous  quantity 
of  explosives;  the  processes  of  blasting; 
the  part  which  wire  roping  played  in  canal 
construction;  the  great  steam  shovels; 
the  crushing,  dredging,  and  excavating 
machinery;  the  sanitary  equipment;  the 
enormous  consumption  of  cement;  the 
mechanism  of  transportation ;  and  the  vast 
amount  of  miscellaneous  equipment  which 
American  industry  provided. 

ELECTRICITY  IN  THE  CONSTRUCTION  AND 
OPERATION  OF  THE  CANAL 

In  describing  the  utilization  of  electric 
energy  in  the  construction  and  operation 
of  the  Panama  Canal,  a  comprehensive 
idea  of  the  character  of  the  apparatus 
provided  may  be  most  logically  obtained 
by  segregating  the  references  under  three 
general  heads: 

The  first  comprises  the  equipment  of  the 
power  stations,  both  steam  and  hydraulic, 
in  which  the  necessary  energy  is  generated, 
and  the  transmission  system  by  means  of 
which  it  is  distributed  to  the  various  work- 
ing points. 

The  second  includes  the  motor  and  con- 
trol equipment  of  dredges,  cableways, 
loading  and  unloading  devices,  electric 
locomotive  haulage,  and  the  operation  of 
auxiliaries,  such  as  rock  crushers,  cement 
mixers,  etc.,  required  during  the  construc- 
tion period. 

The  third  section  deals  with  the  part 
played  by  the  electric  motor  in  the  opera- 
tion of  the  lock  machinery,  the  devices 
designed  to  insure  safety,  coordination  and 
positive  control  of  the  various  sections  dur- 
ing the  cycle  of  operations  involved  in 
passing  a  ship  through  the  locks,  and  the 


324 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


unique  type  of  haulage  locomotives  adopted 
for  handling  the  ships  during  their  transfer 
to  different  levels. 

In  providing  electrical  equipment  for  the 
Canal  Zone,  it  was  necessary  to  consider 
the  special  nature  of  the  operating  condi- 
tions imposed  by  climate,  the  imperative 
demand  for  continuous  service  in  spite  of 
the  apparatus  being  so  far  away  from  the 
manufacturer  of  electrical  supplies,  and  the 
importance  of  having  all  parts  as  nearly 
"fool  proof"  as  possible.  All  this  entailed 
a  great  deal  of  study  and  care  on  the  part 
of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  engi- 
neers in  preparing  the  specifications,  and 
on  the  part  of  the  manufacturer  in  building 
the  apparatus  to  meet  these  conditions. 

The  power  distribution  is  composed  of: 

A  2,2OO-volt  hydro-electric  power  plant 
at  the  Gatun  dam  spillway. 

A  steam-electric  power  plant  at  Mira- 
flores,  erected  originally  to  supply  power 
for  construction  work,  but  which  will  be 
held  for  emergency  operation. 

A  double  44,ooo-volt  transmission  line 
across  the  isthmus,  connecting  Cristobal 
and  Balboa  with  the  two  power  plants. 

Four  44,000/2,200/240  volt  sub-stations, 
stepping  down  at  Cristobal  and  Balboa,  and 
up  or  down  at  Gatun  and  Miraflores,  de- 
pending upon  which  one  of  the  two  plants 
supplies  the  power. 

Thirty-six  2200/240  volt  transmission 
stations  for  power,  traction,  and  light  at 
the  Gatun,  Pedro  Miguel,  and  Miraflores 
locks. 

Three  2200/220/110  volt  transformer 
stations  for  the  index  and  control  boards 
at  the  three  locks. 

Similar  stations  at  Cristobal  and  Balboa 
for  coal  handling  plants,  machine  shops, 
and  dry  docks. 

The  Gatun  hydro-electric  station  is 
located  at  the  dam  of  the  artificial  Gatun 
Lake,  so  that  the  water  from  the  wheels, 
together  with  that  from  the  spillways,  dis- 
charges into  the  original  channel  of  the 
Chagres  River.  The  present  installation 
consists  of  three  2,000  kw.,  2,200  volt,  25 
cycle,  three  phase  alternators  direct  con- 


nected to  250  r.p.m.  vertical  reaction-type 
water-wheels  provided  with  direct  con- 
nected exciters,  as  well  as  two  induction 
motor-driven  exciters  with  a  generator 
voltage  regulator.  The  station  plans  antici- 
pate the  possibility  of  three  additional 
generators,  should  the  Panama  Railroad 
be  electrified  and  its  traffic  be  increased  to 
require  that  amount  of  power.  All  switches 
for  the  control  of  machines  and  2,200  volt 
feeders  are  electrically  operated  (including 
rheostats,  exciters,  and  field  switches)  by  a 
storage  battery,  which  also  provides  emer- 
gency lighting  for  the  station  through 
automatic  transfer  switches  in  case  of 
failure  of  the  alternating  current  lighting 
source. 

Current  is  transmitted  at  the  generator 
voltage  to  the  principal  sub-station,  also 
located  at  Gatun,  through  which  it  passes, 
after  transformation  to  44,000  volts,  to 
the  main  duplicate  transmission  line  run- 
ning entirely  across  the  isthmus,  and  inter- 
connecting the  various  sub-stations. 

These  two  three-phase  transmission  lines 
consist  of  No.  oo  copper  cables  with  ground 
conductors  of  the  same  size  and  material, 
all  supported  by  steel  towers  placed  on 
both  sides  of  the  re-located  Panama  Rail- 
road. The  duplicate  steel  towers  on  each 
side  of  the  railroad  are  tied  together  by 
skeleton  steel  bridges,  some  twenty-four 
feet  above  the  tracks,  from  which  catenary 
trolleys  may  easily  be  suspended  should 
the  railroad  be  electrified. 

The  four  sub-stations  are  almost  identical 
in  size  and  equipment,  although  the  number 
of  2,200  volt  feeders  is  somewhat  different. 
The  Cristobal  and  Balboa  stations  have 
only  outgoing  feeders,  as  they  are  dis- 
tributing stations  for  power  to  coal  han- 
dling plants,  dry  docks,  machine  shops,  etc., 
where  the  current  is  again  transformed 
from  2, 200 volts  to  the  most  suitable  voltage 
for  the  local  conditions.  The  Gatun  and 
Miraflores  stations  both  receive  and  dis- 
tribute 2,200  volt  current.  As  already 
stated,  the  Gatun  sub-station  normally 
feeds  the  entire  transmission  system  from 
the  hydro-electric  plant;  and  from  the 


Electrically  operated  cargo  derricks  installed  by  the  General  Electric  Company,  of  New  York,  at  Balboa  Docks. 


POWER  DISTRIBUTION 


325 


2,200  volt  busses  in  this  sub-station  the 
current  for  operating  the  Gatun  locks  is 
also  distributed.  The  Miraflores  sub- 
station is  similarly  arranged  in  order  that 
it  may,  under  emergency  conditions,  feed 
the  transmission  system  from  the  steam- 
electric  plant,  and  also  supply  the  current 
for  operating  the  Miraflores  and  Pedro 
Miguel  locks. 

During  the  construction  period  electric 
energy  was  supplied  by  two  Curtis  steam 
turbo-generator  plants,  one  at  Miraflores, 
which  was  later  held  as  a  reserve  station, 
and  a  second  at  Gatun;  each  having  an 
output  of  4,500  kw. 

Steam  power  was  generally  used  in  con- 
nection with  the  hydraulic  dredging,  al- 
though in  a  number  of  instances  centrifugal 
suction  pumps  were  driven  by  electric 
motors.  For  the  construction  of  the  large 
dam  at  Gatun  several  such  pumps  were  used 
driven  by  three-phase  induction  motors. 

The  greatest  field  for  electric  power  appli- 
cation in  the  construction  of  the  Panama 
Canal  was  in  connection  with  the  building 
of  the  different  locks.  The  amount  of 
concrete  required  for  this  work  was  over 
five  million  cubic  yards,  and  it  was  in 
the  manufacturing  and  placing  of  this 
vast  amount  that  electricity  played  an 
important  part. 

On  the  Atlantic  division  the  crushed 
rock  was  received  from  the  quarries  and 
crushers  located  at  Porto  Bello,  about 
twenty  miles  east  of  Colon,  from  whence  it 
was  transported  by  means  of  barges  to  the 
storage  point  at  Gatun.  The  sand  was  also 
transported  by  means  of  barges  from  the 
sand  pits  at  Nombre  de  Dios,  about  fifteen 
miles  beyond  Porto  Bello.  The  rock  crush- 
ing machinery  at  Porto  Bello  was  operated 
by  steam  engines. 

The  rock  and  sand  were  unloaded  and 
stored  at  Gatun  by  means  of  three  cable- 
ways,  two  of  which  were  of  the  duplex  type. 
These  cableways  were  operated  by  500 
volt  direct  current  motors;  separate  motors 
being  provided  for  driving  the  cableways 
along  the  tracks  and  for  the  hoisting  and 
conveying  drums.  All  the  cement  was 


shipped  by  boat  from  New  York,  and  the 
transfer  from  the  barges  to  the  cement 
shed  was  effected  by  ten  electrically 
operated  traveling  cranes.  From  the 
cement  shed  and  the  stock  piles  the  raw 
material  was  transported  to  the  concrete 
mixing  plant  by  a  three-phase  automatic 
railway. 

The  concrete  mixing  plant  at  Gatun  con- 
sisted of  eight  electrically  operated  mixers, 
each  having  a  capacity  of  about  2>£  cubic 
yards.  From  this  plant  the  concrete  was 
hauled  to  the  lock  sites  on  a  third-rail, 
550  volt,  direct  current  industrial  railway 
by  means  of  thirteen  6^ -ton  locomotives. 
Four  duplicate  cableways  spanned  the  site 
of  the  locks  of  this  concrete  railway  and 
transported  the  dump-buckets  to  any  re- 
quired point  in  the  lock  structure.  The 
complete  operation  of  the  towers  was  done 
by  direct  current  motors,  and  the  cable 
ways  were  operated  continuously  day  and 
night,  the  lighting  at  night  being  effected 
by  searchlights. 

For  the  Miraflores  and  Pedro  Miguel 
locks  on  the  Pacific  division  the  method  of 
construction  was  different  from  that  at  the 
Gatun  locks.  The  rock  was,  in  this  case, 
obtained  close  to  the  lock  site,  from  the 
Ancon  Hill,  where  a  number  of  electrically 
operated  crushers  were  located,  the  crushed 
rock  being  carried  from  the  crushers  to  the 
mixing  plant  by  means  of  conveyors.  The 
sand  was  transported  in  barges  from  Chame 
Point,  twenty  miles  from  the  west  entrance 
of  the  canal.  At  the  docks  in  Balboa  it 
was  unloaded  by  high  speed  electrically 
operated  cranes,  and  transported  by  rail 
to  the  storage  yards  which  were  located 
close  to  the  mixing  plants. 

Several  of  these  electrically  operated 
concrete  mixing  plants  located  in  the  towers 
of  the  cranes  were  provided ;  the  sand  and 
rock  being  obtained  from  the  storage  piles 
nearby,  while  the  cement  was  transported 
from  the  Atlantic  side  by  rail. 

For  removing  and  placing  the  concrete 
forms  and  for  laying  the  concrete,  four 
berm  cranes  and  four  chamber  cranes  were 
provided,  the  chamber  cranes  operating  on 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA  CANAL 


tracks  in  the  lock  chambers.  The  berm 
cranes  were  used  only  at  Miraflores.  They 
consisted  of  metal  towers,  with  fixed  canti- 
levers on  one  side,  operating  over  storage 
piles  parallel  to  the  lock  site,  and  with 
booms  on  the  other  side.  The  material 
was  transferred  to  the  concrete  mixers 
located  in  the  towers,  and  the  concrete 
handled  by  the  booms  to  the  side  walls,  or 
the  batches  transferred  to  the  chamber 
cranes  and  laid  in  the  central  wall. 

At  Pedro  Miguel  the  berm  cranes  could 
not  be  operated  in  the  same  way,  and  were, 
therefore,  modified,  in  that  fixed  cantilevers 
were  provided  on  either  side  of  the  towers. 

The  mixed  concrete  was  hauled  from  the 
mixers  on  the  towers  to  the  lock  pit  by 
cars,  and  thereafter  placed  in  the  central 
and  side  walls  by  the  chamber  cranes. 
These  cranes  were  all  electrically  operated, 
the  motors  being  of  the  500  volt,  direct 
current  type. 

The  magnitude  of  the  work  involved 
called  for  the  design  and  construction  of 
special  machinery,  and  the  ease  with  which 
motor  drive  met  the  most  extreme  demands 
in  fluctuating  loads,  and  the  operation 
of  conveying  apparatus  carrying  unusual 
weights  at  unprecedented  speeds,  consti- 
tute a  striking  example  of  the  flexibility 
and  overall  efficiency  of  electric  drive, 
which  became  an  important  factor  in  secur- 
ing the  excellent  operating  records  which 
characterized  this  work. 

ELECTRICAL  OPERATION 

Approximately  1 ,500  electric  motors  have 
been  permanently  installed  for  the  com- 
plete operation  of  the  canal.  All  of  the 
motors  provided  for  the  gates,  valves, 
machinery,  dams  and  cranes  are  of  very 
substantial  construction,  being  similar  to 
those  adopted  for  heavy  duty  work  in  steel 
rolling  mills.  They  are  provided  with 
solenoid  brakes  and  are  specially  insulated 
to  withstand  deterioration  due  to  climatic 
conditions.  The  motors  are  operated  on 
240  volt,  three-phase,  25  cycle  circuits. 

The  rising  stem  gate  valves  provided  for 
the  main  culverts  in  the  side  and  center 


walls  of  the  locks,  and  through  which  the 
water  from  the  upper  valves  will  be  ad- 
mitted to  the  lock  chambers,  are  operated 
by  116  40  H.  P.  motors.  The  upper  end 
of  the  valve  stem  is  carried  by  a  cross-head 
actuated  by  two  vertical  revolving  non- 
rising  screws  driven  by  a  reducing  gear 
from  a  horizontal  shaft  direct  coupled  to 
the  driving  motor.  By  means  of  the  sole- 
noid brake  the  revolving  parts  may  be 
brought  rapidly  to  rest  and,  while  the 
machinery  is  normally  operated  through  a 
remote  control  system,  auxiliary  hand 
apparatus  has  been  provided  for  closing 
the  gate  in  the  event  of  failure  of  the 
machinery  when  it  is  in  the  raised  position. 

At  the  various  locks  there  are  a  total  of 
1 20  cylindrical  valves,  each  of  which  is 
operated  by  a  7  H.  P.  motor,  the  function 
of  these  being  to  control  the  flow  of  water 
from  the  center  wall  culvert  into  the  lateral 
culverts  beneath  the  floor  of  the  lock 
chamber. 

For  the  operation  of  the  forty-six  pairs  of 
lock  gates,  ninety-two  25  H.  P.  motors  have 
been  provided,  one  for  each  gate  leaf.  In 
addition  to  these  there  are  forty-six  7  H.  P. 
motors  for  operating  the  miter  forcing 
machines,  which  force  the  gate  leaves  to  a 
perfect  junction  and  lock  them  in  the 
mitered  position.  Eighteen  25  H.  P.  motors 
are  used  for  operating  the  guard  valve 
machines  which  operate  the  valves  that 
guard  the  intakes  of  the  side  wall  culverts 
at  the  upper  end  of  each  flight  of  locks. 

The  hand-rail  motors  are  required  to 
furnish  the  power  for  raising  and  lowering 
the  hand-rails  of  the  footwalk  across  the 
tops  of  the  miter  gates.  These  walks  pro- 
vide a  passageway  for  crossing  the  locks 
when  the  gates  are  closed,  and  the  hand- 
rail guards  the  passage.  When  the  gates 
are  opened  and  in  their  recess  in  the  lock 
walls,  the  hand-rails,  if  it  were  allowed, 
would  extend  above  the  level  of  the  top  of 
the  lock  wall  and  interfere  with  the  move- 
ment of  the  towing  lines.  A  mechanism 
was,  therefore,  devised,  and  interlocked 
with  the  miter  gate  moving  machine,  by 
which  the  hand-rail  is  automatically  low- 


1.  2200  Volt  A.  C.  instrument  and  control  board  for  Gatun  Hydro  Electric  Station. 

2.  Interlocking  Rack  Lock  Control  System  in  Miraflores  Locks. 

(Installed  by  the  General  Electric  Company,  New  York.) 


ELECTRICAL  OPERATION  OF  LOCKS 


327 


ered  when  the  gate  is  opened,  and  raised 
when  the  gate  is  closed.  There  are  80 
motors  required  for  this  duty,  their  rating 
being  7  H.  P. 

The  chain  fenders  are  operated  by  means 
of  pumps,  and  for  driving  these  there  are 
forty-eight  motors  of  70  H.  P.  These 
fender  chains  are  stretched  across  the  lock 
chambers  in  front  of  certain  miter  gates 
for  the  purpose  of  preventing  a  ship  that 
might  become  unmanageable  from  ramming 
the  gates.  The  chains  are  lowered  in  the 
floor  of  the  lock  chamber  whenever  it  is 
desired  to  allow  a  ship  to  pass.  The 
mechanism  for  lifting  and  lowering  the 
chain  consists  of  a  plunger  operated  by 
hydraulic  pressure,  the  water  for  this  being 
furnished  by  the  motor  driven  pumps. 

More  than  200  pump  motors  have  been 
installed.  The  miter  gate  sump  pumps 
require  ninety-two  motors  having  a  rating 
of  7  H.  P.  The  pump  for  the  drainage 
sumps  at  the  lower  end  of  each  lock  utilizes 
nine  motors,  also  rated  at  7  H.  P.  For  the 
operation  of  the  chain  fender  sump  pumps, 
forty-eight  motors  having  a  capacity  of 
7  H.  P.  are  used,  and  for  various  cable  and 
machinery  pits  seven  motors  rated  at  7 
H.  P.  To  permit  the  draining  of  the  center 
wall  culverts  at  intervals,  in  order  to  make 
repairs  of  the  cylindrical  valves,  there  are 
three  semi-portable  pumps,  one  for  each 
lock  site.  These  pumps  are  of  the  sus- 
pension type  and  driven  by  125  H.  P. 
vertical  motors,  the  pump  and  the  motors 
being  mounted  rigidly  together. 

Six  emergency  dams  have  been  con- 
structed, two  for  each  of  the  lock  sites. 
The  purpose  of  these  dams  is  to  check  the 
flow  of  water  through  the  locks,  in  case  of 
damage,  or  in  case  it  should  be  necessary 
to  make  repairs,  or  to  do  any  work  in  the 
locks  which  would  necessitate  the  shutting 
off  of  all  water  from  the  lake  levels.  The 
dams  are  placed  in  pairs  in  the  approaches 
to  the  upper  locks  about  200  feet  above  the 
upper  guard  gates,  and  each  can  close  the 
approach  to  one  of  the  twin  locks.  Each 
dam  will  be  operated  in  four  movements: 
the  turning  and  wedging  of  the  dam  and 


the  lowering  of  the  wicket  girders  and  the 
gates.  The  machinery  for  these  operations 
is  driven  by  electric  motors,  but  hand  cap- 
stans have  been  provided  for  use  in  emer- 
gency. The  turning  machinery  is  installed 
in  the  operator's  house,  and  consists  of 
two  150  H.  P.  motors  for  turning  the 
bridge  and  a  limit  switch  to  prevent  opera- 
tion beyond  an  arc  of  90  degrees.  A  25 
H.  P.  motor  operates  the  wedges  which 
hold  the  bridge  firmly  in  place  when  it  is 
at  rest  across  the  channel,  or  on  the  lock 
wall.  The  machine  for  raising  and  lowering 
of  each  of  the  six  wicket  girders  of  each 
dam  consists  of  a  hoisting  drum  driven  by 
a  25  H.  P.  motor,  equipped  with  a  limit 
switch.  The  gates  on  the  wicket  girders 
are  lowered  in  place  with  the  assistance  of 
gravity,  and,  when  the  dam  is  to  be  closed, 
they  will  be  hoisted  out  of  the  water.  There 
are,  therefore,  six  gate -hoisting  machines 
for  each  dam,  each  machine  driven  by  a  25 
H.  P.  motor. 

Each  of  the  gates  in  the  spillways  is 
operated  by  motor  driven  machines  erected 
in  a  tunnel  extending  the  full  length  of  the 
spillway  dam.  There  are  twenty-two  of 
these  gates,  of  which  fourteen  are  located 
at  Gatun  and  eight  at  Miraflores.  The 
motors  for  operating  these  gates  are  rated 
at  7  H.  P. 

All  the  motors  utilized  at  the  locks  are 
housed  in  concrete  chambers  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  lock  walls  in  order  to  insure 
maximum  protection,  and  interruptions  to 
service  are  guarded  against  by  installing 
duplicate  sets  of  transformers  for  supply- 
ing current  to  them. 

It  might  be  asked :  ' '  Why  was  electricity 
chosen  to  operate  the  Panama  Canal  locks? 
Why  not  water,  steam  or  air  ? "  This  ques- 
tion is  answered  by  saying  that  only  by  the 
use  of  electricity  would  it  have  been  possi- 
ble to  control  a  set  of  locks  from  a  central 
point  at  each  flight  of  locks,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  arrange  the  miniature  indi- 
cating devices  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  at  all 
times  under  the  control  and  observation  of 
the  attendant.  By  the  use  of  electricity 
it  was  possible  to  make  a  combined  control 


328 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


and  indicating  board,  and  in  no  other  way 
could  a  simple,  practicable  method  of 
remote  operation  and  indication  have  been 
devised,  particularly  since  in  some  cases 
the  distance  between  the  controlling  devices 
and  the  operating  machinery  is  greater 
than  2,700  feet. 

The  commission  engineers  specified  that 
the  lock  control  boards  should  be  as  nearly 
as  possible  an  operating  miniature  of  the 
locks  themselves,  and  so  arranged  that 
the  indicating  devices  of  the  control  boards 
would  show  the  positions  of  the  rising 
stem  and  other  valves,  lock  gates,  and  the 
water  level  as  it  changed  in  the  various 
locks  and  in  the  fore  bay.  It  was  also 
specified  that  in  order  to  pass  a  ship 
through  any  lock  it  should  be  necessary 
for  the  control  board  operator  always  to 
manoeuver  the  different  operating  levers  in 
a  definite  order  corresponding  to  the  pre- 
determined sequence  of  operation  of  the 
lock  machinery  necessary  to  pass  the  ship 
quickly  and  safely  through,  and  that  the 
operator  in  control  of  the  eastbound 
channel  of  the  canal  must  not  in  any  way 
be  able  to  interfere  with  the  apparatus 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  operator  con- 
trolling the  westbound  channel.  The  im- 
posed conditions  have  been  fully  cared  for. 
Each  lock  control  board  indicates  to  its 
operator  the  actual  position  of  the  level  of 
the  water  and  of  the  lock  machinery  at 
any  instant.  Also,  by  a  system  of  hori- 
zontal and  vertical  interlocking  bars  be- 
neath the  control  board,  the  control  handles 
are  so  interlocked  that  only  the  proper 
handle  or  handles  can  be  operated  at  any 
time  in  the  course  of  a  ship's  travel  through 
the  locks. 

The  interlocking  system  forces  the  at- 
tendant to  operate  the  chain  fenders,  gates 
and  valves  always  in  the  proper  sequence, 
and  also  prevents  him  from  operating  these 
devices  in  incorrect  sequence;  for  instance, 
opening  the  gate  when  the  chain  fender  is 
not  in  position  or  when  the  valves  are 
open,  etc.  There  is  also  an  interlocking 
combination  that  is  used  in  connection 
with  the  intermediate  gates  which  divide 


the  locks  into  short  sections.  This  arrange- 
ment is  fitted  with  Yale  lock  and  key  so 
that  the  intermediate  gates  can  be  used 
only  when  the  attendant  has  unlocked  the 
combination,  this  also  being  subject  to  the 
general  interlocking  system.  Certain  valves 
are  used  to  cross-fill  between  locks.  These 
also  are  interlocked  so  that  they  can  be 
operated  only  in  proper  order  and  com- 
bination to  equalize  the  water  between  a 
pair  of  locks  and  save  water  which  would 
otherwise  be  wasted.  This  cross-filling 
consists  in  allowing  water  from  one  lock, 
which  is  full,  to  flow  into  a  lock  by  its  side 
in  the  other  channel  until  the  level  of  the 
water  is  the  same  in  both  locks,  thus  using 
a  portion  of  the  water  over  again. 

The  fact  that  the  control  board  is  a 
working  miniature  of  the  lock  which  it 
operates  shows  the  operator  the  actual 
condition  of  gates,  height  of  water,  etc., 
and,  consequently,  having  the  whole  situ- 
ation in  miniature  under  his  eye  he  knows 
what  to  do  next  and  when  to  do  it;  the 
operator  receiving  his  information  as  to 
the  movement  of  the  ship  from  a  towing 
master.  The  engineers  on  the  locomotives 
which  take  the  ships  through  the  locks, 
as  well  as  the  towing  master,  can  see  the 
position  of  the  gates,  but  the  position  of 
the  fender  chains  is  indicated  by  semaphore 
arms  on  the  lock  walls. 

As  ships  are  not  permitted  to  enter  the 
locks  or  go  through  on  their  own  power,  a 
special  type  of  towing  locomotive  has  been 
designed  for  handling  them  during  transit 
from  one  level  to  another.  This  consti- 
tutes a  unique  feature  of  the  electrical 
equipment  of  the  canal.  There  are  forty 
of  these  towing  locomotives,  each  weighing 
86,000  pounds,  and  having  an  available 
tractive  effort  of  47,500  pounds.  Mounted 
in  the  center  of  the  locomotive  body  is  a 
windlass  having  a  rope  pull  of  25,000 
pounds.  Ordinarily,  four  of  these  locomo- 
tives will  be  used  to  haul  ships  into  and 
through  the  locks,  two  of  them  on  each 
side,  running  on  tracks  parallel  to  the  locks, 
and  obtaining  their  tractive  effort  by 
means  of  two  75  H.  P.  totally  enclosed 


MINIATURE  LOCK  CONTROL  BOARDS 


329 


motors  of  the  mill  type  for  each  locomotive, 
one  motor  being  direct  connected  through 
reduction  gearing  to  the  axle.  Current  is 
supplied  by  means  of  contact  plows,  and 
the  locomotive  is  propelled  on  a  rack-rail 
while  towing,  and  while  going  up  or  down 
the  steep  grades  between  levels.  The  tow- 
ing speed  is  approximately  two  miles  per 
hour,  and  while  running  idle  on  the  return 
tracks  the  rack  pinion  is  released  and  the 
locomotive  is  propelled  by  the  regular 
traction  at  a  speed  of  five  miles  per  hour, 
the  change  from  one  system  of  propulsion 
to  the  other  being  effected  through  gearing 
by  manually  operated  clutches.  The  two 
locomotives  astern  of  the  ship  act  simply  as 
a  brake  on  the  ship's  movement,  the  for- 
ward locomotives  doing  the  towing. 

The  windlass  cable  is  operated  by  two 
20  H.  P.  motors,  which  are  totally  enclosed, 
and  the  cable  drum  is  driven  by  a  friction 
device  which  can  be  set  at  any  desired 
value — from  zero  to  the  full  capacity  of 
the  motor. 

For  the  supply  of  coal  to  naval  and  mer- 
chant ships  two  coal  depots  will  be  pro- 
vided, located  respectively  at  Cristobal 
and  Balboa.  In  general,  each  plant  will 
consist  of  two  water  fronts  and  a  storage 
pile,  the  water  fronts  being  designated  as 
unloading  and  reloading  wharfs,  while  the 
storage  pile  will  consist  of  a  basin  for  coal, 
a  part  of  which  is  to  be  stored  subaqueously, 
and  the  remainder  piled  above  it  in  the 
dry.  The  total  capacity  of  the  plant  at 
Cristobal  will  be  300,000  tons,  and  for 
Balboa  210,000  tons. 

The  equipment  of  the  plants  will  be 
similar  in  general  construction,  and  con- 
sist of  unloading  towers,  which  are  self- 
contained  and  self-propelled,  stocking  and 
reclaiming  bridges  and  reloaders.  For  the 
transportation  of  the  coal  within  the  plant 
a  separate  conveying  system  will  be  ar- 
ranged. Each  reloader  will  travel  on  rails 
laid  at  the  elevation  of  the  decks  at  the 
reloading  wharves,  and  will  have  a  normal 
capacity  of  500  tons  per  hour. 

The  operation  of  the  entire  equipment, 
excepting  the  unloading  towers,  will  be 


electrical,  with  suitable  sub-stations  erected 
at  each  plant,  and  steam  power  will  be 
used  only  for  the  operation  of  the  unload- 
ing towers. 

In  addition  to  the  power  applications, 
electricity  is  used  extensively  for  lighting 
purposes  as  well  as  for  such  auxiliary 
service  as  the  operation  of  the  telegraph 
system,  fire  alarm,  and  mining  batteries 
for  the  defense  of  the  canal.  In  order  that 
the  fortifications  may  be  independent  of 
the  main  source  of  electrical  supply,  they 
have  been  provided  with  small  isolated 
plants  equipped  with  gasolene-electric  gen- 
erating sets. 

It  is  evident  that  from  the  foregoing  that 
electricity  has  played  an  important  part 
in  the  construction  work  involved  in  this, 
the  largest  engineering  feat  of  the  ages, 
and  that  it  is  a  vital  factor  in  the  operation 
of  the  completed  work,  and  renders  possi- 
ble in  this  capacity  operating  efficiencies 
not  otherwise  obtainable. 

The  success  with  which  the  electrical 
apparatus  on  the  isthmus  has  met  all 
operating  demands  serves  as  an  indication 
of  the  ability  of  the  designing  engineers 
who  were  responsible  for  the  detail  work, 
and  the  possession  by  the  electrical  manu- 
facturers of  an  equipment  adequate  to 
meet  all  the  unusual  requirements  imposed 
by  the  remote  location  and  adverse  cli- 
matic conditions  of  the  Canal  Zone. 

In  this  important  sphere  of  the  canal 
equipment,  the  General  Electric  Company 
of  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  maintained  a 
dominant  position,  inasmuch  as  its  facto- 
ries produced  more  than  one-half  of  the 
electrical  apparatus  used  during  the  con- 
struction period,  and  practically  the  entire 
equipment  for  the  generation,  distribution 
and  application  of  electric  energy  for  the 
permanent  operation  of  the  canal  proper, 
the  coaling  stations  at  both  terminals, 
machine  shops  and  other  auxiliaries. 

THE  ROCK  DRILL  ON  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 

More  than  200,000,000  cubic  yards  of 
material  have  been  excavated  from  the 
prism  of  the  Panama  Canal.  Of  this  great 


330 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


mass,  about  one-half  is  classified  as  rock. 
All  of  this  rock  was  drilled  and  blasted. 

An  approximation  shows  that  for  each 
cubic  yard  blasted  an  average  of  six  inches 
of  blast  hole  was  bored  in  which  to  place 
the  explosive  required  to  break  the  rock. 
The  depths  of  the  holes  bored,  on  this 
basis,  for  blasting  100,000,000  cubic  yards, 
would  give  50,000,000  lineal  feet  as  the 
combined  depths  of  all  holes  drilled.  This 
aggregate  of  the  boring  would  be  of  a 
length  sufficient  to  form  a  continuous  bore 
more  than  1 ,500  miles  longer  than  would  be 
required  to  penetrate  the  earth's  diameter 
from  the  North  to  the  South  Pole.  The 
quantity  of  material  or  detritus  displaced 
by  the  drill  bits  in  forming  holes  would 
equal  the  volume  of  rock  removed  in  the 
construction  of  a  railroad  tunnel  more 
than  three  miles  long,  and  of  the  cross 
section  of  the  Simplon  tunnel  in  the  Alps. 

A  cumulation  of  the  whole  quantity  of 
detritus  displaced  by  all  the  drills  in  form- 
ing blast  holes  would,  in  extent  of  volume, 
equal  the  Pyramid  of  Menkaura  at  Ghizeh. 

These  general  approximations  afford 
comparative  illustrations  that  will  aid  in 
an  appreciation  of  the  essential  functions 
of  the  rock  drill  in  the  excavation  of  rock, 
the  amount  of  work  performed  by  the  col- 
lective operation  of  drills,  and  the  para- 
mount importance  of  the  work  of  the  rock 
drill  as  the  prerequisite  to  the  displacement 
and  removal  of  the  vast  masses  of  rock 
that  have  been  excavated  from  the  quarries . 
and  from  the  prism  of  the  Panama  Canal. 

Three  general  types  of  rock  drilling 
machines  were  in  service  on  the  canal 
works, — the  diamond  or  core  drill,  the 
well  or  drop  drill,  and  the  percussion  drill. 

The  diamond  or  core  drill  was  used  in 
the  determination  of  the  nature,  qualities, 
and  depths  of  the  strata  on  the  line  of  the 
canal,  and  the  -relative  quantities  of  each 
formation  that  would  be  encountered  in  the 
creation  of  the  canal.  The  salient  char- 
acteristic of  the  diamond  drill  is  a  capa- 
bility of  cutting  out  a  continuous  core  to 
the  depth  of  penetration  of  the  substance 
being  bored.  This  core  is  a  cylindrical 


section  of  all  the  formations  penetrated  and 
provides  samples  of  the  strata  in  their 
natural  form.  This  data  on  the  thickness 
and  qualities  of  the  different  formations 
penetrated,  taken  from  a  great  number  of 
borings,  form  a  basis  for  estimating  the 
relative  quantities  of  each  formation.  This 
cutting,  or  more  properly  abrading,  process, 
by  which  the  core  is  formed,  consists  in  the 
rotation  of  a  hollow  tool  or  tube,  the  end 
of  which  is  in  contact  with  and  pressed 
against  the  material  being  bored.  This 
end  is  either  in  the  form  of  a  hard  steel 
tubular  tool  with  cutting  teeth,  of  an 
annular  piece  of  metal  with  diamonds  or 
bort  inserted  in  the  cutting  face,  or  steel 
shot  or  other  hard  substances  are  supplied 
to  the  underface  of  a  plain  tubular  section 
where  the  revolution  of  the  tool  under 
pressure  causes  a  grinding  or  abrasive 
action  of  the  hard  shot  on  the  rock.  The 
end  of  the  drill  or  crown  in  contact  with 
the  rock  is  a  separate  piece  detachable 
from  the  main  tube  of  the  drill.  The  rota- 
tion of  the  cutting  or  grinding  surface  cuts 
out  an  annular  section,  leaving  a  solid 
cylindrical  central  core  which  is  undis- 
turbed and  enters  the  tube  or  core  barrel 
as  the  drill  penetrates  the  rock.  This 
tube  is  rotated  through  gearing  by  an 
engine,  or,  in  smaller  machines,  by  hand. 
Water  is  fed  through  the  tube  to  remove  or 
wash  out  the  detritus  or  ground  particles. 
The  diamond  drill  will  bore  holes  to  great 
depths, — a  vertical  penetration  of  7,000 
feet  has  been  attained.  The  mechanical 
principle  and  the  process  of  cutting,  of  this 
type  of  drill,  has  been  known  and  used  for 
cutting  stone  and  boring  holes  from  time 
immemorial.  Stone  was  cut  by  bronze 
saws  having  jewels  inserted  on  their  cutting 
edges,  and  drilling  was  performed  by  the 
rotating  of  copper  tubes  supplied  at  their 
cutting  ends  with  corundum,  in  the  build- 
ing of  the  Egyptian  Pyramids.  These  tools 
were  known  to  be  in  common  use  in 
4700  B.  C.  The  rotary  rock  drills  now  in 
use  are  the  reinvention  of  their  ancient 
prototypes,  with  the  application  of  power  in 
their  operation. 


THE  DIAMOND  DRILL 


331 


The  well  or  drop  drills  were  quite  gener- 
ally used  on  sections  of  the  canal  works 
where  the  class  of  work  and  nature  of  the 
formation  were  favorable  to  their  employ- 
ment, and  where  vertical  blast  holes  of 
large  diameter  were  required.  The  well 
drill  is  restricted,  owing  to  its  action  being 
dependent  on  gravity,  to  the  cutting  of 
vertical  holes.  The  merits  of  this  type  of 
drilling  apparatus  are  the  simplicity  of 
its  operation  and  its  adaptability  to  work 
in  formations  overlaid  with  earth.  The 
holes  drilled  by  this  type  of  machine  are 
usually  from  five  inches  to  eight  inches  in 
diameter. 

Blast  holes  of  large  diameter  permit  the 
use  and  concentration  of  heavy  charges 
of  slow  acting  explosive.  A  slow  explosive 
in  heavy  charges,  when  detonated,  pro- 
duces a  large  volume  of  gas,  and  is  found 
most  effective  in  disintegrating  the  softer 
strata,  friable  rock,  or  loose  earth  and 
indurated  clay. 

The  simplicity  of  the  action  of  the  well 
drill  is  of  great  advantage  where,  as  on  the 
isthmus,  expert  operators  were  not  always 
available  for  a  more  complicated  mech- 
anism. 

Generally  stated,  the  process  of  opera- 
tion of  a  well  drill  consists  in  the  raising 
and  dropping  of  a  bar  by  means  of  a  cable 
or  rod.  This  bar  is  formed  as  a  bit  or  cut- 
ting tool  on  the  lower  end.  The  measure 
of  the  work  performed  is  dependent  upon 
the  weight  of  the  bar  and  the  kinetic 
energy  developed  by  the  attraction  of 
gravity  on  impact  with  the  rock.  The 
speed  at  which  the  bar  may  be  raised  is 
restricted  by  its  inertia,  as  affecting  the 
cable  connections,  to  about  sixty  blows 
a  minute. 

The  drop  or  well  drill  is  used  throughout 
the  world  for  deep  borings.  In  different 
countries  various  modifications  in  design 
are  adapted.  To  illustrate:  In  the  United 
States  a  hemp  cable  is  almost  invariably 
used  for  operating  the  bit;  in  Canada  and 
Russia,  jointed  wooden  rods  replace  the 
cable.  In  Europe,  the  use  of  metal  rods 
is  the  general  practice;  wire  cable  is  some- 


times used,  or  a  combination  of  the  vari- 
ous systems.  The  fundamental  system  of 
operating  is  the  same,  though  there  are  many 
mechanical  differences  and  modifications. 

In  drilling,  the  cable,  carrying  the  drill 
bit,  is  suspended  from  a  "walking  beam" 
or  lever  usually  oscillated  by  an  engine. 
For  blast  holes  or  spudding  there  are  dif- 
fering designs  of  feed  and  cable  mechanism. 

A  device  called  the  "temper  screw" 
regulates  the  feed.  The  operator  rotates 
the  cable  at  each  stroke.  This  ensures  a 
straight  hole  and  prevents  the  cutting 
edge  of  the  bit  from  striking  in  the  same 
place  as  in  the  preceding  blow. 

On  the  Panama  Canal  work  the  "oil 
well  system,"  or  rig,  was  used.  The  rig 
is  mounted  on  wheels  adapted  to  run  on 
the  ground;  the  engines, drums,  and  derrick 
supporting  the  working  beam  are  carried 
by  and  are  an  integral  part  of  this  wagon. 
The  operating  cable  carries  its  so-called 
"string  of  tools"  which,  in  the  simplest 
form,  consists  of  the  drill  or  bit,  the  jars, 
and  rope  socket.  The  jars  are  a  pair  of 
sliding  links  which  on  the  up-stroke  as 
they  come  together  produce  a  sharp  shock 
or  hammering  effect  that  tends  to  jar  out 
the  bar  if  binding  in  the  hole.  Drills  of 
this  type,  mounted  on  wheels,  are,  where  the 
conditions  and  formations  are  suitable, 
used  for  blast  holes  of  large  diameter  or 
holes  of  no  great  depth.  Where  holes  of 
great  depth  are  to  be  bored,  a  permanent 
and  stable  frame  or  derrick  is  erected  over 
the  site  of  the  hole.  The  oil  derrick,  as  it 
is  called,  consists  generally  of  four  up- 
rights or  legs  held  in  position  by  ties  and 
braces,  the  whole  resting  on  strong  wooden 
sills.  This  structure  is  usually  about 
seventy  feet  high,  twenty  feet  across  the 
base,  and  four  feet  across  the  top.  The 
whole  derrick  is  set  up  with  keys  and  may 
readily  be  taken  down  and  erected  on  a 
new  site.  Samson  posts  for  supporting 
the  walking  beams  are  dovetailed  and  keyed 
into  the  sills.  For  blast  holes  the  drilling 
usually  varies  anywhere  from  fifteen  to  fifty 
feet  in  depth,  but  in  exceptional  cases,  they 
are  much  deeper. 


332 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


The  origin  of  the  well  drill  is  not  known ; 
in  very  early  times  it  was  in  use  in  China, 
the  operating  power  being  men,  horses  or 
oxen.  In  Europe,  this  mode  of  boring  for 
water  was  first  practiced  in  the  French 
Provinces  of  Artois,  whence  the  name 
Artesian  is  derived ;  wells  dating  from  the 
1 2th  century  are  still  flowing.  Unmis- 
takable evidence  of  much  more  ancient 
bored  springs  appears  in  Lombardy,  in 
Asia  Minor,  Persia,  China,  Egypt,  Algeria, 
and  in  the  Great  Desert  of  Sahara. 

The  economic  trend  towards  increase  of 
performance  through  the  application  of 
power  to  greater  speed  of  operation,  to 
increased  flexibility  and  adaptation  to  vary- 
ing conditions,  to  lightness  and  portability 
and  consequent  ease  in  handling  and  in 
operating,  was  met  by  the  invention  of  the 
modern  percussion  type  of  drill  about  the 
middle  of  the  igth  century. 

The  percussion  drill  is  an  American  in- 
vention, the  first  practical  patents  having 
been  taken  out  in  1849,  by  J.  J.  Couch  of 
Philadelphia.  In  Europe  the  nearest 
approach  to  rock  drill  invention  was  the 
German  work  of  Schumann  in  1854.  Fol- 
lowing these  came  the  inventions  and 
developments  of  Haupt,  De  Volsen,  Wood, 
Simon  Ingersoll,  Sergeant,  Waring  and 
Githens,  with  the  invention  of  the  Rand 
drill  in  1871. 

Power  operated  percussion  drills  may  be 
divided  into  two  general  classes,  distin- 
guished by  their  characteristic  action.  Of 
these  two  classes  the  first  form  is  where  the 
drill  steel  is  attached  to  and  forms  an 
extension  of  the  piston  rod  of  the  drilling 
machine  and  reciprocates  with  it.  This 
form  is  shown  in  the  inventions  of  Inger- 
soll, Sergeant  and  Githens.  The  other 
class  is  the  "hammer"  type  where  the  drill 
bit  is  not  reciprocated  but  performs  the 
boring  through  the  effect  of  the  hammering 
action  of  the  drill  piston  or  hammer  on  the 
shank  or  upper  end  of  the  drill  steel  as 
the  steel  is  slowly  rotated.  The  Leyner 
drill  is  typical  of  this  class. 

The  reciprocal  movement  of  the  piston, 
in  either  general  class,  is  controlled  by  one 


of  three  distinctive  forms  of  valve  action: 
the  steam  or  air  thrown  valve,  as  exempli- 
fied in  the  Ingersoll  type;  the  valve  actu- 
ated through  mechanical  connection,  as 
by  tappets,  levers,  or  poppets  controlled  by 
the  movement  of  the  drill  piston,  as  in  the 
invention  of  Githens;  the  action  of  the 
third  form  of  valve  combines  the  actuating 
principles  of  both  preceding  types.  A 
small  tappet  or  arc  is  controlled  in  its  move- 
ments by  the  piston  of  the  drill.  This 
small  arc  forms  an  auxiliary  valve  which 
controls  the  movement  of  the  main  valve 
by  uncovering  small  ports  and  subjecting 
the  pistons  on  either  end  of  the  main  valve 
alternately  to  air  or  steam  pressure  and 
relief  from  pressure.  This  design  is  illus- 
trated in  the  inventions  of  Sergeant. 

To  make  a  true  straight  hole  and  to 
prevent  the  drill  bit  from  repeatedly 
striking  one  place,  a  rotating  device,  called 
the  "rifle  or  rotation  bar,"  forms  a  working 
part  of  the  percussion  tripod  drill  and  of 
some  forms  of  the  smaller  hammer  drill. 
This  rotating  gear  consists  of  a  bar  having 
rifled  or  spiral  grooves  running  the  direc- 
tion of  its  length,  and  having  a  pitch  or 
spiral  path  of  about  one-third  of  a  com- 
plete revolution  in  the  length  of  the  piston 
stroke.  The  spiral  bar  is  integral  with  a 
ratchet  gear,  or  other  similar  device,  and  is 
supported  in  a  bearing  and  encased  in  the 
upper  head  of  the  steam  cylinder.  The  long 
piston  drill  is  bored  to  permit  free  sliding 
or  reciprocation  over  this  bar;  the  upper 
end  of  the  piston  is  fitted  with  a  fixed  nut 
whose  inner  face  conforms  to  the  spiral 
grooves  of  the  bar.  The  pawl  and  ratchet 
device  permits  rotation  in  but  one  direc- 
tion; the  consequent  action  on  reciproca- 
tion of  the  piston  is  that  on  one  stroke  the 
rifle  bar  being  prevented  by  the  pawl  from 
turning,  the  drill  piston  carrying  the  drill 
bar  turns  through  the  part  of  a  revolution 
corresponding  to  the  spiral  of  the  rifle  bar. 
On  the  reverse  stroke  of  the  piston  no 
rotative  action,  other  than  that  due  to 
inertia,  is  exerted,  as  the  rifle  bar  is  free  to 
turn  in  the  reverse  direction.  In  the  best 
practice  the  rotating  bar  will  release  or 


1.  Types  of  drill  bits. 

2.  Vertical  drill  in  operation. 

3.  and  4.  Longitudinal  section  of  Leyner-Ingersoll-Rancl  drills. 

(Drilling  equipment  on  the  canal  furnished  by  the  Ingersoll-Rand  Company  of  New  York.) 


Labor  saving  at  Panama.  The  upper  picture  shows  the  old  way  of  trackshifting  ;  the  lower  one  shows  how  many  fewer  men 
can  do  the  same  amount  of  work  with  a  trackshifter,  invented  on  the  Isthmus.  The  ties  being  held  by  tie  plates 
furnished  by  the  Spencer-Otis  Company  of  Chicago. 


THE  PERCUSSION  DRILL 


333 


slip,  under  extreme  torque,  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  resistance  of  the  pawl.  This 
condition  of  torque  may  be  brought  about 
by  jamming  or  binding  of  the  bit  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  prevent  rotation.  Without 
this  precautionary  relief  serious  breakage 
and  disablement  of  the  drilling  machine 
would  ensue. 

The  percussion  drill  is  most  markedly 
different  from  other  common  forms  of 
drilling  machines  by  the  great  merit  of 
being  capable  of  drilling  holes  at  an  angle. 
This  characteristic  feature  has  been  a  fac- 
tor leading  to  its  present  universal  employ- 
ment. Percussion  drills  are  mounted  on 
tripods,  on  frames  supported  by  a  carriage, 
or  supported  by  hand,  as  in  the  use  of  the 
small  hammer  type. 

The  tripod  type  of  mounting  is  most 
generally  used.  This  form  permits  of  holes 
being  bored  at  any  desired  angle.  Where 
holes  are  required  of  larger  diameter  .and 
to  greater  depth,  a  vertical  frame  with 
guides  the  length  of  the  drill  feed,  and  car- 
ried on  wheels,  is  used  in  land  operations; 
in  under-water  rock  work,  drills  of  great 
power  are  mounted  on  vertical  steel  guides 
carried  by  a  suitably  designed  vessel.  For 
shallow  holes  of  small  diameter  the  lighter 
unmounted  hammer  drills  are  employed. 

The  small  hammer  drill,  variously  known 
as  plug  drill,  buzzer,  or  Jack  hammer  in 
its  different  forms,  is  playing  an  important 
part  in  mining.  The  standard  tripod- 
mounted  piston  drills  have  no  equal  in  the 
class  of  work  for  which  they  are  properly 
adapted,  viz.:  the  drilling  of  compara- 
tively large  and  deep  holes  at  all  angles; 
but  as  the  diameter  and  depth  of  holes 
best  suited  to  blast  a  given  amount  of  ma- 
terial diminish,  a  point  is  reached  where  the 
use  of  the  hammer  drill  is  more  economical. 
The  drilling  speed  and  consequent  cost  of 
compressed  air  and  labor  are  propor- 
tionate to  the  area  of  the  drilled  hole.  The 
hammer  drill  is  of  simple  construction  and 
has  but  one  or  two  moving  parts.  Requir- 
ing but  a  moment  to  start  new  holes  or 
change  bits,  the  drill  is  actually  "hitting 
the  rock"  probably  80  per  cent,  of  the 


working  time  ;  for  a  standard  heavy 
mounted  drill,  50  per  cent,  is  a  good  aver- 
age. No  special  skill  is  required  to  operate 
the  hammer  drill,  and  one  drill  will  per- 
form the  work  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  expert 
hand  drillers.  The  hammer  drill  can  be 
used  in  close  quarters  where  a  mounted 
piston  drill  could  not  be  placed  or  hand 
hammers  swung.  The  field  of  the  hammer 
drill  is  in  shaft  sinking,  stoping,  ditching, 
replacing  "mud  capping,"  block  holing, 
and  any  situation  where  holes  of  small 
diameter  and  no  great  depth  are  required. 

The  most  common  employment  of  rock 
drilling  apparatus  is  in  the  drilling  of 
blast  holes,  in  mines,  quarries,  tunnels, 
shafts,  open  cuts,  and  rock  excavation 
generally.  To  obtain  the  most  efficacious 
results  in  the  use  of  explosives  in  blasting, 
the  explosive  must  be  placed  in  the  posi- 
tion indicated  and  governed  by  the  nature 
and  aspect  of  the  variations  of  each  for- 
mation and  by  the  profile  required  in  the 
finished  excavation.  To  place  the  explo- 
sive in  the  position  that  may  be  indicated, 
the  blast  holes  may  require  to  be  drilled 
at  any  angle  from  horizontal  to  the  perpen- 
dicular. The  power-actuated  tripod  and 
hammer  drills  are  the  only  forms  of  drilling 
machines  adaptable  to  the  economical 
drilling  of  blast  holes  through  this  range 
of  angularity. 

On  the  land  or  dry  work  in  connection 
with  the  canal,  all  of  the  drilling  machines 
were  actuated  by  compressed  air.  The 
economies  of  generating  power  in  a  central 
plant,  the  absence  of  exhaust  steam  and  the 
smoke  and  heat  from  numerous  portable 
boilers,  which  would  augment  the  already 
high  temperatures  of  a  tropical  climate, 
were  some  of  the  more  evident  benefits 
resulting  from  the  use  of  compressed  air 
instead  of  steam. 

The  vast  extent  of  the  mining  and  blast- 
ing operations  entailed  in  the  creation  of 
the  canal  and  the  large  connective  and 
allied  works  included  the  situations 
and  conditions  to  be  met  with  in  the 
operation  of  drills  in  tunneling,  quarrying, 
shaft  sinking,  open  cut  work,  and  in  sub- 


334 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


marine  rock  removal.  The  rock  drills 
employed  were  of  the  varied  types  and 
designs  best  adapted  to  work  in  the  for- 
mations encountered  and  meet  the  special 
conditions  of  each  class  of  work. 

The  geological  formations  in  the  prism 
of  the  canal,  broadly  stated,  consist  in  the 
oldest  rocks  between  Bas  Obispo  and 
Empire,  of  basic  conglomerates,  overlain 
by  volcanic  agglomerates,  tuffs,  lava  flows, 
plugs,  dikes  and  volcanic  breccias,  all 
much  faulted  and  sheered.  From  Empire 
to  Paraiso  is  a  soo-foot  sag  or  downwarp 
of  dark,  soft,  friable,  thinly  bedded  car- 
bonaceous clays  and  shales,  containing 
lenses  of  sand,  gravel,  marl,  and  basic 
tuff.  The  northern  and  southern  rims  of 
this  sag  are  breccias  with  intrusions  of 
basalt  at  Paraiso.  This  formation,  which 
is  estimated  to  be  250  feet  thick,  grades 
upward  into  sandy  limestone  and  limy 
sandstone  and  limestone  in  beds  three  to 
thirty-six  inches  thick,  separated  from  each 
other  by  thin  beds  of  marly  shale;  these 
bedded  rocks  are  weak  and  of  low  crushing 
strength.  Shell  and  coral  limestones  are 
found  at  intervals  across  the  isthmus,  over- 
lain with  fine  grained  basic  volcanic  clay 
rock  and  containing  locally  lenses  and  beds 
of  gravel,  sandstone,  carbonaceous  and 
lignitic  shale  beds  up  to  four  feet  thick,  and 
lava  flows  twenty  feet  thick.  This  forma- 
tion isweak,  crumbly,  and  easily  weathered. 

The  youngest  rocks  are  intrusions,  dikes, 
and  local  flows  of  basalt  of  a  dark,  fine 
hard  texture,  of  high  crushing  and  tensile 
strength,  and  of  masses  of  volcanic  breccia. 
The  general  formations  of  the  under-water 
rock  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  entrances 
of  the  canal  are  of  coral  or  volcanic  origin. 
The  quarries  at  Porto  Bello  and  at  Ancon 
Hill  are  of  basic  andesite,  basalt  or  trap. 

This  general  statement  of  the  nature  of 
the  geological  formations  encountered  is 
given  to  illustrate  their  great  structural 
variations  and  the  range  in  texture,  in 
composition,  and  in  other  qualities  affect- 
ing the  working  conditions  of  the  rock 
drills  and  governing  the  selection  of  the 
class  of  drilling  machine  most  efficient  in 


each  situation.  The  primary  object  in 
blast  hole  drilling  is  to  enable  the  blasting 
process  to  take  place.  The  method  that 
decreases  the  number  of  holes  to  be  drilled 
over  a  given  area  by  increasing  the  blasting 
effect  at  each  hole  will  lessen  the  cost  of 
drilling  in  proportion  to  the  decrease  in 
feet  drilled  per  cubic  yard  of  rock  blasted. 

The  important  factors,  pertaining  to  the 
nature  of  the  material  being  drilled,  which 
govern  the  economical  results,  are  the 
softness  or  hardness  of  the  rock,  cracks, 
seams,  and  the  dip  or  angle  of  outcrop  or 
strata,  the  homogeneity  or  irregularity  in 
composition  and  formation,  and  the  sludg- 
ing or  mudding  tendency  from  the  action 
of  the  drill  bit. 

The  mechanical  effect  in  cutting  a  hole 
in  a  homogeneous  formation,  where  the 
number  and  force  of  the  blows  delivered 
by  the  rock  drill  is  constant,  as  a  general 
proposition,  is,  in  cutting  speed,  in  inverse 
proportion  to  the  area  of  the  hole.  It 
follows  therefore,  other  conditions  remain- 
ing constant,  that  increase  in  the  rapidity 
and  force  of  the  blows  delivered  in  cutting 
holes  of  decreased  area  would  produce  a 
proportionate  increase  in  depth  of  boring 
in  a  given  time. 

The  intrinsic  purpose  of  a  blast  hole  is 
to  provide  access  to  that  position  in  the 
mass  where  concentration  of  explosive 
will  produce  the  most  effective  results  in 
blasting.  The  economic  rule  as  applied  to 
the  mechanical  forces  employed  is  there- 
fore to  drill  holes  of  as  small  diameter  as 
practicable  when  the  holes  are  to  be  sprung, 
and  large  holes  when  springing  or  enlarg- 
ing the  bottom  of  the  hole  is  not  feasible. 

The  excavation  of  the  Central  division  of 
the  canal,  extending  31.7  miles  from  the 
Gatun  Dam  to  the  lock  site  at  Pedro 
Miguel,  included  the  removal  of  between 
seventy-five  and  eighty  million  cubic  yards 
of  rock.  In  volume  this  approximates 
eighty  per  cent,  of  all  the  rock  mined  from 
the  canal  and  quarries  during  construction. 

All  the  variations  in  form,  texture,  or 
other  qualities  found  in  the  rock  excavated 
over  the  whole  canal  are  found  in  the  Cen- 


NATURE  OF  THE  FORMATION 


335 


tral  division.  The  drilling  operations  of 
this  division  will  be  taken  as  representative 
of  all  the  dry  rock  work.  An  approxima- 
tion, based  on  over  fifty  million  yards, 
would  indicate  that  the  rock  from  this 
division  would  classify  by  volume  as  con- 
sisting of  eighty  per  cent,  of  soft  rock  and 
twenty  per  cent,  of  hard  rock.  Reference 
to  the  general  geological  formations  already 
described  will  make  clear  the  distinctions 
of  hard  and  soft  rock. 

The  average  number  of  drills  employed 
when  the  whole  division  was  in  active 
operating  condition  was,  well  or  drop  drills, 
153;  tripod  percussion  drills,  231. 

Based  on  the  drilling  of  6,412,000  linear 
feet  of  blast  holes  bored  for  blasting 
12,863,000  cubic  yards  of  material,  the 
performance  of  the  well  drill  averaged  six 
and  one-quarter  feet  in  depth  of  hole  per 
hour,  with  an  average  labor  operating  cost 
of  6.68  cents  per  linear  foot.  The  tripod 
drills  averaged,  including  the  drilling  of 
toe  holes  and  working  in  the  hardest  rock, 
five  and  one-eighth  feet  per  drill  hour,  at 
an  operating  labor  cost  of  8.96  cents  per 
linear  foot.  In  drilling  the  hardest  trap 
rock  in  Culebra  Cut,  based  on  cutting 
6,297  linear  feet,  the  average  cutting  speed 
of  tripod  drills  was  2.47  linear  feet  per  drill 
hour. 

An  average  of  100  horizontal  toe  holes 
fifteen  feet  in  depth  were  drilled  each  work- 
ing day.  Six  hundred  vertical  holes  nine- 
teen feet  deep  were  bored  in  the  same  time. 
These  records  of  performance  are  of  a 
period  when  the  organization  and  working 
conditions  had  been  developed  to  a  con- 
dition productive  of  high  economic  and 
operative  efficiency. 

The  variable  nature  of  the  materials 
drilled  was  particularly  adapted,  in  a  great 
portion  of  the  excavation,  to  the  use  of  well 
drills,  owing  to  the  mechanical  design  and 
operation  of  this  type  of  machine  being 
effective  in  boring  holes  through  an  overlay 
of  earth,  and  through  the  seams  containing 
loose  materials,  sand  and  gravel,  so  fre- 
quently encountered.  These  conditions 
and  the  proportionate  depths  of  rock  and 


earth  are  exemplified  in  the  record  of 
operation  of  twelve  well  drills  on  the  Pacific 
division.  During  twelve  months  86,827 
linear  feet  were  drilled;  of  this  footage, 
50,889  feet  were  through  the  overlay  of 
earth,  and  35,938  feet  through  a  friable 
rock, — a  relative  proportion  of  about  ten 
of  earth  to  seven  of  rock.  The  average  per- 
formance of  each  drill  was  about  twenty- 
three  linear  feet  of  hole  per  day.  A  pipe 
casing  was  used  in  the  drilled  hole  to  pre- 
vent the  overlay  of  earth  from  caving  into 
the  hole. 

From  the  inception  of  the  canal  work  in 
1904,  until  the  end  of  1912,  725  rock  drills 
of  the  different  types  had  been  purchased 
for  use  on  the  canal  work  at  a  cost  of 
$288,376.  This  number  of  drills  approxi- 
mately served  to  complete  the  canal,  as 
operations  were  at  the  height  of  activity 
and  the  maximum  quantity  of  plant  in  use 
in  1912.  From  this  period  the  quarrying 
and  other  rock  sections  were  ceasing  opera- 
tions owing  to  completion  of  work;  this 
led  to  the  reduction  and  retirement  of 
drilling  plant. 

The  crushed  stone  used  in  the  concrete 
construction  of  the  locks  and  other  struc- 
tures at  Gatun  was  produced  at  the  Porto 
Bello  quarries  on  the  Atlantic  side  of  the 
isthmus.  The  crushed  stone  used  in  similar 
structures  in  the  Pacific  division,  as  the 
locks  at  Pedro  Miguel  and  Miraflores,  was 
produced  from  the  quarry  at  Ancon  Hill. 

The  cost  of  quarrying,  covering  the  pro- 
duction of  over  1,300,000  cubic  yards, 
averaged  95.57  cents  per  cubic  yard  at  the 
Porto  Bello  quarries,  and  the  unit-cost  of 
drilling  was  4.4  cents. 

In  the  production  of  about  1,700,000 
cubic  yards  from  the  Ancon  quarry,  the 
average  cost  of  quarrying  was  53.85  cents 
per  cubic  yard,  of  which  five  cents  was  the 
unit-cost  of  drilling.  Both  quarries  were  of 
igneous  formation  of  basalt  or  trap. 
Percussion  tripod  drills  of  three  and  five- 
eighth-inch  piston  diameter  were  in  quite 
general  use  at  Porto  Bello;  at  Ancon,  in 
addition  to  the  tripod  drills,  a  number  of 
well  drills  were  in  use.  The  well  drill, 


336 


HISTORY   OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


because  of  its  slower  and  less  powerful 
blow  and  the  larger  area  of  holes  drilled, 
penetrates  these  verv  close  and  hard  rocks 
but  slowly. 

Subaqueous  rock  drilling  was  performed 
in  the  Atlantic  entrance  of  the  canal  and 
in  the  Pacific  entrance.  The  tidal  con- 
ditions of  the  Atlantic  give  a  range  between 
rise  and  fall  of  about  fourteen  inches;  on 
the  Pacific  side  the  extreme  range  is  about 
twenty-  four  feet. 

The  rock  formation  on  the  Atlantic  side 
is  of  soft,  easily  worked  coral  formation. 
On  the  Pacific  side  the  rock  is  of  volcanic  or- 
igin, of  fine  texture  and  of  medium  hardness. 

The  nature  of  the  coral  deposits  to  be 
drilled  and  the  most  favorable  tidal  con- 
ditions permitted  of  very  economical  results 
being  obtained,  on  the  Atlantic  side,  with 
an  improvised  drilling  plant. 

An  old  hull,  used  on  the  French  works, 
was  fitted  with  eight  old  well  drills  and  used 
as  a  drill  barge.  The  individual  boiler 
was  removed  and  steam  for  actuating  the 
drills  was  supplied  from  a  central  boiler. 
These  drills  were  placed  four  on  each  side 
of  the  barge.  The  two  lines  of  drills  were 
twenty-two  feet  apart,  and  the  drills  in 
each  line  fifteen  feet  apart.  The  total  cost 
of  this  improvised  installation  was  $4,000. 
An  average  of  eight  holes  was  drilled, 
loaded  and  fired  each  day. 

In  mining  174,580  cubic  yards,  of  which 
83,800  cubic  yards  was  an  overlay  of  earth, 
the  cost  was  4.5  cents  per  cubic  yard,  or  if 
all  expense  is  charged  to  the  rock,  the  cost 
would  be  8.7  cents  per  cubic  yard.  The 
cost  per  cubic  yard  of  191,872  yards  of 
subaqueous  rock  without  an  overlay  of 
earth  was  7.9  cents. 

The  subaqueous  drilling  plant  in  the  Pa- 
cific entrance  of  the  canal  followed  in  general 
design  and  process  the  standard  American 
system  as  carried  out  on  the  Great  Lakes 
and  the  St.  Lawrence  River.  There  were 
minor  modifications  in  the  spud  mechanism 
to  meet  the  tidal  variation  in  level. 

The  greater  physical  difficulties  to  be 
met  with  in  the  removal  of  the  under-water 
rock  on  the  Pacific  side  required  a  more 


elaborate  and  substantial  plant  than  was 
needed  on  the  Atlantic  side.  These  physi- 
cal features  were  the  great  range  in  tidal 
levels,  the  harder  rock  formations,  and  the 
larger  volume  to  be  removed. 

The  hull  of  the  drill  barge  was  of 
steel,  112  feet  long  and  36  feet  8-inch 
beam.  Two  longitudinal  and  six  transverse 
bulkheads  divided  the  hull  into  twenty- 
one  watertight  compartments.  Two  of 
these  compartments  amidships  were  uti- 
lized for  water  storage  and  other  of  the 
compartments  contained  six  fuel  oil  tanks, 
each  of  forty-barrel  capacity.  Four  timber 
spuds,  twenty-four  inches  square,  were 
located  towards  the  corners  of  the  hull. 
These  spuds  were  each  controlled  and  lifted 
by  an  independent  pair  of  engines  connected 
by  gears  with  steel  racking  on  the  spuds. 
The  function  of  these  engines  had  a  con- 
trolling influence  on  the  performance  of  the 
plant.  The  engines  were  under  steam 
pressure  which  exerted  a  downward  thrust 
on  the  spuds  or  lifting  effect  on  the  hull 
while  the  drills  were  working.  This  thrust 
was  of  a  force  sufficient  to  keep  the  vessel 
above  her  line  of  normal  flotation. 

The  proportion  of  the  weight  of  the 
vessel  on  the  spuds  served  to  keep  the 
vessel  anchored  or  fixed  in  position  over 
the  holes  being  drilled  as  the  water  level 
changed  with  the  stage  of  the  tide.  The 
mechanical  principle  involved  is  the  con- 
dition of  equilibrium  established  when  the 
weight  or  downward  pressure  on  the  spuds 
equals  the  resistance  of  the  steam  pressure. 
The  rise  or  fall  of  the  water  in  which  the 
vessel  floats  disturbs  this  equilibrium,  with 
the  resultant  effect  that  the  engines  auto- 
matically reestablish  this  equilibrium  con- 
currently with  the  increase  or  decrease  of 
load  on  the  engines, — the  engines  are  over- 
hauled against  the  steam  pressure,  or  be- 
cause of  the  steam  pressure  force  the  spuds 
downward. 

Three  drill  frames  or  towers  carrying  per- 
cussion drills  were  in  line  over  the  gunwale 
on  one  side  of  the  vessel.  The  frames  were 
supported  on  tracks  and  were  movable  in 
the  direction  of  the  length  of  the  vessel  by 


DRILLING  UNDER  WATER 


337 


connection  with  an  endless  chain  operated 
by  hydraulic  power.  The  frames  had  a 
travel  of  eighty-five  feet.  The  drill  frames 
or  towers,  about  forty  feet  in  height,  were 
provided  with  guides,  on  the  outboard  side, 
in  which  were  operated  sliding  saddles  or 
crossheads  to  which  the  percussion  drills 
were  bolted.  The  length  of  these  slides, 
which  approximated  the  height  of  the 
towers,  was  the  length  or  range  (less  the 
length  of  the  crosshead)  of  the  feed  or 
travel  of  the  rock  drill.  This  long  range  was 
of  advantage,  in  this  design,  in  providing 
for  feeding  the  drill  according  to  the  depth 
of  the  rock  cutting,  and  the  changing  posi- 
tions of  the  drill  as  affected  by  the  stage  or 
level  of  the  tide.  The  crosshead  to  which 
the  drills  were  bolted  was  of  sufficient 
weight  to  resist  the  lifting  force  exerted  by 
the  drill  when  striking.  The  up  and  down 
movement  or  feed  of  this  crosshead  was 
controlled  by  a  steam-operated  hoisting 
winch  located  on  the  base  of  each  tower 
and  connected  by  a  steel  hoisting  cable 
running  up  over  the  tower  and  down  to 
the  crosshead. 

The  drills,  three  in  number,  were  of 
five  and  one-half-inch  piston  diameter, 
steam  actuated,  and  of  the  Ingersoll-Rand 
type  of  submarine  drill.  The  drills  in  their 
action  and  design  were  similar  to  the 
familiar  form  of  percussion  rock  drill  as 
mounted  on  tripods,  the  main  differences 
being  in  greater  power,  weight,  and  cor- 
responding structural  increase  in  dimen- 
sions and  strength.  Drill  steels  or  bars  to 
sixty-five  feet  in  length  were  used.  Steam 
was  supplied  to  the  drills  and  hoists  from  a 
central  boiler  through  swivel  and  slip 
pointed  pipes.  The  vessel  was  manceuvered 
on  four  Manila  cables  attached  to  kedges. 

The  average  performance  of  the  plant, 
taken  from  24  months  of  continuous  opera- 
tion, was  as  follows: 

During  this  time  the  drills  worked  22,854 
hours  (i.e.,  the  total  of  hours  in  work  on 
the  separate  drills — drill  hours)  and  drilled 
286,005  feet  of  hole  of  an  average  depth  of 
16.5  feet  each.  The  drills  averaged  thir- 
teen feet  of  hole  per  drill  per  hour.  The 


maximum  over  a  period  of  one  month  was 
21.64  feet  per  drill  hour,  and  the  minimum 
over  a  like  period  5.9  feet  per  drill  hour.  The 
unit  average  cost,  over  a  period  of  twenty- 
four  months  of  operating,  drilling  and 
blasting,  was  39.62  cents  per  cubic  yard. 

In  forming  the  Pacific  entrance  two 
methods  of  drilling  the  under-water  rock 
were  employed, — by  the  drill  barge  as 
described  and  by  the  well  drill.  At  places 
where  rock  below  the  surface  required 
to  be  drilled,  there  was  an  overlay  of 
earth  that  came  above  the  water  level. 
Well  drills  were  used  in  these  situations. 
The  rock  was  the  same  as  that  drilled  by 
the  submarine  drills  on  the  drill  barge. 
The  operations  of  the  well  drills  and  of  the 
submarine  drills  in  the  same  formation 
demonstrated  the  relative  speed  of  boring 
of  both  types  of  machines. 

During  nine  months  of  operations  with 
an  average  number  of  11.2  drills  working, 
the  total  linear  feet  drilled  was  52,777; 
of  this  footage,  19,756  feet,  or  about  thirty- 
seven  and  one-half  per  cent.,  were  through 
the  overlay  of  earth. 

Assuming  twenty-six  eight-hour  days  to 
the  month,  the  performance  of  each  drill 
averaged  4712.2  feet  in  nine  months,  which 
would  equal  523.5  feet  per  month  and  2.52 
feet  per  drill  per  hour  as  the  average  work 
through  earth  and  rock.  The  submarine 
percussion  drills  averaged  in  two  years' 
work  thirteen  feet  per  drill  per  hour. 

This  speed  of  penetration  of  the  subma- 
rine drill  is  far  in  excess  of  the  performance 
of  any  other  type  employed  on  the  canal. 

The  Ingersoll-Rand  Company  supplied 
the  majority  of  the  drills  used  on  the  canal 
works.  This  same  firm  supplied  300  tri- 
pod drills  of  three  and  one-quarter-inch 
piston  diameter  to  the  French  Company. 
For  the  commission  the  firm  supplied  184 
drills  of  three  and  five-eighth-inch  piston 
diameter.  Of  this  number  twenty-five 
were  of  the  tappet  valve  type,  the  re- 
mainder of  the  air  thrown  valve  type,  or 
the  auxiliary  valve  form.  Fifty  drills, 
tripod  mounted,  of  four  and  one-half-inch 
piston  diameter,  twenty-five  of  each  being 


338 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


of  the  air  thrown  and  tappet  valve  form, 
were  also  furnished.  These  drills,  be- 
cause of  their  weight,  were  not  as  handy  as 
the  three  and  five-eighth-inch  size,  any  gain 
due  to  their  greater  striking  force  being 
somewhat  offset  by  the  inconvenience  in 
shifting  position  in  starting  new  holes.  Of 
the  smaller  tripod  machines  there  were 
fourteen  of  two  and  one-half-inch  piston 
diameter  and  fifty-eight  of  the  two  and  one- 
quarter-inch  piston  diameter.  In  addition 
there  were  two  very  heavy  tripod  drills  of 
five-inch  piston  diameter,  and  six  un- 
mounted submarine  drills  of  five  and  one- 
half-inch  piston  diameter  used  on  the  drill 
barge  in  the  Pacific  entrance  of  the  canal. 

A  rock  drill,  in  common  with  all  other 
mechanical  means  of  converting  energy 
into  useful  work,  will  perform  an  amount 
of  work  that  is  constant  where  the  factors 
of  force,  time,  speed,  resistance  and  other 
influencing  causes  remain  constant.  In  the 
actual  cutting  of  a  drill  hole  the  force  ex- 
pended is  in  direct  proportion  to  the  area 
of  the  hole,  and  the  time  of  cutting  in  in- 
verse proportion.  An  increase  in  the  num- 
ber of  blows  in  a  given  time  affects  a  cor- 
responding increase  in  penetration.  A  de- 
crease in  the  area  of  the  hole  augments 
this  in  proportion  to  the  lessened  area.  In- 
crease of  force  to  the  blows  will  propor- 
tionately further  increase  the  cutting  speed. 
These  are  the  fundamental  theoretical 
conditions  governing  the  performance  of 
a  percussion  rock  drill. 

Drill  holes  range  from  less  than  one-half 
inch  in  diameter  to  eight  inches  or  more,  as 
in  well  drilling.  The  highest  speed  of 
striking  is  in  the  small  hammer  drills, 
which  strike  upward  of  2,000  blows  per 
minute.  The  striking  speed  successively 
diminishes  from  the  tripod  mounted  ham- 
mer drill,  the  smaller  to  larger  sizes  of 
direct  steam  or  air-actuated  drills,  to  the 
largest  size  of  submarine  drills  striking 
about  250  blows  a  minute,  and  culminating 
in  the  slow  acting  well  drill  striking  less 
than  sixty  blows  a  minute. 

The  striking  force  of  the  different  types 
runs  from  the  light  rapid  blows  of  the  small 


hammer  drills  to  the  powerful  steam-ham- 
mer-like blows  of  the  largest  subaqueous 
drilling  machines. 

To  obtain  reliable  records  of  the  per- 
formance of  any  type  or  class  of  drilling 
machine  it  is  essential  that  more  or  less 
stable  conditions  obtain  in  the  formations 
drilled.  The  extreme  variations  in  for- 
mation and  the  heterogeneous  composition 
of  the  rock  masses,  on  the  isthmus,  brought 
about  by  the  effects  of  volcanoes  and  earth- 
quakes, heat  and  cold,  coral  formations, 
water  and  other  agents  of  denudation  and 
transport  and  the  sequence  of  natural 
phenomena,  permit  only  of  most  general 
deductions  based  on  the  average  collective 
performance  of  numbers  of  drills  working 
in  constantly  changing  and  differing  con- 
ditions. These  general  conclusions  are  evi- 
dent from  what  has  already  been  stated 
and  require  no  elucidation  for  their 
apprehension. 

It  may  be  affirmed  that  as  an  economic 
factor  the  rock  drill  was  indispensable 
to  the  creation  of  the  canal,  and  its  work  the 
physical  requisite  preliminary  to  the  dis- 
ruption and  displacement  of  the  vast 
masses  upheaved  by  the  great  natural  con- 
vulsion of  the  surface  of  the  earth  which 
formed  the  barrier  to  the  reestablishment 
of  an  interoceanic  passageway  connecting 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  as  existent  in 
geologic  time. 

The  first  use  of  compressed  air  to  any 
extent  as  a  means  of  power  transmission 
was  for  the  operation  of  drills  in  mines  and 
tunnels.  This  followed  the  development  of 
the  steam  drill.  The  superior  efficiency  of 
the  steam  drill  as  compared  to  hand  drilling 
having  been  demonstrated,  its  use  in  min- 
ing work  was  advocated,  and  the  use  of 
steam  being  obviously  objectionable,  some 
other  elastic  fluid  had  to  be  utilized,  with 
the  natural  result  that  the  air  compressor 
was  developed  to  meet  the  demand  for  a 
supply  of  this  fluid  in  the  form  of  com- 
pressed air,  which  not  only  has  none  of  the 
disadvantages  of  steam,  but  instead,  posi- 
tive advantages  by  way  of  added  venti- 
lating effect,  allowing  the  machines  to  re- 


1.  Underground  compressor  drilling. 

2.  Surface  drilling. 

3.  Air  compressor  for  drills. 

(Supplied  the  canal  by  the  Chicago  Pneumatic  Tool  Company,  Chicago,  111.) 


USE  OF  COMPRESSED  AIR 


339 


main  cool,  and  increasing  the  durability 
of  packings  and  wearing  parts  on  account 
of  more  perfect  lubrication. 

The  success  of  this  system  of  power 
transmission  as  applied  to  rock  drills  sug- 
gested its  application  in  other  fields,  and 
inventions  multiplied. 

At  first  its  use  was  confined  to  larger 
operations,  and  in  addition  to  rock  drills 
we  had  such  large  and  unwieldy  tools  as 
channelers,  gadders,  etc.  Later  these  tools 
were  made  in  smaller  sizes  adapted  to  the 
use  of  one  man  for  coal  mines  and  the  min- 
ing of  mineral  ores,  and  these  tools  have 
continually  decreased  in  size  until  now 
they  are  made  almost  as  diminutive  as  a 
watchmaker's  hammer.  Steam  engines  of 
most  approved  types,  electric  motors  direct 
connected,  common  water  wheels,  Pelton 
wheels  or  the  more  modern  turbines  furnish 
the  power  for  compressing  the  air.  Air 
compressors  or  pumps  are  constructed  to 
be  driven  from  belting,  with  gears  or  com- 
bined direct  with  a  reciprocating  steam 
engine.  The  initial  power  being  settled 
upon,  it  only  remains  to  lay  the  mains  about 
the  plant,  provided  at  convenient  distances 
with  valves,  to  which,  by  means  of  rubber 
hose,  the  individual  tools  may  be  connected. 
This  gives  a  flexibility  to  the  plant, 
hitherto  unknown,  for  the  mains  once  laid 
and  convenient  openings  provided,  any 
desired  tool  may  be  brought  to  bear  at 
any  part  of  the  shop,  yard,  building,  bridge 
or  roadbed.  The  importance  of  the  drilling 
operations  at  the  Panama  Canal  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  at  least  five  great  firms 
in  the  United  States  furnished  the  various 
forms  of  drilling  equipment. 

The  pneumatic  equipment  furnished  the 
Isthmian  Canal  Commission  by  the  Chi- 
cago Pneumatic  Tool  Company,  consisted 
of  air  compressors,  rock  drills,  air  drills  for 
drilling,  reaming  and  wood  boring,  pneu- 
matic hammers  for  riveting,  chipping, 
calking,  shell  riveters,  rivet  busters,  com- 
pression riveters  and  hoists. 

The  features  of  Chicago  Pneumatic  Air 
Compressors  are  simplicity  of  design  and 
construction,  great  structural  strength, 


liberal  bearing  surfaces,  adequate  valve 
and  port  areas,  and  effective  automatic 
regulation.  Their  speed  ratings  are  mod- 
erate, avoiding  the  present-day  tendency 
to  overrate  capacity.  The  steam  cylin- 
ders are  duplex  and  the  air  cylinders  two- 
stage  or  compounded,  and  at  150  revo- 
lutions a  piston  displacement  of  1,055 
cubic  feet  of  free  air  per  minute  is  ob- 
tained. Chicago  Giant  Rock  Drills  and 
Plug  Drills  were  used  in  great  numbers  in 
the  drilling  of  blast  holes.  These  drills 
are  built  to  stand  the  roughest  usage  and 
while  making  records  for  economical  up- 
keep, do  their  work  with  great  speed.  Hun- 
dreds of  Little  Giant  Air  Drills  were  fur- 
nished the  commission  by  this  company  for 
use  in  the  machine  and  repair  shops  to 
assist  in  the  work  of  maintaining  the 
machinery  of  various  kinds  installed  along 
the  route  of  the  canal.  The  Little  Giant 
Air  Drill  is  a  portable  engine  using  com- 
pressed air  as  operating  fluid.  Four  single 
acting  cylinders  arranged  in  pairs  accom- 
modate the  four  pistons  which  are  con- 
nected in  pairs  to  the  opposite  wrists  of  a 
double  crank.  A  pinion  on  the  crank 
engages  with  a  large  gear  wheel  to  which 
the  drill  spindle  is  directly  connected. 
Little  Giant  Air  Drills  have  ball  bearings 
on  the  crank  which  eliminate  much  of  the 
friction  and  thereby  increase  their  power 
to  a  marked  degree. 

There  is  little  work  in  the  way  of  drilling 
in  metal,  reaming,  tapping,  wood  boring  or 
flue  rolling  that  cannot  be  done  advan- 
tageously with  an  air  drill. 

Hundreds  of  pneumatic  hammers  for 
riveting,  chipping  and  calking  were  used 
on  the  work.  All  the  pneumatic  tools  sup- 
plied by  the  Chicago  Pneumatic  Tool  Co. 
were  of  the  highest  efficiency  and  gave 
uniform  satisfaction  wherever  used  in  the 
canal  construction. 

The  largest  bulk  of  rock  excavation  was 
naturally  in  the  Culebra  division,  nine  and 
one-half  miles  long.  The  character  of  rock 
ranged  from  shale  so  soft  that  it  was  exca- 
vated as  it  stood  by  the  steam  shovel,  up 
to  hard,  blocky  trap  rock. 


340 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


While  well  drills  or  churn  drills  were 
much  used  in  Culebra  Cut  for  the  vertical 
blast  holes,  all  of  the  flat  or  horizontal 
holes  at  the  bottom  of  the  benches,  and  a 
good  share  of  the  vertical  holes  in  hard 
rock,  or  where  twenty-foot  benches  were 
employed,  were  drilled  with  ordinary  air  rock 
drills,  mounted  on  tripods.  In  this  character 
of  work,  the  Sullivan  rock  drills  and  ham- 
mer drills  of  the  Sullivan  Machinery  Com- 
pany of  Chicago  played  an  important  part. 

About  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  of 
the  rock  drills  and  thirty-five  or  forty  of 
the  hammer  drills  were  employed.  In  con- 
nection with  the  excavation  of  the  lock 
pits,  it  became  necessary  to  cut  smooth 
rock  trench  walls,  unshaken  by  the  jar  of 
blasting.  To  accomplish  this  work,  24 
Sullivan  channeling  machines  of  the  largest 
size  were  used. 

Much  of  the  heaviest  and  hardest  of  the 
drilling  work  was  at  Bas  Obispo,  where  the 
cut  was  about  one  and  one-half  miles  long. 
The  formation  here  was  solid,  consisting  of 
a  tough,  close-grained  trap-like  rock,  re- 
quiring very  thorough  drilling  and  blasting 
in  order  to  prepare  it  for  the  steam  shovel. 
A  ballast  quarry  was  also  located  here. 

In  the  fall  of  1905,  twenty-five  Sullivan 
rock  drills  and  a  number  of  churn  drills 
were  assigned  to  this  cut,  and  the  Sullivan 
machines  were  kept  steadily  at  work  here 
until  the  excavation  was  completed.  Two 
holes,  twenty  to  twenty-seven  feet  deep, 
were  considered  a  day's  work  for  one  drill. 
The  machines  were  at  first  operated  by 
steam,  but  after  about  a  year,  the  perma- 
nent air  lines  were  installed,  and  for  the 
last  six  years  of  work,  compressed  air  was 
supplied  for  all  drilling  operations.  Similar 
drilling  methods  were  employed  in  the 
lock  excavation,  in  the  terminal  work,  and 
in  the  two  rock  quarries. 

In  this  work  the  tappet  valve  type  was 
selected,  on  account  of  the  varying  hardness 
of  the  rock,  the  presence  of  mud  seams, 
and  the  low  steam  and  air  pressure  which 
were  encountered  on  account  of  the  dis- 
tance from  the  central  power  plants.  The 
ends  of  a  rocker  project  into  the  piston 


chamber  and  are  shaped  so  as  to  afford  an 
ample  bearing  on  the  inclined  surfaces  of 
the  piston,  reducing  wear  and  shock  to  a 
minimum.  The  action  of  the  rocker 
pushes  the  flat  valve  back  and  forth,  in  a 
direction  parallel  to  that  in  which  the  pis- 
ton is  moving,  so  that  wear  is  distributed 
evenly  over  the  whole  surface  of  both  valve 
and  its  seat.  The  rocker  is  of  tool  steel 
accurately  formed  and  tempered  to  proper 
hardness.  The  cylinder  and  valve  seat 
form  a  housing  allowing  the  rocker  free 
motion,  without  side  or  vertical  play.  The 
sloping  surfaces  of  the  piston  are  also 
hardened  by  special  heat  treatment,  to 
reduce  wear.  This  valve  motion  is  very 
economical  of  air  or  steam,  and  secures  a 
rapid  blow  and  powerful  recovery,  which 
are  well  adapted  to  conditions  found  on  the 
canal. 

In  addition  to  the  drills  above  mentioned, 
the  Sullivan  Machinery  Company  fur- 
nished large  quantities  of  drill  steel  for  use 
on  the  canal.  One  order  of  drill  still  was 
shipped  from  the  Chicago  works  of  the 
company,  comprising  seven  freight  car 
loads  in  bulk. 

From  thirty-five  to  forty  Sullivan  hand 
feed  hammer  drills,  employing  hollow  steel, 
were  used  in  the  Ancon  and  Porto  Bello 
quarries  for  breaking  up  fragments  of  rock 
too  large  to  be  handled  by  the  shovels,  and 
for  other  light  excavation.  These  machines 
weigh  twenty-five  and  forty  pounds  re- 
spectively, and  are  operated  by  a  single 
man.  They  proved  of  great  value  in  this 
block  hole  work,  being  much  more  econom- 
ical than  the  mud  capping  method  previ- 
ously employed.  An  important  feature  of 
their  design  consists  in  the  interior  con- 
nection of  the  exhaust  ports  under  the  con- 
trol of  an  outside  valve,  so  that  varying 
amounts  of  the  exhaust  air  from  the  cylin- 
der can  be  led  into  the  top  of  the  hollow 
drill  steel  for  cleaning  the  hole. 

Another  interesting  feature  is  the  cushion 
valve,  which  is  arranged  to  entrap  a  small 
quantity  of  air  in  the  rear  end  of  the 
cylinder,  providing  a  cushion  for  the  pis- 
ton on  its  backward  stroke,  thus  greatly 


I  and  3.    Sullivan  drills  at  work  on  the  canal. 
2.  Trench  cut  by  a  Sullivan  channeler. 

(Drills  and  channelers  supplied  by  the  Sullivan  Machinery  Company,  Chicago,  111.) 
4.  Type  of  drill  used  on  the  canal  furnished  by  the  Wood  Drill  Works,  Paterson,  New  Jersey. 


CHANNELING   MACHINES 


reducing  the  vibration  of  the  tool  and  the 
fatigue  of  the  operator. 

CHANNELING  THE  LOCK  FLOORS 

In  1907  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission 
purchased  twenty-four  Sullivan  channeling 
machines,  some  furnished  with  boilers  for 
operation  by  steam,  but  the  majority  sup- 
plied with  air  reheaters  to  render  their 
operation  by  compressed  air  as  economical 
as  possible.  The  use  of  stone  channeling 
machines  in  engineering  work  dates  from 
1892,  in  the  construction  of  the  Chicago 
main  drainage  canal.  In  this  enterprise, 
fifteen  miles  of  canal  had  to  be  cut  through 
solid  rock.  The  advantages  of  a  channeled 
wall  over  a  blasted  wall  are  numerous;  the 
straight,  smooth,  solid  cut  made  by  the 
channeler,  avoids  any  necessity  of  either 
trimming  or  filling  to  the  engineer's  line, 
the  walls  left  by  the  channeler  remain  as 
solid  as  the  rock  itself,  not  weakened  or 
shattered  by  explosives,  and  retaining  walls 
to  prevent  rock  falls  or  slips  are  obviated. 

Another  important  advantage  secured  by 
channeling  consists  in  the  fact  that  the 
rock  ground  or  structures  adjoining  the 
channeled  walls  are  not  disturbed  or  shat- 
tered, and  it  was  in  this  connection  that  the 
channelers  found  their  principal  use  on  the 
Panama  Canal.  It  had  been  planned  at 
first  to  channel  the  Culebra  division  from 
end  to  end.  This  idea  was  abandoned, 
however,  and  the  use  of  the  machines  was 
restricted  to  the  sites  for  the  locks. 

The  total  amount  of  channeling  per- 
formed in  the  locks  was  about  three-quar- 
ters of  a  million  feet,  and  included,  in 
addition  to  the  lock  floor  work,  the  cutting 
of  trenches  beneath  the  curtain  walls  and 
across  the  site  of  the  dam  at  Gatun.  In 
these  trenches,  cut-off  walls  were  built  to 
divert  the  underground  water,  the  presence 
of  which  was  endangering  the  foundations 
of  the  locks  and  dam.  In  this  case,  also,  it 
was  of  importance  that  adjoining  ground 
should  not  be  disturbed  by  blasting  that 
might  affect  the  stability  of  the  foundations 
for  the  great  concrete  walls. 

The  design  of  the  Sullivan  channelers  is 


exceedingly  simple.  There  are  only  two 
engines,  the  chopping  engine  and  the  feed 
engine,  which  drives  the  machine  back 
and  forward  along  the  track  through  worm 
shafts  and  gearing.  The  feed  engine  also 
controls  the  power  feed  and  hoist  of  the 
chopping  engine.  The  valve  motion  is 
such  that  the  operation  of  the  machine, 
as  to  kind  of  blow  and  speed,  may  be  modi- 
fied to  secure  the  best  results  for  any  stone 
and  any  operating  conditions.  Special 
valves  in  the  exhaust  ports  permit  cushion- 
ing of  the  blow,  thus  preventing  damage 
to  the  front  head,  in  case  a  mud  seam  or 
other  irregularity  in  the  rock  is  encoun- 
tered. This  was  particularly  valuable  in 
the  broken  formation  at  Panama. 

The  twenty-four  Sullivan  channelers 
were  the  only  channeling  machines  used 
on  the  canal. 

The  company  also  supplied  much  of  the 
equipment  for  the  diamond  drilling  in 
testing  the  location  of  the  canal  and  the 
locks  and  dams. 

The  record  for  the  number  of  a  particu- 
lar make  of  drill  on  the  Panama  Canal 
work  belongs  to  the  Star  Drilling  Machine 
Company  of  Akron,  Ohio,  which  maintains 
branch  plants  at  Portland,  Oregon,  and 
Chanute,  Kansas. 

This  company  furnished  214  drilling 
machines  for  blast  hole  and  other  work  on 
the  canal,  and  these  figured  importantly 
in  the  rapid  and  economical  removal  of  the 
vast  tonnages  of  rock  and  earth  with 
which  the  canal  engineers  were  confronted. 

The  Star  Company  makes  a  specialty  of 
portable  drills,  and  these  in  various  forms 
were  so  widely  used  in  the  canal's  con- 
struction that  the  company  made  the 
poetical  boast  that  "Of  a  truth  have  the 
Stars  lit  the  way  'cross  Panama." 

This  form  of  drill  is  variously  used  for 
blast  holes,  well  drilling,  copper  mine  pros- 
pecting and  many  other  forms  of  drilling. 
Gasoline,  steam  or  electric  power  is  used 
in  their  operation,  the  steam  operated  ma- 
chines being  generally  used  where  coal  or 
wood  is  easily  accessible,  and  gasoline 
where  the  ordinary  forms  of  fuel  is  scanty. 


342 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA  CANAL 


Where  electric  power  is  available,  the 
machines  are  equipped  for  either  direct  or 
alternating  current. 

One  of  the  advantages  which  led  to  the 
great  number  of  these  drills  at  the  canal 
was  the  ease  with  which  they  could  be  set 
up  or  moved.  The  entire  machine,  includ- 
ing the  engine  and  boiler,  is  compactly 
mounted  on  wheels,  the  traction  style 
machines  propelling  themselves  from  place 
to  place  with  their  own  power,  while  the 
others  are  easily  hauled.  The  traction 
machines  are  powerfully  back-geared  for 
hill  climbing  and  with  high  speed  for  fast 
traveling  on  free  roads. 

Other  types  of  rock  drills  used  on  the 
canal  in  large  numbers  were  the  improved 
drills  both  of  steam  and  air  power,  manu- 
factured by  the  Wood  Drill  Works  of 
Paterson,  N.  J.  This  company  also  fur- 
nished its  heavy  type  bronze  hose  couplings 
in  great  numbers. 

The  Wood  drills  were  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  Miraflores  lock  chamber, 
in  the  Culebra  Cut,  and  in  getting  out  trap 
rock  at  Porto  Bello  for  the  Gatun  locks. 
For  these  operations,  this  type  of  drill  was 
selected  after  six  months  of  competitive 
tests,  the  selection  being  based  on  quantity 
of  work  performed,  long  life  of  the  ma- 
chines, and  ease  of  operation. 

The  manufacturers  of  these  drills  were 
the  first  to  use  vanadium  tungsten  iron 
in  the  construction  of  their  drills,  and  their 
plant  is  devoted  exclusively  to  the  manu- 
facture of  drills. 

The  climatic  conditions  at  the  Canal 
Zone  had  no  effect  on  these  drills,  it  being 
claimed  for  them  that  they  work  equally 
well  in  either  tropical  or  frigid  climates. 
Simplicity  and  solidity  of  construction  was 
one  of  their  features,  the  motto  of  their 
manufacturers  being  that  in  the  canal  work 
they  could  be  "cleaned  up  with  a  sledge 
hammer,"  "wiped  off  with  a  scoop  shovel" 
and  be  ready  to  continue  operations. 

The  drills,  great  and  small,  used  to  such 
large  extent  on  the  canal,  and  which  were 
so  large  a  factor  in  the  rapid  excavation, 
demonstrate  that  the  United  States  leads 


the  world  in  this  class  of  machinery.  These 
busy  machines,  which  paved  the  way  not 
only  for  the  water  channel,  but  for  the 
lock  emplacements  and  other  great  features 
of  the  canal's  construction,  will  remain 
among  the  first  of  the  industrial  imple- 
ments and  products  which  aided  the  direct- 
ing minds  of  the  work  to  bring  it  to  rapid 
and  successful  completion. 

EXPLOSIVES  ON  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 

The  casual  visitor  to  the  canal  during  its 
construction  had  a  good  opportunity  to 
see  in  operation  the  powerful  allies  which 
man  now  has  at  his  command,  which  make 
possible  the  accomplishment  of  such  mag- 
nificent engineering  projects.  He  saw  the 
mighty  steam  shovels  eating  into  the  cut 
like  so  many  living  giants,  the  myriads  of 
locomotives  hauling  away  to  the  dumps 
what  was  once  a  part  of  the  backbone  of 
two  continents,  and  the  great  cranes  so 
gently  and  so  easily  lifting  into  place  the 
massive  sections  of  locks. 

And  then  he  met  the  blaster  out  on  other 
parts  of  the  work  handling  the  mightiest 
of  them  all,  the  insignificant  looking  little 
rolls  of  yellow  paper  about  one  and  one- 
quarter  inches  in  diameter  and  eight  inches 
long,  that  made  possible  the  work  of  all  the 
other  giants.  For  the  most  powerful  steam 
shovel  cannot  dig,  nor  the  greatest  loco- 
motive haul,  solid  rock. 

The  thoughtful  person  is  therefore  led  to 
wonder  what  were  the  successive  steps 
which  have  placed  at  man's  command  this 
greatest  of  all  forces,  lying  so  docile  in  the 
hand  of  the  powderman ;  now  held  together 
by  a  couple  of  turns  of  waxed  paper,  yet 
which  upon  his  demand  exerts  force  of 
more  than  500,000  pounds  per  square  inch, 
resistless  in  its  force,  supreme  in  its  con- 
quering power. 

The  history  of  the  successive  steps  which 
have  given  us  this  potent  agent,  dynamite, 
without  which  so  many  of  the  greatest 
engineering  projects  of  to-day  would  be 
impossible,  is  however,  unnecessary  here. 
It  will  be  sufficient  to  sketch  briefly  what 
dynamite  really  is,  and  to  give  a  short 


1.  Raising  cases  of  Du  Pont  explosives  from  a  deep  lighter  at  the  canal. 

2.  Du  Pont  dynamite  in  action  on  the  Isthmus. 

3.  Loading  a  cargo  of  dynamite  for  the  canal. 

(Du  Pont  Powder  Company,  Wilmington,  Del.) 


THE  NATURE  OF  DYNAMITE 


343 


account  of  how  that  which  was  used  in 
digging  the  Panama  Canal  was  supplied. 

The  explosive  basis  of  all  dynamite  is 
nitroglycerin.  Everybody  is  familiar  with 
ordinary  glycerin  as  obtained  from  the  drug 
store.  If  glycerin  is  treated  under  proper 
conditions  with  strong  nitric  acid,  assisted 
by  the  presence  of  sulphuric  acid,  it  is 
converted  into  nitroglycerin.  The  latter 
differs  from  glycerin  not  only  in  having 
explosive  properties,  but  unlike  glycerin  it 
is  almost  insoluble  in  water,  so  that  all 
traces  of  acid  can  readily  be  washed  out, 
leaving  the  pure  nitroglycerin.  The  chem- 
ical action  which  occurs  is  similar  to  that 
when  nitric  acid  acts  upon  potash,  con- 
verting it  into  potassium  nitrate  or  salt- 
petre. The  explosive  properties  result 
because  the  glycerin,  a  combustible,  has 
had  introduced  into  its  chemical  structure 
groups  of  atoms  containing  sufficient  avail- 
able oxygen  to  support  the  combustion, 
independent  of  air.  The  same  group  is 
introduced  into  potash  when  we  convert 
it  into  saltpetre  with  nitric  acid,  and  the 
only  reason  why  saltpetre  is  not  an  explo- 
sive is  because,  while  the  oxygen  is  there, 
the  combustion  is  not.  By  mixing  a  com- 
bustible with  it — sulphur  and  charcoal,  for 
instance — we  obtain  an  explosive,  blasting 
powder. 

Nitroglycerin  itself  is  not  very  well 
adapted  to  blasting,  for  several  reasons. 
Being  a  liquid,  there  are  many  situations 
constantly  arising  in  blasting  operations 
where  it  would  be  difficult  or  impossible 
to  load  it.  Then  again,  it  is  very  sensitive 
to  concussion  or  friction,  which  makes  it 
unsafe  to  handle  or  transport.  These  and 
other  conditions  finally  led  to  its  general 
applications  in  the  form  of  dynamite, 
which  in  spite  of  the  terror  which  the  name 
inspires  in  the  mind  of  the  uninitiated,  is 
by  all  odds,  one  of  the  safest  of  explosives. 
For,  in  an  explosive,  great  strength  is  a 
measure  of  efficiency  and  not  of  danger; 
while  on  the  other  hand  a  comparatively 
weak  explosive  may  be  over-sensitive, 
unstable,  and  erratic  in  its  behavior,  and 
therefore  dangerous. 


The  first  dynamite  consisted  merely  of 
a  very  porous  variety  of  earth  (Kieselguhr) 
saturated  with  nitroglycerin,  and  its  explo- 
sive qualities  were  due  entirely  to  the 
latter.  While  this  immediately  produced 
a  practical  blasting  explosive  of  about  the 
consistency  of  and  closely  resembling  brown 
sugar,  which  could  be  packed  into  car- 
tridges and  safely  transported  and  handled, 
it  is  a  kind  of  dynamite  that  is  very  little 
used  in  this  country  to-day.  Here  we  prefer 
to  use,  instead  of  inert  earth,  an  absorbent 
which  is  of  itself  an  explosive,  so  that  when 
fired  we  obtain  the  effects  of  two  explosives 
working  together.  So  we  use  for  our 
absorbent  a  mixture  of  woodpulp  and  salt- 
petre or  its  equivalent,  which  forms  a  very 
good  absorbent,  and  a  mixture  which  also 
explodes  with  about  the  force  of  blasting 
powder  under  the  influence  of  the  heat  from 
nitroglycerin. 

A  sixty  per  cent,  strength  dynamite 
made  in  this  way  is  more  than  equal  in 
strength  to  a  seventy-five  per  cent,  dyna- 
mite made  with  the  inert  earthy  base. 
The  gain  in  strength  is  not  the  only  advan- 
tage, however,  as  the  explosive  base  and 
the  many  modifications  of  it  which  are 
possible  enable  the  chemist  to  control  the 
quickness  of  the  explosion  as  well  as  its 
strength,  thus  adapting  different  kinds  of 
dynamite  to  practically  every  kind  of  work 
for  which  a  blasting  explosive  is  required. 

Dynamite  has  many  characteristics  which 
give  it  an  immense  advantage  over  black 
powder,  especially  in  a  piece  of  work  like 
the  Panama  Canal.  Among  the  first  of 
these  is  its  resistance  to  water.  While  the 
Panama  rock  was  soft  enough  to  admit  of 
using  black  powder — and  some  was  used 
very  successfully  in  the  early  part  of  the 
work,  in  holes  that  were  chambered  or  en- 
larged at  the  bottom  with  dynamite  so 
that  they  would  hold  enough  of  the  black 
powder — the  fact  that  black  powder  softens 
when  wet  into  a  black  mud  that  will  not 
explode  forbids  its  use  in  a  good  deal  of 
work  where  it  would  otherwise  be  effective. 
On  the  other  hand,  varieties  of  dynamite 
are  sold  by  the  du  Pont  Company  which 


344 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


can  be  immersed  in  water  for  a  long  time 
without  material  impairment  of  their  ex- 
plosive force.  That  supplied  for  the  Pan- 
ama work  was  not  as  waterproof  as  this, 
as  the  saltpetre  would  be  acted  upon  by  the 
water  in  time.  But  practically,  the  parti- 
cles of  saltpetre  are  protected  so  well  by 
their  coating  of  nitroglycerin  that  they 
easily  withstood  immersion  for  any  length 
of  time  required  in  the  work.  Indeed,  it 
is  safe  to  estimate  that  three-fourths  of  all 
the  dynamite  used  on  the  canal  was  fired 
after  it  had  been  submerged  under  water 
in  the  bore  holes  for  periods  of  from  several 
hours  to  several  days. 

Between  January,  1905,  and  June,  1912, 
the  E.  I.  du  Pont  de  Nemours  Powder 
Company,  Wilmington,  Delaware,  supplied 
the  following  enormous  quantities  of  ma- 
terial for  use  in  constructing  the  Isthmian 
Canal:  33,000,000  pounds  dynamite, 
3,57O,ooo  electric  fuses  (electric  blasting 
caps)  2,800,000  blasting  caps,  4,200,000 
feet  fuse,  20,000  pounds  leading  and  con- 
necting wire,  and  230  blasting  machines. 

The  entire  quantity  of  dynamite  was 
manufactured  at  the  du  Pont  Repauno 
plant,  which  is  located  near  Gibbstown, 
New  Jersey,  on  about  two  thousand  acres 
of  land  bordering  on  the  Delaware  River 
over  which  are  spread  the  four  or  five 
hundred  buildings  of  the  works. 

Tons  of  material  required  treatment  be- 
fore reaching  the  form  of  finished  dynamite 
ready  for  use  in  blasting  operations  on  the 
canal  work.  Each  principal  raw  material 
was  put  through  special  processes  in  vari- 
ous departments  of  the  du  Pont  Com- 
pany's Repauno  plant  under  the  supervi- 
sion of  trained  experts. 

The  sulphuric  acid  used  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  powder  was  all  manufactured  at 
the  Repauno  plant  of  the  du  Pont  Com- 
pany by  the  contact  process.  Nitric  acid, 
the  most  important  acid  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  the  nitroglycerin,  as  well  as 
numerous  other  explosives,  is  made  on  a 
very  large  scale  at  the  Repauno  plant.  The 
two  prime  materials  used  in  its  manufac- 
ture are  Chile  saltpetre  (sodium  nitrate) 


and  sulphuric  acid.'  The  sodium  nitrate, 
first  dried  in  mechanical  dryers,  is  trans- 
ferred to  large  cast  iron  retorts,  sulphuric 
acid  added  and  a  sufficient  amount  of 
external  heat  applied  to  start  the  chemical 
reaction  which  results  in  the  formation  of 
nitric  acid.  The  nitric  acid  so  formed  is 
distilled,  condensed  and  mixed  with  sul- 
phuric acid  and  stored  in  tanks  until  ready 
to  be  used.  The  nitric  acid  works  at  the 
Repauno  plant  of  the  du  Pont  Company 
are  to-day  the  largest  in  the  world,  the  out- 
put running  into  millions  of  pounds  per 
annum. 

To  produce  the  nitroglycerin,  the  most 
powerful  of  modern  explosives  and  the  base 
of  the  dynamite  used  on  the  Isthmian 
Canal,  still  a  third  important  material  is 
treated  at  the  Repauno  plant  in  a  separate 
department,  i-e. ,  crude  glycerin,  a  by- 
product of  refinement  known  as  "dynamite 
glycerin." 

The  sulphuric  and  nitric  acids  are  com- 
bined into  "mixed  acid"  and  stored  in 
huge  tanks,  from  which  point  the  latter  is 
transported  to  the  nitrating  houses,  where 
it  is  introduced  into  nitrators  (large  iron 
bowls  equipped  with  appliances  for  cooling 
and  continually  agitating  the  contents), 
after  which  the  glycerin  is  slowly  added, 
great  care  being  exercised  during  this 
operation  to  insure  against  sudden  rise  of 
temperature.  A  thermometer  is  located 
at  a  convenient  point  in  the  nitrator  to 
enable  the  operator  to  determine  changes 
of  temperature  during  the  process  of  nitra- 
tion. When  the  nitration  of  the  glycerin  is 
complete  the  contents  of  the  nitrator,  which 
now  consist  of  a  mixture  of  nitroglycerin,; 
water  and  the  excess  acid,  are  conveyed 
by  means  of  a  gutter  or  trough  to  the  sepa- 
rating house.  Here  the  nitroglycerin, 
which  is  lighter  than  the  acids,  rises  to  the 
top  of  the  mixture,  thus  facilitating  the  sep- 
aration of  the  liquid  explosive  from  the 
"waste  acids." 

After  separation  is  completed,  the  nitro- 
glycerin is  delivered  to  one  or  more  wash 
tanks  and  subjected  to  the  purification 
treatment.  The  finished  nitroglycerin  is 


1.  Keystone  Explosives  in  action  at  the  canal. 

2.  Solid  train  of  dynamite  ready  for  shipment  to  the  Isthmus. 

(Keystone  Powder  Manufacturing  Company,  Emporium,  Pa.) 


VAST  USE  OF  EXPLOSIVES 


345 


tested  for  purity  or  neutrality  with  an  ex- 
tremely sensitive  litmus  paper  made  ex- 
pressly for  the  purpose  in  the  laboratories 
of  the  du  Pont  Company,  and  then  sent 
to  storage  tanks  until  required  for  use  in 
manufacturing  the  various  grades  of  dyna- 
mite and  gelatin  produced  by  the  Repauno 
plant. 

The  waste  acid  is  transported  to  the 
acid  recovery  department  of  the  plant, 
where  it  is  separated  into  its  component 
parts  (nitric  and  sulphuric)  and  again  used 
in  the  manufacture  of  nitroglycerin  or  for 
other  purposes. 

The  next  step  in  the  manufacture  of  the 
dynamite  is  the  mixing  of  the  nitroglycerin 
with  dry  ingredients  by  which  it  is  ab- 
sorbed. This  operation  is  carried  on  in  a 
special  mixing  machine. 

From  the  mixing  houses  the  loose  dyna- 
mite is  sent  to  the  cartridge  packing 
houses  and  packed  in  suitable  printed  para- 
fined  paper  shells. 

In  a  separate  building,  the  box  packing 
house,  the  dynamite  for  the  isthmian  canal 
was  put  up  in  fifty-pound  wooden  cases 
containing  five  ten-pound  moisture-proof 
cartons,  each,  and  in  this  condition  finally 
reached  the  storage  magazines  of  the  plant 
to  await  date  of  shipment.  The  dynamite 
was  transported  over  tramways  from  the 
magazines  to  the  wharves  of  the  Repauno 
plant  on  the  Delaware  River  and  loaded 
on  ships  bound  direct  to  Colon. 

The  workmen  in  the  explosive  buildings 
are  an  intelligent,  sober  lot  of  men,  care- 
fully instructed  as  to  their  duties  in  con- 
nection with  the  various  processes  carried 
on.  They  wear  pocketless  uniforms  and 
special  rubber-soled  shoes,  and  have  sep- 
arate buildings  from  those  in  which  they 
work  for  changing  their  clothes. 

For  the  proper  use  of  dynamite,  certain 
accessories  are  required  which  can  be 
grouped  under  the  general  term  "Blasting 
Supplies." 

Of  these  the  first  and  most  important  is 
the  detonator.  The  detonator  is  required 
because  dynamite,  if  ignited,  cannot  be 
depended'  upon  to  explode  like  blasting 


powder.  Indeed,  if  unconfined  it  will  gen- 
erally burn  away  with  a  bright  hissing 
flame  without  exploding  at  all.  When  con- 
fined it  will  explode  oftener,  but  even  then 
it  does  not  develop  its  full  force.  To  bring 
about  uniformity  in  its  action,  therefore, 
a  detonator  is  used.  This  consists  of  a 
copper  capsule  containing  a  small  charge 
of  fulminate  of  mercury,  which  always 
explodes  at  once  upon  ignition,  and  in  con- 
tact with  dynamite  brings  about  the  most 
effective  type  of  explosion  of  the  latter. 

The  detonators  used  for  blasting  are  of 
two  kinds.  One  kind  consists  merely  of 
an  open  copper  capsule  containing  its 
charge  of  fulminate  in  the  bottom,  and  of 
a  suitable  size  to  be  crimped  upon  the  end 
of  a  piece  of  fuse.  Thus  a  piece  of  fuse, 
which  ordinarily  would  only  set  fire  to  a 
stick  of  dynamite,  when  equipped  with 
one  of  these  blasting  caps  and  the  cap  in- 
serted into  the  dynamite  is  capable  of 
bringing  about  the  most  effective  explosion 
(detonation)  of  any  quantity  of  the  latter. 

The  other  kind  of  detonator  consists  of 
the  same  kind  of  copper  capsule,  a  little 
larger  in  diameter,  with  the  usual  charge  of 
fulminate  at  the  bottom.  But  in  place  of 
the  open  end  to  receive  the  fuse,  it  is 
equipped  with  two  insulated  wires  which 
extend  into  the  cap  through  a  composition 
plug.  The  ends  of  these  wires  within  the 
cap  are  connected  by  a  very  fine  piece  of 
platinum  wire,  which  is  surrounded  by 
some  of  the  fulminate  so  that  when  an 
electric  current  passes  the  platinum  wire 
becomes  red  hot  and  fires  the  detonator. 
The  complete  device  is  known  to  the  trade 
as  an  "electric  fuse." 

The  rest  of  the  blasting  supplies  com- 
prise the  fuse,  blasting  machines  used  to 
supply  the  electric  current,  the  wire  re- 
quired for  making  the  connections  and  the 
testing  instruments  like  the  du  Pont 
galvanometer  and  rheostat. 

The  major  part  of  the  blasting  supplies, 
i.e.,  electric  fuses,  blasting  caps,  etc.,  were 
manufactured  at  the  Pompton  Lakes,  New 
Jersey,  plant  of  the  du  Pont  Company, 
and  were,  with  the  exception  of  the  elec- 


346 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA  CANAL 


trie  fuses,  ordinary  commercial  products. 
When  first  called  upon  to  supply  electric 
fuses,  the  ordinary  goods,  such  as  were  in 
common  use  in  this  country,  were  fur- 
nished, but  it  soon  became  apparent  that 
the  severe  and  unusual  conditions  under 
which  they  were  to  be  used  at  Panama 
were  such  that  something  special  would 
have  to  be  developed.  An  expert  was  sent 
to  the  canal  to  study  conditions  under 
which  the  blasting  was  done  and  he 
reported,  among  other  things,  that  the 
holes  in  which  the  dynamite  was  loaded 
were  generally  partly  filled  with  a  saline 
solution  of  an  unusual  nature  owing  to  the 
volcanic  origin  of  the  rock.  This  solution 
was  a  fairly  good  conductor  of  electricity, 
and  had  surprisingly  great  powers  of  pene- 
trating the  insulation  of  the  fuse  wires  as 
well,  resulting  in  a  considerable  leakage  of 
current  under  such  abnormal  conditions. 
After  solving  the  difficulty  concerning  the 
kind  of  wire  to  use,  a  still  further  difficulty 
was  encountered  as  the  excavating  pro- 
gressed, deepening  the  cut  below  ground 
level.  This  necessitated  a  second  trip  by 
an  expert  of  the  du  Pont  Company  to  the 
isthmus  to  further  study  conditions.  As  a 
result  it  was  found  necessary  to  make  the 
electric  fuses  more  waterproof  than  had 
been  the  practice  in  the  past  without 
resorting  to  the  expensive  method  of 
covering  the  detonator  with  gutta  percha, 
since  the  situation  was,  to  all  practical 
purposes,  similar  to  submarine  blasting. 
The  development  of  the  present  water- 
proof electric  fuses  resulted,  which  from 
the  point  of  quality  are  superior  to  any- 
thing of  the  kind  previously  manufactured 
in  this  country,  and  which  met  the  severe 
test  of  the  work  on  the  canal  with  prac- 
tically perfect  success. 

Supplying  explosives  and  blasting  sup- 
plies for  Panama,  therefore,  resulted  in  a 
lasting  benefit  to  all  users  of  explosives  by 
imposing  abnormally  severe  conditions.  In 
order  to  meet  these  conditions  the  du  Pont 
de  Nemours  Powder  Company  improved 
its  regular  product  instead  of  producing 
a  special  grade  for  the  isthmian  canal  trade. 


With  this  improved  product  it  seems  rea- 
sonable to  suppose  that  conditions  in  the 
United  States  will  not  be  so  unusual  as  to 
cause  the  du  Pont  Company  trouble  from 
poor  execution. 

Prominent  among  the  companies  fur- 
nishing explosives  for  the  excavating  and 
quarrying  work  on  the  canal  was  the 
Keystone  National  Powder  Company,  with 
factories  at  Emporium  and  Sinnamahom- 
ing,  Pa.  In  fulfilment  of  successive  con- 
tracts, begun  in  1908,  this  company  made 
dynamite  shipments  aggregating  nearly 
30,000,000  pounds  in  the  course  of  the  five 
years  following.  The  largest  single  ship- 
ment reached  1,225,000  pounds,  or  far 
more  than  was  required  in  the  removal  of 
the  once  famous  Hell  Gate  as  an  obstruc- 
tion to  the  water  traffic  of  New  York  City. 

Each  shipment  went  forward  under  the 
supervision  of  an  expert  crew,  by  rail  to 
Baltimore  and  thence  by  steamer  to  Colon. 
Special  arrangements  for  safe  transporta- 
tion were  made  throughout  the  entire 
journey.  The  dynamite  was  specially  pre- 
pared to  withstand  climatic  influences, 
the  absorbing  material  being  composed  of 
potassium  nitrate  or  refined  saltpetre,  in- 
stead of  the  sodium  nitrate  generally  used 
as  a  filler.  The  explosives,  which  were 
first  subjected  to  critical  inspection  and 
analysis  at  the  factories  by  government 
officials,  afterward  in  every  instance  met 
the  severe  tests  imposed  by  the  trying  con- 
ditions due  to  the  moist  atmosphere  that 
prevails  on  the  isthmus. 

To  again  meet  the  unusual  conditions  of 
the  canal  work,  blasting  fuse  of  special 
match  construction  insuring  uniform  resist- 
ance of  the  platinum  wire  bridges  in  the 
exploders  were  furnished  by  the  Star  Elec- 
tric Fuse  Works  of  Wilkesbarre,  Pa.  The 
advanced  process  of  manufacture  secured 
for  this  company  the  use  of  its  exploder, 
while  the  superior  make  of  batteries  led 
to  large  requisitions  for  them  for  use  in 
setting  off  charges  of  dynamite. 

The  batteries  were  made  in  such  form 
that  they  were  in  a  class  by  themselves. 
The  magnets  had  shunt  and  series  winding, 


FIRST  USE  OF  WIRE  CABLES 


347 


which  no  other  manufacturer  had  at- 
tempted, and  they  were  wound  for  amper- 
age as  well  as  voltage. 

The  waterproofing  of  the  fuses  or  ex- 
ploders made  them  well  adapted  for  the 
very  wet  work  encountered  in  so  much  of 
the  canal's  construction.  The  batteries 
held  a  surplus  of  current  to  overcome  the 
leakage  of  current  in  wet  working.  The 
company  supplied  its  product  to  the  canal 
for  several  years,  beginning  with  1906. 

WIRE  ROPE  AT  PANAMA 

An  important  part  of  the  mechanical 
equipment  for  digging  the  canal,  one  which 
impressed  itself  on  every  observer,  was  the 
number  and  size  of  the  wire  ropes  in  use. 

It  is  known  and  taken  as  a  matter  of 
course  that  a  wire  rope  is  made  of  wires 
twisted  together,  and  that  these  wires  are 
in  some  way  produced  from  bars  of  metal. 
It  is  not  so  well  known  that  while  the 
reduction  of  metal  bars  to  slender  threads 
was  practiced  by  the  oldest  nations  it  has 
been  only  within  the  past  century  that  wire 
has  become  important  in  the  field  of 
engineering. 

A  rope  made  of  wires  laid  parallel  with 
each  other  seems  to  have  been  used  in 
Germany  in  the  year  1820,  but  it  was  not 
until  1834  that  wires  were  twisted  together 
in  something  like  the  form  of  the  modern 
wire  rope.  The  advantages  of  such  rope 
were  not  at  once  appreciated,  for  as  late 
as  1840  wire  rope  was  not  used  in  America; 
few  engineers  had  heard  of  it  and  probably 
no  American  had  ever  seen  one. 

In  the  year  1840  John  A.  Roebling,  a 
young  engineer  who  had  a  few  years  before 
left  his  native  land  of  Germany,  was  em- 
ployed in  the  construction  of  canals  in 
western  Pennsylvania.  At  that  time  the 
Pennsylvania  Canal  was  an  important 
waterway,  the  course  of  which  across  the 
state  was  intercepted  by  the  Allegheny 
mountains.  In  order  that  navigation  might 
be  continued,  inclined  planes  were  built 
on  the  mountain  sides.  Canal  boats  were 
towed  to  the  bottoms  of  these  inclines, 
hauled  up  on  one  side  of  the  mountain  and 


lowered  down  the  other  side  to  the  other 
part  of  the  canal.  Hemp  ropes  were  used 
on  the  planes,  and  because  of  the  weight  of 
the  boats  these  ropes  necessarily  were  very 
bulky,  and  as  a  result  of  running  along  the 
planes  they  speedily  became  worn  and  fre- 
quently had  to  be  replaced. 

It  occurred  to  Mr.  Roebling  that  ropes 
made  of  wire  might  be  used  in  place  of  the 
hemp  ropes;  that  such  ropes  would  be 
easier  to  handle,  have  greater  strength,  and 
give  longer  service.  Roebling  had  never 
seen  wire  rope,  but  he  had  heard  that  such 
rope  had  been  used  in  his  native  land  and 
he  could  see  no  reason  why  rope  used  to 
advantage  in  Germany  should  not  be  used 
in  America.  So  he  bought  a  quantity  of 
wire,  built  a  rope  walk  on  his  farm  and  with 
the  aid  of  his  neighbors  succeeded  in  twist- 
ing his  wires  into  a  rope.  Permission  was 
given  for  the  equipment  of  a  canal  plane 
with  this  rope.  Its  success  justified  Roeb- 
ling's  confidence  and  led  to  the  substitu- 
tion of  wire  for  hemp  ropes  on  all  the  planes. 

The  Allegheny  mountains  did  not  present 
the  only  obstacle  to  the  course  of  the  canal. 
It  was  desirable  that  it  should  run  to 
basins  in  Pittsburgh,  but  here  the  Alle- 
gheny River  intervened.  Mr.  Roebling, 
impressed  by  the  success  of  the  wire  ropes 
on  the  planes,  proposed  to  extend  the  use 
of  wire  and  by  the  aid  of  wire  cables  carry 
the  Pennsylvania  Canal  across  the  river 
to  the  basins  at  Pittsburgh.  To  do  this 
required  the  construction  of  an  aqueduct 
suspended  by  cables  across  the  river.  This 
aqueduct  was  built  in  1844-5,  and  not- 
withstanding many  confident  predictions 
that  it  would  collapse  under  the  weight  of 
the  water  of  the  canal  it  proved  amply 
strong  and  serviceable  and  brought  added 
prestige  to  the  wire  rope  maker. 

It  was  therefore  in  connection  with  canal 
navigation  and  construction  that  the  first 
attempts  were  made  in  America  to  use 
wire  rope  and  to  apply  as  a  unit  the  strength 
of  many  wires.  The  manufacture  of  wire 
rope  begun  by  John  A.  Roebling  was  con- 
tinued by  him  during  the  remainder  of  his 
life,  and  since  his  death  in  1869  has  been 


348 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


conducted  by  his  sons,  assisted  during 
recent  years  by  his  grandsons. 

So  it  happened  that  nearly  three-quar- 
ters of  a  century  after  the  pioneer  rope 
maker  watched  his  rope  of  twisted  wire 
haul  the  boats  of  a  canal,  now  long  since 
abandoned,  up  steep  mountain  inclines, 
there  was  made  at  the  works  founded  by 
him  and  under  the  direction  of  his  descend- 
ants wire  rope  to  be  attached  to  powerful 
engines  to  haul  boats  through  the  won- 
derful locks  of  the  canal  at  Panama.  The 
wire  in  this  rope  is  much  stronger  than 
would  have  been  thought  possible  a  few 
years  ago.  This  is  due  to  recent  improve- 
ments in  the  treatment  of  steel  from  which 
the  wire  is  drawn.  The  towing  rope  for 
the  locks  is  one  inch  in  diameter  and  is 
made  of  six  strands  of  thirty-seven  wires 
each  twisted  around  a  hemp  center.  A 
number  of  these  ropes  must  be  used  at  each 
lock.  These  were  the  last  of  a  great  variety 
of  wire  ropes  made  by  the  Roeblings  for 
the  Panama  Canal. 

When  the  digging  of  the  canal  began, 
the  firm  sent  one  of  its  wire  rope  experts 
to  Panama  to  study  conditions  and  obtain 
information  which  would  assist  in  supplying 
appropriate  wire  ropes  for  different  parts 
of  the  work.  The  wisdom  of  this  move 
was  fully  justified  by  subsequent  events, 
for  in  all  over  fifty  contracts  for  wire  rope, 
wire  strand,  and  wire  were  placed  with  the 
Roebling  Company  by  the  Isthmian  Canal 
Commission.  The  wire  rope  and  strand 
called  for  by  these  contracts,  if  placed  in  a 
single  line,  would  reach  from  Colon  along 
the  entire  length  of  the  canal  to  Panama 
and  thence  twenty  miles  outward  on  the 
Pacific.  This,  however,  was  far  from  being 
all  the  material  of  the  kind  used,  as  many 
lengths  of  wire  rope  were  supplied  those 
furnishing  mechanical  appliances  of  which 
wire  rope  is  an  auxiliary. 

Roebling  rope  was  used  on  cableways 
for  controlling  the  movements  of  buckets 
and  for  cables  along  which  the  buckets  ran 
in  the  transportation  of  materials  across 
wide  spans.  It  was  used  also  on  unloader 
plows,  dragging  them  through  flat  cars 


piled  high  with  earth  and  rock,  the  ploughs 
clearing  the  cars  as  the  ropes  pulled  them 
along.  Great  steam  shovels  and  dipper 
dredges  which  cleared  the  way  for  the  canal 
were  also  equipped  with  Roebling  wire  rope. 
The  rope  used  for  the  dipper  dredges  was 
in  some  instances  over  three  inches  in 
diameter,  this  being  the  largest  wire  rope 
ever  used  for  a  like  purpose. 

Three  different  constructions  of  wire 
rope  were  used  for  the  Panama  work.  One 
was  a  rope  made  of  six  strands  of  nineteen 
wires  each;  another,  eight  strands  of 
nineteen  wires  each,  while  the  third  was 
the  same  as  that  of  the  towing  ropes  at 
the  locks,  six  strands  of  thirty-seven  wires 
each.  In  each  rope  the  strands  were 
twisted  around  a  hemp  center.  The 
hemp  center  of  a  wire  rope  does  not  pro- 
vide much  additional  strength,  but  acts  as 
a  cushion  to  preserve  the  shape  of  the  rope 
and  helps  to  lubricate  the  wires. 

The  use  of  the  different  constructions 
was  dependent  on  the  conditions  encoun- 
tered. Where  rope  frequently  struck  the 
ground,  or  was  run  through  earth,  as  was 
the  case  when  used  with  unloader  plows, 
it  was  necessary  to  have  larger  wires  to 
resist  abrasion,  and  wherever  possible  the 
rope  with  six  strands  of  nineteen  wires  was 
used.  Where  resistance  to  abrasion  was 
not  so  important  and  more  flexibility  was 
desired,  rope  with  eight  strands  of  nineteen 
wires  or  six  strands  of  thirty-seven  wires 
was  used.  An  increase  in  the  number  of 
wires  in  a  rope  adds  to  the  pliability  of  a 
given  diameter,  but  naturally  reduces  the 
size  of  each  wire. 

What  has  been  said  of  the  high  tensile 
strength  of  the  towing  lines  at  the  locks 
is  true  of  the  other  wire  ropes  shipped  to 
Panama  by  the  Roebling  company.  All 
Roebling  ropes  to  be  used  under  conditions 
where  heavy  stresses  are  common — condi- 
tions like  the  excavating,  hauling,  and  tow- 
ing of  the  Panama  work — are  made  of  wire 
drawn  from  steel  the  quality  of  which  is 
proven  by  chemical  and  microscopic  tests 
before  being  reduced  to  wire.  Tests  are 
made  also  of  the  wire  before  it  is  stranded 


1.  Lifting  a  girder  with  wire  rope. 

2.  Wire  rope  pulling  an  unloading  plough. 

(Wire  rope  supplied  by  John  A.  Roebling's  Sons  Company,  Trenton,  N.  J.) 


LESCHEN  WIRE  ROPE  AT  WORK  ON  THE  CANAL 

i.  Wire  rope  spans  for  the  lock  cableways. 
2  Rope  operating  cranes  at  the  lock  gates. 
3.  Lifting  material  inside  the  locks.  (Wire  rope  furnished  by  A.  Leschen  &  Sons  Rope  Company  of  St.  Louis,  Mo.) 


VARIOUS  USES  OF  WIRE  ROPE 


349 


into  rope,  and  full-size  pieces  of  the  fin- 
ished rope  are  pulled  apart  on  the  great 
testing  machines  at  the  Roebling  works. 
The  result  was  that  the  strength  and  resist- 
ing power  of  every  wire  rope  shipped  from 
this  works  to  the  Canal  Zone  were  known 
to  be  sufficient  for  the  work  to  be  done. 

In  addition  to  the  wire  ropes  used  in 
the  work  of  excavating,  hoisting,  and  load- 
ing, the  Roebling  company  furnished  many 
wire  hawsers  for  towing.  On  the  tug 
boats  Mariner,  Porto  Bella,  Bohio,  Gatun, 
M.  E.  Scully,  Empire,  Cocoli,  La  Boca, 
Miraflores,  and  De  Lesseps,  and  on  a  num- 
ber of  barges,  the  American  Engineering 
Company  installed  automatic  steam  tow- 
ing machines,  and  Roebling  hawsers  were 
selected  by  the  commission  to  complete 
the  equipment. 

The  towing  machines  are  so  constructed 
that  they  pay  out  and  reel  in  the  hawsers 
as  the  strains  of  the  tow  vary  with  the 
changing  conditions  of  wind  and  tide.  The 
tugs  and  barges  were  used  for  conveying 
material  dredged  to  make  the  canal  open- 
ing out  to  dumping  grounds  at  Limon  and 
Panama  bays,  and  also  for  bringing  in 
sand  and  rock.  The  towing  on  the  Atlantic 
side  was  at  times  very  hazardous  during 
the  season  of  "northers,"  when  a  heavy 
sea  ran  almost  continuously  and  towing 
had  to  be  done  on  the  ocean,  close  to  the 
coral-formed  coast. 

At  one  time  three  barges  on  the  Atlantic 
were  needed  on  the  Pacific  side  of  the 
isthmus.  The  distance  in  a  straight  line 
from  the  anchorage  on  the  Atlantic  side  to 
Balboa  on  the  Pacific  was  not  more  than 
fifty  miles;  but  to  overcome  it  required  a 
voyage  down  the  east  coast,  through  the 
Straits  of  Magellan  and  up  the  west  coast, 
in  all  more  than  10,000  miles. 

The  tug  M.  E.  Scully,  later  named  the 
Reliance,  with  the  barges  in  tow,  left 
Cristobal  on  the  morning  of  February 
n,  and  arrived  in  Panama  Bay,  June  17, 
one  hundred  and  twenty-six  days  being 
taken  by  the  trip,  of  which  eighty-six  were 
actual  steaming  days. 

During    the   first    three   days   out,    the 


weather  was  stormy,  with  great  seas  that 
kept  the  decks  awash,  and  prevented  any 
progress,  while  terrific  strains  were  brought 
on  the  hawsers  and  towing  machinery. 
However,  these  strains  were  not  beyond  the 
strength  of  the  towing  equipment,  and  the 
voyage  was  accomplished  without  accident 
of  any  kind.  This  ranks  among  the  great 
feats  of  deep-sea  towing,  being  surpassed 
only  by  the  tow  of  the  dry  dock  Dewey 
from  the  Chesapeake  Bay  to  the  Philip- 
pines, for  which  also  Roebling  wire  hawsers 
were  used. 

The  hawsers  used  for  the  Panama  towing 
ranged  from  one  inch  to  one  and  three- 
quarter  inches  in  diameter  and  were  com- 
posed of  six  strands  of  thirty-seven  wires 
each  twisted  around  a  hemp  center.  They 
were  heavily  galvanized  as  a  protection 
against  rust. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  the 
Roebling  mills,  where  the  steel  wire  for 
the  ropes  was  made,  there  was  also  drawn 
a  large  quantity  of  bronze  wire  to  make 
the  screens  for  protecting  windows  and 
porches  against  flies  and  mosquitoes.  The 
screens  were  made  by  the  New  Jersey 
Wire  Cloth  Company,  an  allied  Roebling 
concern,  and  the  protection  afforded  by 
them  aided  materially  in  preserving  the 
health  of  those  employed  on  the  canal 
work. 

The  importance  of  wire  rope  as  a  factor 
in  the  construction  of  the  canal  is  evidenced 
by  the  fact  that  nearly  all  the  great  firms 
in  the  United  States  manufacturing  this 
product  contributed  large  quantities  to  the 
canal  work,  much  of  it  being  the  specialized 
product  of  some  particular  firm. 

The  many  early  failures  on  this  work 
were  due  largely  to  the  fact  that  at  the 
time  of  the  various  undertakings  the 
necessary  means  for  carrying  on  such  a 
work  had  not  been  developed  sufficiently 
to  meet  the  many  new  conditions  imposed 
by  such  a  great  enterprise.  This  is  evi- 
denced by  the  numerous  relics  of  expensive 
machinery  used  in  former  attempts  now 
being  allowed  to  rust  away  in  the  places 
where  they  were  discarded. 


350 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


While  every  class  and  individual  piece 
of  equipment  on  the  canal  has  played  its 
important  part,  possibly  wire  rope  has 
been  more  generally  employed  than  any 
other  one  article  on  account  of  its  diversi- 
fied use.  On  the  steam  shovels  and  dredges 
it  lifted  the  soil  and  rock  and  placed  it 
upon  cars  and  then  unloaded  them.  On 
the  cableways  it  handled  practically  all 
the  material  that  makes  up  the  mighty 
locks  and  dams.  Its  work  is  not  finished 
with  the  canal,  for  it  will  be  required  for 
towing  vessels  through  the  locks,  operating 
the  gates,  and  other  purposes. 

About  fifty  years  before  the  beginning 
of  the  canal  by  the  United  States,  there 
was  founded  at  St.  Louis  the  A.  Leschen 
&  Sons  Rope  Company.  The  start  of  this 
concern  was  in  a  small  way,  but  the  prin- 
ciple of  its  foundation  was  to  develop  and 
produce  material  that  would  become  a 
standard  in  its  particular  line;  and  by 
adhering  to  this  principle,  it  was  not  only 
prepared  to  supply  wire  rope  in  large 
quantities  that  successfully  performed  the 
tasks  imposed  upon  it  by  the  canal  work, 
but  was  also  able  to  provide  wire  rope 
which  has  taken  a  prominent  part  on 
various  undertakings  that  preceded  the 
building  of  the  Panama  Canal,  such  as  the 
great  transcontinental  railroads,  Chicago 
Drainage  Canal,  Roosevelt  Dam,  Florida 
East  Coast  Railway,  raising  the  Maine, 
and  other  notable  enterprises. 

During  the  early  period  of  this  company's 
existence,  the  best  grade  of  wire  rope  pro- 
duced was  plow  steel,  so  called  because 
it  was  originally  used  for  steam  plowing — a 
class  of  work  subjecting  a  rope  to  great 
strains  and  constant  friction  from  dragging 
over  earth  and  rock. 

It  soon  became  apparent  to  the  Leschen 
company  that  plow  steel  rope  was  not 
capable  of  satisfactory  service  on  many 
wire  rope-using  equipments.  While  it 
afforded  considerable  strength,  it  did  not 
possess  a  sufficient  amount  of  elasticity, 
toughness,  and  flexibility.  It,  therefore, 
became  their  aim  to  produce  a  rope  that 
would  meet  all  requirements. 


After  careful  study  and  numerous  experi- 
ments, a  rope  was  developed  by  them  that 
exacting  and  careful  tests  proved  to  com- 
bine all  the  necessary  qualities  in  correct 
proportions  for  maximum  wire  rope  service 
under  severe  usage.  This  grade  of  rope 
was  trademarked  under  the  name  of 
"Hercules,"  and  in  order  to  designate  it 
in  appearance,  the  novel  idea  was  originated 
of  coloring  one  of  its  strands  red. 

Not  satisfied  with  producing  a  rope  of 
such  high  quality  as  "Hercules,"  constant 
improvements  in  construction  were  made 
by  the  Leschen  company,  and  in  addition  to 
manufacturing  the  ordinary  types  of  round 
strand  rope,  they  produced  ropes  of  the 
patent  flattened  strand  construction,  which 
on  account  of  simple  but  correct  mechani- 
cal principles  affords  great  resistance  to 
wear  and  is  extremely  strong  and  flexible. 

Of  the  many  different  methods  and 
means  employed  for  excavating  and  han- 
dling material  on  the  canal,  the  cableways 
possibly  did  a  greater  amount  of  this  work 
than  any  other.  It  required  more  than 
an  ordinary  rope  to  give  satisfactory  ser- 
vice on  these  machines,  for  there  were 
many  severe  conditions  to  be  met.  The 
speed  at  which  they  were  operated  was 
high;  the  loads  heavy;  and  there  were 
many  bends  around  sheaves  and  guides. 

It  was  on  these  cableways  that  the  great 
efficiency  of  "Hercules"  wire  rope  was 
demonstrated.  It  was  here  also  that  the 
years  devoted  to  the  study  of  wire  rope 
construction  were  fully  justified,  for  "Her- 
cules" wire  rope  in  the  patent  flattened 
strand  construction  was  necessary  to  suc- 
cessfully do  the  work. 

Another  exacting  use  of  wire  rope  was  on 
the  ballast  unloaders.  These  machines 
removed  the  excavated  material  from  flat 
cars  by  a  plow  drawn  from  one  end  of  a 
train  of  cars  to  the  other  by  means  of 
a  wire  cable,  usually  one  and  one-half 
inches  in  diameter.  When  these  ballast 
unloaders  were  furnished  the  canal  com- 
mission, they  were  equipped  with  "Her- 
cules" wire  rope.  Many  renewal  orders 
were  also  placed  for  "Hercules"  rope  for 


PLOW,  CABLEWAY,  AND  UNLOADER  ROPE 


351 


this  work.  Altogether  the  total  length  of 
"Hercules"  wire  rope  furnished  for  this  one 
purpose  alone  would  reach  almost  from 
one  end  of  the  canal  to  the  other. 

"Hercules"  wire  rope  was  also  used  on 
steam  shovels,  dredges,  and  derricks,  both 
the  patent  flattened  strand  and  round 
strand  constructions  being  furnished,  de- 
pending upon  the  existing  conditions. 

In  addition  to  the  "Hercules"  rope  fur- 
nished, large  quantities  of  Leschen  rope, 
including  cast  steel  ropes,  plow  steel,  Swe- 
dish iron,  and  tiller  rope  were  furnished. 
This  company  was  awarded  annual  contract 
No.  14  for  furnishing  wire  rope  from 
June,  1909,  to  June,  1910,  which  was  one 
of  the  periods  of  greatest  activity.  Alto- 
gether approximately  a  million  feet  of 
Leschen  wire  rope  took  part  in  this  great 
work,  the  greater  portion  of  this  being  the 
red  strand  "Hercules,"  and  much  of  it  was 
ordered  without  competitive  bids,  due  to  its 
having  demonstrated  the  economy  of  its  use. 

The  firm  of  A.  Leschen  &  Sons  Rope  Co. 
was  established  in  1857.  Now  the  Leschen 
works  cover  over  thirty- three  acres,  and  Les- 
chen products  are  distributed  over  the  en  tire 
world,  through  six  branch  houses  and  by 
over  one  hundred  agents.  ' '  Red  Strand  Her- 
cules" is  known  wherever  wire  rope  is  used. 

One  of  the  first  things  the  canal  engi- 
neers discovered  when  they  actually  began 
to  "make  the  dirt  fly"  was  that  ordinary 
tools  and  machinery  were  not  built  to 
withstand  the  strenuous  and  unusual  con- 
ditions that  prevailed  at  Panama.  Great 
machines  that  had  filled  every  requirement 
of  similar  work  at  home  were  found  inade- 
quate for  the  steady  and  unremitting  strain 
of  the  canal  construction,  and  had  to  be 
rebuilt  on  stronger  lines. 

An  early  discovery  that  gave  concern 
to  the  engineers  was  the  short  life  of  the 
cables  used  on  the  soil  unloaders. 

These  unloaders  are  the  same  as  those 
used  by  railroads  for  unloading  ballast. 
Their  operation  is  very  simple.  A  steel 
plow  is  dragged  by  wire  cable  from  end  to 
end  of  a  string  of  flat  cars,  scraping  off  the 
dirt  or  ballast  to  one  side  as  it  goes.  One 


and  one-half-inch  diameter  cables  were 
used  for  this  purpose  at  Panama.  Three 
or  four  hundred  trains  of  sixteen  and 
seventeen  cars  each  were  about  all  one 
cable  could  unload  before  breaking.  The 
highest  record  was  about  500  trains. 

Early  in  1909  Charles  E.  Bascom,  of 
the  Broderick  &  Bascom  Rope  Co.,  St. 
Louis,  and  E.  P.  Frederick,  general  super- 
intendent of  that  company,  went  to  Pan- 
ama for  the  express  purpose  of  finding  out 
why  the  unloader  cables  broke  so  soon; 
also  to  remedy  the  trouble,  if  possible. 
The  Panama  officials  encouraged  manufac- 
turers to  visit  the  canal,  and  offered  every 
help  in  studying  conditions  under  which 
their  products  were  employed  in  the  big 
job.  It  was  an  excellent  policy,  and  bene- 
fited both  the  canal  engineers  and  the 
manufacturers. 

Here  is  what  Mr.  Bascom  and  Mr. 
Frederick  found  when  they  investigated 
the  conditions  affecting  the  cables  of  the 
soil  unloaders:  The  cars  of  the  soil  trains 
were  packed  high  with  earth  and  rock — 
not  mere  rubble,  but  huge  boulders.  Some 
weighed  three  or  four  tons.  The  wire 
cables  were  drawn  over  these  great,  sharp 
rocks  while  under  a  strain  of  from  90 
to  100  tons.  The  friction  actually  caused 
the  rocks  to  smoke,  while  deep  grooves 
were  worn  in  them.  One  of  their  own 
cables  wore  a  groove  ten  inches  deep  in  a 
rock  in  about  six  minutes. 

Those  were  the  conditions  that  had  to  be 
met,  and  met  squarely  by  the  cable  that 
was  to  make  a  success  in  this  particular 
work.  It  was  a  real  problem,  but  Mr. 
Frederick  was  equal  to  it.  His  many  years 
of  experience  in  wire  rope-making  gave 
him  a  clue.  His  knowledge  of  wire  rope 
enabled  him  to  unravel  the  difficulty.  He 
devised  a  rope  of  special  construction — 
a  rope  within  a  rope.  It  is  called  Brobas 
Yellow  Strand  Wire  Rope — Frederick  Pat- 
ent. This  cable  is  a  "compound"  rope, 
but  different  in  construction  from  ordinary 
compound  ropes.  It  is  "layed  up"  dif- 
ferently. In  Brobas  yellow  strand  the 
exterior  and  interior  strands  are  so  arranged 


352 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


that  all  tendencies  of  the  strands  to  chafe 
and  cut  on  each  other  are  practically 
eliminated.  The  life  of  the  rope,  com- 
pared with  other  compound  ropes,  is 
therefore  much  greater. 

Because  of  the  peculiar  construction, 
this  Brobas  rope  is  able  to  withstand  sud- 
den shocks,  heavy  strains  and  severe  bend- 
ing, up  to  the  ultimate  breaking  strain 


sixteen  and  seventeen  cars,  1,830  trains  of 
seventeen  and  nineteen  cars  were  un- 
loaded; then  1,875  trains;  then  2,010 
trains — more  than  four  times  as  many  as 
had  ever  been  unloaded  before  the  advent 
of  B.  &  B.  compound  yellow  strand  cables. 
Here  is  a  complete  record  of  three  cables 
mentioned  above,  made  by  the  canal 
commission : 


TEST  NO.  98 

COMPARATIVE  TEST  OF  CABLE  ON  LIDGERWOOD  UNLOADERS  ON  THE  CANAL  ZONE 

CONDUCTED  BY  THE  ISTHMIAN  CANAL  COMMISSION  UNDER  THE  DIRECTION 

OF  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  M.  P.  &  M. 

BRODERICK  &  BASCOM 


No.  of 

Cable 

Reel  No. 
or  Brand 

Size  of 
Cable 

No.  of 
Unloader 

Date 
Applied 

Date 
Removed 

Time  of 
Service 
Days 

Snatch 
Blocks 
Used 

Place  of 
Break 

lotal 
Trains 
Unloaded 

Cost    per 
Train 
Unloaded 

No.  I 

if? 

32 

4/12/09 

5/S/io 

388 

333 

8 

18308 

#0.218 

CARS 

from  Plow 

No.  5 

iy2* 

37 

6/5/09 

3/19/10 

287 

410 

8 

18758 

£0.213 

CARS 

from  Plow 

No.  3 

iX" 

38 

6/11/09 

u/3/io 

5io 

310 

8 

2OIO  8 

#0.199 

CARS 

from  Plow 

Based  on  nineteen  cars  per  train,  this  brings  the  cost  of  unloading  each  car  to  just  a  trifle  over  one  cent 
In  this  connection  the  late  Colonel  D.  D.  Gaillard,  who  gave  his  life  for  the  canal  work  and  who  was  so 
signally  honored  by  Congress,  said,  "Yellow  Strand  from  Broderick  &  Bascom  cable  on  Lidgerwood  No.  46 
was  allYight  after  plowing  1,870  trains.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  yellow  paint  is  on  strand  after  plowing 
off  35,530  cars,  or  in  other  words  296  miles  of  train.  This  makes  a  cost  of  #0.01 1  per  car  for  cable." 


of  "ordinary"  constructed  rope  of  equal 
size  and  quality,  without  affecting  its 
elasticity.  The  actual  breaking  strain  is 
twenty-five  per  cent,  greater  than  that  of 
"ordinary"  constructed  rope. 

Another  advantage  of  this  construction 
is  this :  the  strands  of  the  inner  core  lying 
in  the  interstices  of  the  outer  strands  tend 
greatly  to  prevent  the  wires  of  the  outer 
rope  from  creeping. 

Mr.  Frederick's  new  cable  idea  appealed 
to  the  canal  engineers,  and  one  and  one- 
half-inch  cables  of  this  type  were  made  up. 
The  wire,  with  slight  modifications,  was 
the  same  that  is  used  in  yellow  strand  of 
ordinary  construction. 

The  unloading  records  made  by  these 
special  cables  exceeded  all  expectations. 
Instead  of  unloading  300  to  500  trains  of 


Nine  B.  &  B.  compound  yellow  strand 
cables  averaged  1,388  trains  per  cable. 
All  cables  of  both  makes  were  the  same  dia- 
meter— one  and  one-half  inch.  As  substan- 
tial proof  that  B.  &  B.  compound  yellow 
strand  cables  met  the  situation  adequately, 
it  might  be  mentioned  that  the  government 
purchased  over  $25,000  worth  of  these  ropes 
exclusively  for  ballast  unloaders. 

Yellow  strand  cables  are  made  of  a 
special  high-grade  steel  wire,  drawn  in 
Europe  to  Broderick  &  Bascom's  specifica- 
tions. They  import  this  wire  and  control 
its  use  in  this  country.  This  special  wire 
has  an  actual  tested  tensile  strength  of 
240,000  to  260,000  pounds  per  square 
inch.  But  the  durability  of  this  special 
yellow  strand  wire  is  due  to  something 
deeper  than  its  great  strength.  It  has 


1.  Wire  Rope,  .core  and  weave. 

2.  The  busy  Cableway  Towers  at  Gatun  during  construction. 

3.  Drum  of  wire  rope. 

(Supplied  by  the  Broderick  &  Bascom  Rope  Company,  St.  Louis,  Mo.) 


OTHER  WIRE   ROPE  WORK 


353 


a  character  all  its  own — a  character  in- 
herited from  the  purest  of  Swedish  ore 
and  developed  by  painstaking  manufac- 
turing methods. 

The  ingot  steel  is  made  in  England  by 
the  Siemen's  Martin  acid  process  which 
produces  Sheffield  steel.  The  ingots  are 
rolled  into  bars  and  the  bars  drawn  into 
wire  by  expert  English  wire  drawers,  and 
it  makes  wire  that  makes  long-lived  wire 
rope. 

The  wire  rope  is  in  general  use  for  every 
purpose  where  great  strength  must  be  com- 
bined with  flexibility  and  elasticity.  The 
Broderick  &  Bascom  Rope  Co.,  whose  main 
office  is  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  have  been  mak- 
ing wire  rope  for  over  a  third  of  a  century. 
They  have  two  factories — one  in  St.  Louis, 
Mo.,  and  the  other  in  Seattle,  Wash. 

Among  the  manufacturers  who  furnished 
wire  rope  and  insulated  wire  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  canal  was  the  Hazard 
Manufacturing  Company  of  Wilkesbarre, 
Pa.,  a  firm  established  in  1848.  The  insu- 
lated wire  department  of  this  company  was 
established  in  1898,  and  has  grown  to  be  a 
very  important  factor  in  the  company's 
business. 

The  products  of  the  Hazard  Manufactur- 
ing Company  are  known  throughout  the 
United  States  as  of  the  finest  quality,  made 
to  meet  the  real  needs  of  purchasers  and  to 
give  the  most  economical  results  in  their 
use. 

The  wire  ropes  furnished  the  Isthmian 
Canal  Commission  were  mainly  of  two  con- 
structions, one  the  regular  hoisting  rope 
construction  composed  of  six  strands  of 
nineteen  wires  each  with  the  best  manila 
core  as  a  cushion ;  the  other  what  is  known 
as  extra  flexible  construction  composed  of 
eight  strands  of  nineteen  wires  each  with  a 
manila  core.  The  material  entering  into 
both  constructions  was  the  same,  known 
as  plow  steel,  with  a  breaking  strain  in 
the  finished  wire  of  some  115  to  120  gross 
tons  per  square  inch,  to  meet  the  specifi- 
cations of  the  commission. 

The  wire  ropes  furnished  were  of  vari- 
ous sizes  from  one-half-inch  diameter  up  to 


one-inch  diameter  inclusive.  Test  pieces 
were  cut  from  all  finished  ropes  as  they 
were  made  up  and  tested  by  the  inspector 
of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  to  see 
that  they  were  up  to  the  required  breaking 
strain.  The  specifications  required  by  the 
commission  were  as  follows : — 

Breaking  Strain  in  Tons  of  2,000  Pounds 
Diameter  6  Strands  8  Strands 

K"  10 

H*  isX  14 

ys  23  20 

1/r  29  26 

i"  33 

Sizes  one-half  and  one  inch  were  not 
made  in  the  eight-strand  construction. 

This  company  also  furnished  the  ballast 
unloader  ropes  which  were  required  to  do 
a  most  responsible  work  in  connection  with 
the  rapid  disposal  of  rock  and  dirt  excava- 
tion. These  ropes  were  one  and  one-half 
inches  diameter,  six  strands  of  nineteen 
wires  each,  known  as  Seals  patent  or  cable 
construction,  and  were  made  of  the  finest 
obtainable  plow  steel  material  drawn  to 
the  highest  strains. 

The  insulated  wire  furnished  the  com- 
mission was  for  "house  lighting,"  and  was 
made  in  accordance  with  N.  E.  C.  rules 
and  requirements  as  adopted  January  I, 
1912.  This  company  did  not  compete  for 
the  requirements  of  bare  copper  and  elec- 
tric conductors  for  use  in  the  operation  of 
the  locks. 

The  Hazard  Manufacturing  Company 
in  material  furnished  the  Isthmian  Canal 
Commission  gave  the  same  standard  of 
excellence  which  it  aims  to  maintain  in  all 
its  products.  Good  service  is  the  duty  of 
every  patriotic  manufacturer  in  furnishing 
products  to  the  United  States  Government, 
whether  entering  into  supplies  or  perma- 
nent work.  The  open  competition  that  was 
adopted  by  the  commission  brought  about 
competitive  conditions  into  which  it  was 
not  always  possible  for  this  company  to 
enter.  It  is  a  matter  of  pride  and  satis- 
faction, however,  to  its  officers  that  the 
Hazard  Manufacturing  Company  had  some 
honorable  part  in  connection  with  this  work 
of  national  and  world-wide  importance. 


354 


HISTORY  OF   THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


The  ordinary  hoisting  and  other  rope, 
so  useful  and  important  in  general  building 
and  construction,  was  liberally  used  on  the 
canal.  Here  again,  American  manufacturers 
had  to  meet  unusual  conditions. 

Manila  rope  is  always  an  important 
article  in  construction  work,  as  upon  its 
strength  the  safety  of  valuable  property  or 
life  itself  often  depends,  but  at  the  same 
time  it  is  one  of  those  articles  so  easy  to 
buy  .that  its  importance  is  seldom  recog- 
nized. Usually  when  rope  is  needed  a 
coil  or  two  is  bought  at  the  nearest  store 
and  no  more  attention  is  given  to  it,  unless 
it  proves  to  be  an  inferior  quality. 

The  location  of  the  Panama  Canal  so 
far  from  the  ordinary  sources  of  supply 
made  it  necessary  that  all  material  (includ- 
ing rope)  should  be  of  a  uniform  and  depend- 
able quality.  During  the  first  few  years 
all  manila  rope  was  purchased  as  the  prog- 
ress of  the  work  demanded.  Later  it  was 
found  that  it  would  be  more  desirable  to 
have  the  rope  purchased  on  the  basis  of  an 
annual  contract. 

In  1910  the  Columbian  Rope  Company 
of  Auburn,  N.  Y. ,  bid  on  these  specifi- 
cations and  was  successful  in  securing  the 
award.  The  contract  was  for  the  fiscal 
year  beginning  June,  1910,  and  ending 
July  I,  1911.  During  this  period  the 
estimated  requirements  of  the  Isthmian 
Canal  Commission  for  manila  rope  was 
about  1,000,000  pounds.  Such  a  large 
amount  of  rope  is  difficult  to  comprehend, 
but  the  quantity  can  be  better  appreciated 
when  it  is  known  that  if  it  were  made  into 
clothes  line  size  there  would  be  enough 
to  make  five  continuous  lines  from  New 
York  to  San  Francisco,  or  in  other  words, 
over  15,000  miles  of  rope. 

In  the  thousand  and  one  different  places 
where  rope  was  used  on  the  isthmus  oppor- 
tunities would  arise  for  incorrect  use  or 
excessive  strains,  resulting  in  complaints. 
No  more  striking  evidence  of  the  uniform- 
ity and  the  high  quality  of  "Columbian" 
manila  rope  has  ever  been  offered  than  the 
one  fact  that  during  this  entire  period  not 
a  single  complaint  of  any  nature  was 


registered  against  the  wearing  qualities 
of  this  rope. 

The  Columbian  Rope  Company  was 
again  awarded  the  contract  for  the  entire 
manila  rope  requirements  for  the  twelve 
months  ending  July  I,  1913,  and  during 
this  period  the  rope  gave  just  as  good 
service  as  before. 

When  letting  this  contract  the  specifica- 
tions of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission 
required  that  each  size  of  rope  should 
stand  a  given  strain  before  breaking.  The 
tests  for  this  breaking  strain  consisted  of 
taking  samples  of  every  fifth  coil  and 
breaking  them  on  the  Rhiele  testing  ma- 
chine. During  the  time  that  the  rope  con- 
tract was  placed  with  the  Columbian  Rope 
Company  hundreds  of  breaks  were  made,  and 
on  each  test  "Columbian"  rope  equalled 
or  exceeded  the  commission's  requirements. 

In  reviewing  this  item  of  equipment  for 
the  canal's  construction,  the  following 
points  stand  out  prominently: 

The  peculiar  excellence  of  "Columbian" 
rope  for  use  in  the  climate  of  the  isthmus; 
the  uniformity  of  the  product  as  shown  by 
the  absence  of  all  complaints  regarding 
the  quality;  the  accurate  system  of  in- 
spection and  grading  of  fibre  that  must 
be  maintained  to  insure  a  product  of  such 
continuous  uniformity;  and  the  unusual 
facilities  for  quick  manufacture  and  prompt 
shipment — no  penalties  ever  having  been 
charged  against  the  company  for  delay  in 
deliveries,  except  for  penalty  of  a  day  or 
two  due  to  the  delay  occasioned  by  the 
transportation  company. 

The  Columbian  Rope  Company's  plant 
is  located  in  the  city  of  Auburn,  N.  Y. 
It  employs  about  1,000  people  and  is  the 
largest  single  industry  in  the  city.  The 
products  consist  of  rope  and  commercial 
twines  made  from  manila,  sisal,  flax,  hemp 
and  jute  twines.  The  raw  material  is 
secured  from  many  distant  lands,  as,  for 
instance,  manila  fibre  from  the  Philippine 
Islands ;  sisal  fibre  from  Yucatan ;  flax  from 
Russia;  jute  from  India;  and  hemp  from 
Italy,  Russia  or  Kentucky.  The  product 
is  principally  sold  in  the  United  States,  al- 


Ninety -five-ton  Bucyrus  Shovels  at  work.  The  machine  in  the  foreground  for  a  long  time  held  the  canal  record  but  was  later 
beaten  by  another  Bucyrus  Machine.  (The  Bucyrus  Company,  South  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  also  furnished  two  is-yard 
dipper  dredges,  and  is  now  constructing  another,  to  cost  $375,000,  to  handle  material  thrown  into  the  canal  by  slides.) 


DREDGERS  AND   EXCAVATORS 


355 


though  some  goods  are  shipped  to  many 
distant  countries,  including  Argentina,  Bra- 
zil, South  Africa,  Norway  and  Asia  Minor. 

The  officers  of  the  company  are:  Presi- 
dent, E.  D.  Metcalf;  vice-president,  T.  M. 
Osborne;  general  manager,  E.  F.  Metcalf; 
secretary  and  treasurer,  F.  M.  Everett; 
assistant  treasurer,  H.  G.  Metcalf;  general 
superintendent,  C.  A.  Clark. 

Among  other  cordage  and  rope  accesso- 
ries supplied  for  the  canal  were  several  cars 
of  Old  Colony  braided  sash  cord,  Hartz 
steel  tackle  blocks,  manila  rope,  and  other 
items  of  tackle  and  cordage  shipped  by 
George  B.  Carpenter  &  Co.,  of  Chicago. 
This  equipment  was  adopted  because  of 
its  adaptability  to  any  climate  and  uni- 
form good  quality  and  lowest  price. 

DREDGING  AND  EXCAVATING  MACHINERY 

Those  who  were  so  fortunate  as  to  have 
witnessed  the  work  during  the  canal's 
construction  will  always  retain  the  picture 
of  the  great  steam  shovels  and  dredges 
busily  engaged  in  "making  the  dirt  fly." 
The  machines,  more  than  human  in  their 
steadiness  and  precision,  and  impressive  in 
their  wonderful  power,  were  easily  among 
the  most  picturesque  features  of  the  canal 
work. 

Dipper  dredges,  especially  designed  for 
the  canal,  were  early  set  to  work  upon  the 
slides  in  Culebra  Cut.  It  is  difficult,  even 
for  one  familiar  with  this  type  of  machinery, 
to  comprehend  their  enormous  size  and 
power.  Beside  them,  the  discarded  dredges 
of  the  French  operations  were  pigmies. 

The  most  graphic  illustration  of  their  size 
may  be  found  in  their  fifteen  cubic  yard 
dippers,  which  could  hold  thirty-four  men 
standing  on  a  platform  half  way  down  the 
bowl.  The  boom  of  each  dredge,  with  its 
machinery,  weighed  about  113,000  pounds, 
and  was  sixty-two  feet  long.  The  dipper 
handles  were  seventy-two  feet  long,  and 
without  the  dipper  weighed  81,000  pounds. 

Before  construction  work  was  actively 
commenced  on  the  isthmus,  John  F.  Wal- 
lace, who  was  then  chief  engineer  of  the 
Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  made  his 


first  tour  of  inspection  along  the  proposed 
line  of  the  canal,  in  August,  1904.  In  order 
to  determine  the  most  efficient  method  of 
doing  the  dry  excavation  he  requested  the 
Bucyrus  Company,  of  South  Milwaukee, 
Wis.,  to  send  a  representative  to  the  isth- 
mus to  discuss  with  him  the  types  of 
machinery  best  fitted  for  the  work. 

On  the  1 8th  of  the  same  month,  a  con- 
tract was  signed  with  the  Bucyrus  Com- 
pany for  one  seventy-ton  and  two  ninety- 
five-ton  steam  shovels.  This  was  followed 
in  October  with  an  order  for  five  seventy- 
ton  and  six  ninety-five-ton  shovels.  Sub- 
sequently, orders  were  placed  with  the 
Bucyrus  Company  until  ultimately  a  total 
of  thirty-two  ninety-five-ton,  thirty-five 
seventy-ton  and  ten  forty-five-ton  Bucyrus 
shovels  were  at  work,  making  a  total  of 
seventy-seven  out  of  a  grand  total  of  one 
hundred  and  one  steam  shovels  engaged  in 
the  dry  excavation  of  the  canal.  The 
ninety-five-ton  shovels  were  equipped  with 
five-yard  dippers,  the  seventy-ton  with 
three-yard,  and  the  forty-five-ton  with  one- 
and-three-quarter-yard  dippers. 

Two  fifteen-yard  dipper  dredges,  the 
largest  of  their  type  ever  constructed,  were 
supplied  by  the  Bucyrus  Company,  in 
addition  to  their  dry  excavation  steam 
shovels,  a  railroad  pile  driver  and  three 
seventy-five-ton  and  one  one -hundred-ton 
wrecking  machines.  The  railroad  pile 
driver  was  mainly  used  for  work  in  con- 
nection with  the  Panama  Railroad.  The 
machine  was  self  propelling,  and  was  pro- 
vided with  a  drop-hammer  weighing  3,500 
pounds.  The  wrecking  cranes  were  used 
on  both  canal  and  railroad  work. 

The  extraordinarily  massive  construc- 
tion and  enormous  power  of  the  dipper 
dredges  attracted  wide  attention  from 
engineers  and  technical  experts,  and  were 
a  favorite  feature  of  interest  to  visitors. 

It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  without 
the  help  of  the  giant  steam  shovels  and 
dredges  the  canal  would  yet  be  only  in  a 
preliminary  stage  of  completion.  An 
analysis  of  the  records  of  the  official  per- 
formance of  the  steam  shovels  shows  that 


356 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA  CANAL 


the  Bucyrus  shovels  hold  all  records  of  out- 
put on  the  canal  proper,  where  the  most 
severe  conditions  were  encountered.  A 
ninety-five-ton  Bucyrus  excavated  4,823 
cubic  yards  of  material,  classified  as  earth 
and  rock,  in  five  hours  and  twenty  minutes. 
The  same  shovel,  known  in  the  official 
language  of  the  commission  as  No.  213, 
holds  the  highest  monthly  record  made  in 
the  canal  prism,  excavating  in  twenty-six 
days  70,290  cubic  yards  of  material,  or 
enough  to  fill  a  line  of  ordinary  two-yard 
dump  wagons  reaching  two  hundred  miles. 

As  the  canal  got  deeper,  the  material 
encountered  contained  a  higher  percentage 
of  rock.  Down  in  the  lowest  cuts  of  the 
canal,  where  the  most  severe  conditions 
were  encountered  and  the  most  exacting 
service  required,  the  giant  Bucyrus  ma- 
chines dug  stolidly  until  the  last  whistle 
echoed  over  the  completed  cuts. 

During  the  earlier  periods  of  excavation 
practically  all  of  the  material  was  removed 
by  the  larger  types  of  shovels,  but,  as  the 
work  progressed,  it  became  apparent  that 
certain  operations  could  be  prosecuted 
more  expeditiously  and  to  better  advantage 
by  shovels  of  smaller  make. 

It  was  at  this  stage  that  the  canal 
officials  called  for  bids  for  the  kind  of 
shovel  needed  to  meet  the  changed  require- 
ments. The  Thew  Automatic  Shovel  Com- 
pany of  Lorain,  Ohio,  had  refrained  from 
entering  the  field  of  competition  earlier, 
largely  because  the  entire  output  of  its 
plant  had  been  contracted  for  months 
ahead  when  the  first  bids  were  made.  It 
answered  the  later  appeal,  however,  and 
was  awarded,  over  a  large  number  of  com- 
petitors, the  contract  calling  for  its  thirty- 
two-ton  steam  shovel.  This  is  a  small, 
full-circle  swing  steam  shovel,  representing 
careful  development  under  various  practi- 
cal tests,  as  well  as  the  highest  possible 
degree  of  perfection  that  the  company 
could  devise  toward  meeting  the  objects  in 
view — basement  excavating,  loading  ma- 
terial from  rock  piles,  road  and  street  grad- 
ing, and  the  different  classes  of  railroad, 
quarrying  and  other  work  in  which  the 


heavier  excavator  type  of  shovel  cannot  be 
used  to  advantage. 

According  to  the  reports  of  the  men  in 
charge  of  the  equipment,  the  Thew  shovels 
gave  most  satisfactory  results  during  their 
entire  period  of  use  at  the  isthmus.  As  an 
example  of  the  amount  of  work  possible 
there  may  be  quoted  an  eleven-day  record 
recently  made  by  one  of  the  shovels — a 
duplicate  of  the  Panama  equipment — dur- 
ing which  2,605  cars  were  loaded  with  an 
aggregate  of  14,942  cubic  yards  of  material. 
Many  other  practical  tests  have  shown  that 
where  the  capacity  desired  does  not  exceed 
1,000  to  1,500  cubic  yards  a  day,  the  Thew 
shovel  offers  many  features  of  decided 
advantage  over  any  other  similar  article 
now  being  manufactured. 

In  addition  to  the  dry  excavation  and 
dipper  shovels  and  dredges,  other  types  of 
dredges  were  prominent  on  the  canal.  One 
of  the  most  important  of  these  was  the 
bucket  "hopper  dredge"  Corozal,  con- 
structed by  the  William  Simons  Company, 
of  Renfrew,  Scotland,  a  firm  distinguished 
by  being  one  of  the  few  foreign  concerns  to 
supply  equipment  for  the  canal.  Before 
giving  a  description  of  the  immense  work 
done  by  this  piece  of  dredging  machinery 
a  little  of  the  history  of  the  evolution  in 
dredging  machinery  that  has  taken  place 
within  the  last  few  years  may  be  interesting 
to  the  reader. 

The  introduction  of  dredging  machines 
in  England  is  generally  placed  in  the 
reign  of  Charles  I,  when  several  Dutch 
engineers  went  to  that  country  to  carry  out 
some  engineering  projects.  In  the  latter 
part  of  the  i8th  century  important  im- 
provements were  made  in  dredging  appli- 
ances, particularly  with  operations  on  the 
Clyde,  and  further  improvements  were 
made  a  few  years  later  in  connection  with 
the  deepening  of  the  Thames,  and  a  dredg- 
ing machine  wrought  with  steam  power 
was  invented  by  Trevethick  in  1806-7. 

The  application  of  steam  power  to  dredg- 
ing appliances  culminated  in  1861,  in  the 
construction  of  two  hopper  steamers  by 
William  Simons  &  Co.,  of  Renfrew,  for  use 


1.  Lidgerwood  cableway  conveyors  at  work  on  side  wall  monolith,  Gatun  upper  lock;  cable  rope  furnished  by  A.  Leschen  & 

Sons  Rope  Co.,  St.  Louis. 

2.  Lidgerwood  unloaders  sweeping  the  cars  with  Leschen 's  "Hercules"  wire  rope. 

(Supplied  by  the  Lidgerwood  Manufacturing  Company,  New  York.) 


THE   DREDGE   "COROZAL' 


357 


on  dredging  work  on  the  Clyde.  These 
were  the  first  self-propelling  vessels  em- 
ployed for  transporting  and  depositing 
dredgings  in  deep  water.  The  idea  of  em- 
ploying steam  power  for  this  purpose  was, 
at  the  time,  looked  upon  with  grave  doubts, 
some  regarding  it  as  a  piece  of  folly,  and, 
as  was  customary  in  those  days,  it  met  with 
much  opposition. 

Time  and  actual  accomplishment  have 
amply  demonstrated  on  the  Clyde,  Thames, 
and  Mersey,  and  on  the  Panama  Canal, 
that  the  substitution  of  "steam  hoppers" 
for  tugs,  with  their  string  of  punts  or  scows, 
was  a  step  in  the  right  direction.  This 
introduction  of  "steam  hoppers"  brought 
about  other  improvements.  Among  other 
suggestions  was  one  that  if  it  were  possible 
to  combine  in  one  bottom  all  the  distinctive 
features  of  the  bucket  ladder  dredger  and 
the  steam  hopper  barge,  many  advan- 
tages, such  as  adaptability  for  working  in 
confined  spaces,  economy  in  working,  abil- 
ity to  work  in  exposed  situations  when  it 
would  be  impossible  for  a  barge  to  lie 
alongside  a  stationary  dredger,  etc.,  would 
be  gained.  The  result  was  the  invention 
by  Mr.  Brown  of  what  is  now  known  as 
the  "hopper  dredger."  The  first  dredger 
of  this  type  was  the  Canada,  constructed 
by  Messrs.  Simons  &  Co.,  in  1872,  to  the 
order  of  the  Dominion  government.  Im- 
provements in  detail  followed  in  the  course 
of  time,  as  experience  was  gained  in  han- 
dling the  new  type  of  dredger. 

The  Corozal,  used  on  the  work  of  the 
Panama  Canal,  is  the  most  powerful  bucket 
"hopper"  dredge  yet  constructed.  It  is 
a  twin-screw  vessel,  built  of  steel,  practi- 
cally 269  feet  in  length.  The  steam  gener- 
ating plant  consists  of  two  marine  cylin- 
drical multitubular  boilers,  having  a  total 
heating  surface  of  4,044  square  feet,  and  a 
combined  grate  area  of  132  square  feet. 
The  boilers  are  constructed  of  mild  steel 
suitable  for  a  working  steam  pressure  of 
1 80  pounds  per  square  inch,  each  boiler 
being  capable  of  driving  simultaneously 
one  set  of  main  engines  together  with  all 
auxiliary  engines.  There  are  two  main 


engines,  which  propel  the  vessel  or  run  the 
dredging  gear  as  required. 

The  air  pumps  are  two  independent 
vertical  steam-driven  pumps.  The  circu- 
lating pumps  consist  of  two  independent 
steam-driven  centrifugal  pumps.  Other 
pumps  for  various  parts  of  the  work  are 
supplied,  and  are  operated  independently 
of  the  main  engines  by  steam  direct  from 
the  boilers.  The  propellers  are  of  cast  iron 
secured  to  steel  shafting  driven  through 
steel  clutches  from  the  main  engines.  The 
dredger  is  fitted  with  its  own  refrigerating 
and  electric  lighting  plants. 

The  ladder  upon  which  the  continuous 
chain  of  large  buckets  revolves  is  built 
up  of  structural  steel  girders  strongly 
braced  laterally  and  vertically,  and  is  115 
feet  long,  weighing  100  tons.  With  buckets 
and  links  and  mountings  on  it  the  total 
weight  of  the  ladder  is  240  tons.  The  gear 
is  so  arranged  that  with  a  constant  piston 
speed  of  the  main  engines  three  different 
speeds  of  the  buckets  can  be  obtained. 
This  arrangement  of  the  gearing  permits 
the  dredger  successfully  and  economi- 
cally to  tackle  very  hard,  medium  and  soft 
material.  Two  sizes  of  buckets  are  pro- 
vided, one  of  fifty-four  cubic  feet  for  exca- 
vating in  soft  material,  and  one  of  thirty- 
five  feet  for  digging  in  hard  material. 
There  are  thirty-nine  buckets  in  a  chain. 

For  regulating  and  controlling  the  cut 
of  the  dredger  enormous  maneuvering 
winches  are  placed  at  bow  and  stern. 
These  winches  are  of  the  most  powerful 
description  and  were  designed  with  special 
regard  to  the  very  hard  nature  of  the 
dredging  work  to  be  done  by  the  Corozal 
in  the  canal.  The  work  for  which  the 
dredge  was  used  was  the  digging  of  about 
four  million  cubic  yards  of  hard  material, 
rock,  clay  and  boulders  from  the  Pacific 
entrance  of  the  canal  between  Balboa  and 
Miraflores  locks,  excavation  that  could 
not  be  done  by  the  ordinary  ladder  or 
dipper  dredges,  such  as  had  been  used  by 
the  French  company,  because  of  the  char- 
acter of  the  material  and  the  depth  at 
which  it  was  found. 


358 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


The  Corozal  has  a  center  well  ladder 
so  that  it  can  make  its  own  flotation,  that 
is,  it  can  dig  into  a  bank  ahead,  and  when 
the  ladder  makes  an  angle  of  rorty-five 
degrees  with  the  vertical,  excavation  can 
be  carried  on  at  a  depth  of  fifty  feet.  It 
was  required  by  the  canal  engineers  that 
the  dredger  should  be  capable  of  digging 
1,200  cubic  yards  of  soft  material  per  hour 
at  a  depth  of  fifty  feet. 

The  trip  from  the  Clyde  to  Balboa  by 
the  dredger  was  a  memorable  voyage.  The 
log  showed  a  total  of  12,064  miles  covered 
in  the  journey,  the  actual  sailing  time  con- 
suming ninety-six  days.  The  trip  was 
made  by  way  of  the  Strait  of  Magellan, 
and  on  arriving  at  its  destination  the 
dredger  was  ready  for  active  service.  The 
digging  of  the  Panama  Canal  marks  an 
era  in  dredging  work  in  which  the  Corozal 
played  a  most  important  and  successful 
part. 

DISPOSAL  OF  MATERIAL  FROM  EXCAVA- 
TIONS 

From  the  foregoing  record  of  the  great 
forces  at  work  in  loosening  the  rocks  and 
earth  in  the  path  marked  out  for  the  canal, 
it  will  be  readily  seen  that  one  of  the  most 
difficult  problems  to  be  solved  by  the  canal 
engineers  was  that  of  speedily  disposing 
of  the  excavated  material.  With  drills, 
powder,  steam  shovels  and  dredges  creating 
an  ever-increasing  mass  to  be  removed,  all 
the  resources  of  American  ingenuity  were 
called  upon  for  a  rapid  means  of  getting 
the  debris  out  of  the  way  as  fast  as  powder 
loosened  it  and  the  machine  shovels 
scooped  it  up.  The  original  plan  of  the 
canal  builders  seems  to  have  contemplated 
the  use  either  of  the  old  French  type  of 
dump  car  or  standard  railroad  cars  of  gon- 
dola or  platform  type.  This  was  soon 
abandoned  for  more  efficient  equipment, 
and  a  number  of  American  firms  began  to 
supply  machinery  and  cars  for  the  removal 
of  excavated  material  that  quickly  solved 
this  difficult  feature  of  canal  construc- 
tion. 

One  hundred  million  cubic  yards  of  rock 


and  earth  had  to  be  disposed  of  from  the 
Culebra  Cut  alone.  This  means  a  mass  of 
material  100  feet  wide,  100  feet  deep,  and 
more  than  fifty  miles  long.  It  means 
nearly  5,000,000  carloads.  Places  had  to 
be  chosen  where  this  enormous  mass  of 
spoil  could  be  deposited,  railroad  tracks 
provided  to  get  the  cars  to  and  from  the 
dumps,  and  finally  a  means  for  the  rapid 
unloading  of  the  train  of  cars.  What  is 
known  in  the  mechanical  and  scientific 
world  as  "The  Lidgerwood  System"  was 
among  the  means  chosen  for  this  important 
work,  and  thirty  "Rapid  Unloaders"  were 
purchased. 

The  Lidgerwood  system  consists  of  trains 
of  flat  cars,  with  steel  aprons  bridging  the 
spaces  between  the  cars,  a  plow  to  sweep 
the  load  from  the  cars,  a  steel  cable  reach- 
ing the  length  of  the  train,  and  the  "Rapid 
Unloader,"  a  powerful  winding  engine  to 
draw  the  plow  through  the  train.  A  long 
train  can  be  unloaded  in  five  minutes. 
The  unloader  is  placed  on  a  flat  car  coupled 
to  the  locomotive,  and  takes  steam  from 
the  locomotive  boiler. 

A  train  for  unloading  is  made  up  with 
the  locomotive  and  unloader  attached  to  the 
head  of  the  train,  and  with  one  of  the  regular 
Lidgerwood  cars  carrying  the  plow  coupled 
to  the  rear.  When  the  dump  is  reached  the 
cable  is  attached  to  the  plow,  and  the  plow 
rapidly  drawn  along  the  cars,  unloading 
earth  and  rock  with  a  rapidity  that  is 
amazing. 

In  addition  to  its  unloading  system  the 
Lidgerwood  Company  played  an  important 
part  in  another  branch  of  the  great  work. 
Tourists  and  engineers  visiting  Gatun  dur- 
ing construction  time  were  fascinated  in 
witnessing  the  operation  of  eight  Lidger- 
wood cableways  spanning  the  Gatun  Locks. 
The  supporting  cables  seemed  like  mere 
wire  threads  in  the  sky,  and  the  loads  ap- 
peared to  fly.  The  visitor  saw,  first,  the 
load  being  quickly  lifted  high  in  the  air 
from  a  car  on  the  bank;  then  go  spinning 
along  the  wire  threads,  with  great  speed 
the  carriage  hovering  a  moment  over  the 
place  of  deposit,  and  finally  the  load  low- 


ctf  C 


3$ 


II 


WESTERN   DUMP   CARS 


359 


ered  and  the  contents  of  the  bucket  deliver- 
ered  into  the  wall.  Two  million  cubic 
yards  of  concrete  were  placed  in  the  walls 
by  the  cableways. 

In  the  year  1904  the  Western  Wheeled 
Scraper  Company  of  Aurora,  111.,  sub- 
mitted a  tentative  proposition  to  the  Isth- 
mian Canal  Commission  for  twenty-four 
all-steel,  double  side-dump  cars  of  twelve 
cubic  yards  capacity.  This  proposition 
was  accepted  with  a  view  of  giving  the  cars 
a  thorough  test  in  the  actual  work  and 
under  the  conditions  as  they  existed  on  the 
Isthmus. 

These  twenty-four  cars  were  shipped  to 
the  canal  in  the  early  part  of  1905  and  on 
August  9,  1905,  the  first  dirt  was  moved  at 
Empire  by  American  equipment  in  the 
Western  air  dump  cars. 

After  these  cars  had  been  thoroughly 
tested  and  their  value  recognized  by  the 
engineers  on  the  Isthmus,  the  commission 
ordered  seventy-six  additional,  making 
100  in  all.  This  car  was  designed  specifi- 
cally for  the  hard  service  to  which  equip- 
ment was  subjected  on  the  canal  and  was 
a  modification  of  the  Western  type  of 
car  as  used  in  railroad  construction  in  the 
States. 

In  December  of  the  same  year  200  more 
of  these  cars,  all  being  twelve  cubic  yards 
capacity,  were  shipped.  In  the  latter  part 
of  1906  the  commission,  finding  that  it 
could  use  to  advantage  larger  cars,  ordered 
300  Western  side-dump  cars  of  18%  cubic 
yards  capacity,  which  were  shipped  early 
in  1907.  In  1909,  300  of  the  Western 
twelve-yard  cars  were  shipped  to  the  canal. 
There  were  also  used  some  four-yard 
narrow-gauge  cars  at  the  Porto  Bello 
crushing  plant  and  some  two-yard  thirty- 
inch  gauge  cars. 

All  these  cars  were  made  exceptionally 
strong,  and  their  record  for  standing  up 
under  the  severe  usage  to  which  they  were 
subjected  shows  the  maintenance  cost  to 
have  been  extremely  low.  Most  of  them 
were  used  under  steam  shovel  dippers  of 
five  cubic  yards  capacity.  The  impact  of 
a  mass  of  rock  contained  in  a  dipper  of  this 


size  dropped  from  a  considerable  height  is 
enormous.  This  made  it  necessary  to  use 
extra  heavy  material  in  the  cars  so  as  to 
avoid  all  liability  of  breakage. 

The  bed  of  the  Western  car  is  pivoted 
longitudinally  in  the  center  over  the  draft 
beams  and  will  dump  on  either  side;  when 
dumping,  the  hinges,  riveted  to  the  center 
sill  under  the  bed,  rock  on  the  pedestal 
castings  which  are  riveted  to  the  draft 
beams.  One  of  the  most  important  fea- 
tures of  the  car  consists  of  the  patented 
hinge  connection  between  the  bed  and 
trucks.  This  hinge  has  two  members 
riveted  as  above  described  to  the  bed  and 
draft  beams  respectively.  Between  these 
members  a  bar  of  iron  is  hung  perpendicu- 
larly, a  horizontal  pin  passing  through  the 
lugs  of  the  upper  portion  of  the  hinge  and 
an  eye  in  the  perpendicular  bar.  This 
bar  drops  into  a  socket  in  the  pedestal 
which  forms  the  lower  member  of  the  hinge 
and  which  is  riveted  to  the  draft  beams. 
Between  the  upper  and  lower  members  of 
the  hinge  is  a  steel  wear  plate.  The  bear- 
ing comes  directly  on  the  wear  plate  be- 
tween the  upper  hinge  casting  and  the 
pedestal,  no  strain  whatever  coming  on  the 
horizontal  pin  which  holds  the  loose  bar 
or  hinge  connection  in  place,  and  the  bed 
and  trucks  are  not  fastened  together  in  any 
way,  but  the  bed  rests  loosely  on  the  ped- 
estal castings. 

The  arms  which  operate  the  side  boards 
or  doors  of  the  Western  cars  are  pivoted 
on  the  ends  of  the  beds  and  at  the  ends  of 
the  side  boards,  and  are  operated  by  a 
toggle  which  is  attached  to  the  upper  arm 
and  to  a  central  point  at  the  end  of  the  car 
bed.  Immediately  the  bed  is  tilted,  the 
toggle  strikes  a  rest  provided  for  the 
purpose,  which  lifts  the  door  upward  and 
outward  from  the  load,  giving  the  widest 
possible  opening  for  discharge  of  the 
load. 

The  irons  which  operate  the  side  doors 
are  not  attached  to  the  truck,  so  that  when 
the  side  chains  are  unlatched,  the  bed  and 
truck  are  entirely  separable.  This  sep- 
arable feature  of  the  upper  hinge  and  ped- 


360 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


estal  is  another  point  of  considerable  value. 
In  the  act  of  dumping,  the  bed  is  not  held 
rigidly  to  the  trucks,  but  is  permitted  to 
rise  slightly  from  the  pedestals  at  the 
moment  of  the  shock,  so  that  there  is 
no  tendency  to  lift  the  truck  from  the 
rails. 

In  the  event  of  derailment  and  rolling 
down  an  embankment,  the  bed  and  truck 
automatically  separate,  causing  less  damage 
to  the  car  and  making  much  easier  its  re- 
placement on  the  track. 

The  bearing  on  which  the  bed  turns  in 
dumping  is  of  such  construction  and  per- 
fect adjustment  as  to  make  the  dumping 
and  bringing  back  of  the  bed  to  position 
much  easier  than  on  any  other  make  of 
car,  so  that  the  saving  in  labor  by  use  of 
the  Western  is  very  great. 

The  height  of  the  Western  is  less  than 
that  of  other  cars.  The  dumping  angle 
is  forty-seven  degrees.  On  account  of 
the  large  opening  for  discharge  and  the 
acute  dumping  angle,  anything  that  can 
be  loaded  into  the  cars  will  clear  the  side 
board  in  dumping,  so  that  heavy  rocks  and 
bowlders  or  frozen  earth  in  large  masses 
can  be  easily  handled. 

The  air  dumping  device  used  on  these 
cars  consists  of  a  cylinder  and  a  set  of  levers, 
chains,  shafts,  and  cams  for  each  side. 
The  thrust  of  the  piston  rod  acts  on  the 
lever,  which  transmits  the  motion  to  a 
shaft  through  a  chain  operating  over  a 
cam.  On  the  same  shaft  are  two  other 
cams  to  which  the  dumping  chains  are 
attached,  the  upper  ends  of  these  chains 
being  fastened  to  the  outer  angle  sills  of 
the  bed.  The  action  of  the  lever  causes 
the  shaft  to  rotate,  drawing  the  bed  down 
to  the  dumping  angle.  The  return  of  the 
bed  to  carrying  position  is  accomplished 
by  similar  action  of  the  device  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  car.  The  air  used  in 
dumping  the  car  will  serve  to  return  the 
bed  to  upright  position.  The  dumping 
and  righting  of  the  car  are  controlled  by 
the  engineer  in  his  cab,  operating  a  spe- 
cial four-way  valve  designed  for  this  pur- 
pose. 


Added  to  the  great  saving  in  the  opera- 
tion of  the  cars  are  the  fewer  repairs  re- 
quired, due  not  only  to  their  great  strength 
but  also  to  the  fact  that  they  stay  on  the 
tracks,  thus  avoiding  heavy  expenses 
through  derailment  and  wrecks. 

One  of  the  most  valuable  characteristics 
is  that  of  rapidity  of  operation.  The  dump- 
ing of  the  cars  and  the  bringing  back  to  the 
upright  position  require  but  a  few  seconds, 
so  that  it  will  be  readily  appreciated  how 
very  great  was  the  importance  of  this 
equipment  in  the  saving  of  time. 

The  Western  dump  cars  made  a  remark- 
able record  on  the  Isthmus,  and  it  is  safe 
to  say  that  had  it  not  been  for  their  use,  the 
cost  of  handling  the  material  would  have 
been  greatly  in  excess  of  the  actual  amount 
expended. 

This  type  of  car  has  been  used  on  all  the 
gigantic  earth-moving  enterprises  on  the 
American  continent  within  recent  date. 
They  have  formed  an  important  factor 
in  the  construction  of  practically  all  rail- 
roads in  North  America  in  recent  years, 
in  the  building  of  the  Keokuk  Dam,  the 
great  Lackawanna  Cut-off,  the  immense 
stripping  operations  on  the  Mesabe  Iron 
Range  in  northern  Minnesota,  where  more 
material  has  been  handled  than  was  taken 
out  of  the  Panama  Canal,  on  the  Missis- 
sippi levees,  in  the  excavation  of  the  Wei- 
land  Canal  and  the  approaches  to  the 
Selkirk  Tunnels  in  the  Canadian  Rockies, 
and  other  enterprises  of  more  or  less  im- 
portance. 

Active  operations  by  the  Pressed  Steel 
Car  Company  (Western  Steel  Car  &  Foun- 
dry Company),  of  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  in  the 
construction  work  at  the  Panama  Canal 
began  in  1907.  At  that  time  it  built  at  its 
works  in  Anniston,  Ala.,  a  lot  of  300  flat 
cars  for  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission. 
This  contract  was  entered  into  and  com- 
pleted in  fulfilment  of  an  order  originally 
taken  out  by  another  company,  which  was 
unable  to  make  delivery,  in  consequence  of 
which  the  commission  called  upon  the 
Pressed  Steel  Car  Company  to  furnish  the 
required  material. 


•——•• 


1.  Wooden  dirt  car  with  steel  sides. 

2.  Loading  dump  cars  in  Culebra  Cut. 

3.  All-steel  dump  car. 

(Made  by  the  Pressed  Steel  Car  Co.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.) 


PRESSED  STEEL  COMPANY'S   CARS 


The  cars  in  question  by  no  means  repre- 
sent the  up-to-date  steel  construction 
equipment  now  being  turned  out  by  the 
Pressed  Steel  Car  Company,  and  therefore 
poorly  illustrate  its  more  modern  achieve- 
ments in  car  building.  However,  they 
were  in  keeping  with  the  specified  require- 
ments, and  were  built  expressly  to  fill  the 
demands  made  by  the  commission.  They 
were  of  wood  construction,  having  a  capac- 
ity of  80,000  pounds  each,  and  were  built 
with  removable  side  and  side  extension  so 
as  to  be  suitable  for  operation  in  connec- 
tion with  Lidgerwood  unloaders.  They 
were  also  equipped  with  a  steel  apron  on 
one  end  to  cover  the  space  between  the 
cars,  as  well  as  with  arch  bar  trucks,  and 
many  other  approved  specialties  for  cars 
of  this  type. 

While  the  cars  furnished  were,  no  doubt, 
in  most  respects  as  satisfactory  to  the 
commission  as  more  up-to-date  cars — at  all 
events,  they  were  what  the  commission 
desired — it  may  be  said  that  the  all-wood 
car  is  a  thing  of  the  past  on  American  rail- 
roads. At  present,  flat  cars  are  built  with 
steel  underframes,  with  either  steel  or 
wood  floors  as  may  be  required.  In  the 
general  improvement  in  steel  car  construc- 
tion the  Pressed  Steel  Car  Company  has 
kept  to  the  front  of  the  rapid  advance  that 
has  characterized  the  industry  of  this  coun- 
try. Among  the  principal  types  which  it 
builds  at  the  present  time  are: 

All-steel  gondola  cars,  with  high  or  low 
sides,  and  with  or  without  drop  doors  or 
hoppers  at  the  bottom,  the  latest  model 
being  so  constructed  that  the  drop  doors 
dump  the  load  at  either  side.  When  the 
doors  are  closed,  this  car  can  be  used  as  an 
ordinary  flat  bottom  car. 

The  composite  gondola  cars  have  steel 
underframes,  while  the  floors,  sides,  and 
ends  are  of  wood.  They  are  used  mainly 
for  handling  machinery  and  lengthy  ma- 
terial. 

The  center  dumping  hopper  cars  are  gen- 
erally used  for  hauling  coal,  coke,  and  ore. 
These  are  built  up  to  seventy-ton  capacity, 
the  triple  and  quadruple  cars  having  a 


cubical  capacity  suitable  for  handling  as 
much  as  fifty  tons  of  coke. 

In  the  construction  of  its  box  cars,  the 
only  wood  used  by  the  company  is  in  the 
floors  and  lining.  Many  of  these  cars  have 
large  side  doors  and  end  doors,  to  facili- 
tate the  loading  and  unloading  of  automo- 
biles. 

The  Pressed  Steel  Car  Company  is  now 
building  tank  cars  entirely  of  steer,  the 
tanks  being  attached  to  the  center  sills 
at  the  center,  and  require  no  blocking  at 
the  ends  of  the  tanks. 

Another  field  of  construction  in  which 
this  company  has  made  marked  advance  is 
in  its  passenger  cars,  as  also  in  its  mining 
cars.  The  superiority  of  steel  over  wood 
in  both  cases  is  too  widely  recognized  to 
call  for  extended  comment,  especially  in 
the  former,  where  the  use  of  the  steel  car 
so  greatly  reduces  loss  of  life  in  wrecks,  as 
well  as  destruction  of  the  material  itself 
through  splintering  and  burning.  The 
steel  mining  cars  are  also  practically  inde- 
structible, and  a  less  number  is  required 
to  operate  a  mine  or  quarry  of  a  given  out- 
put. 

In  addition  to  the  manufacture  of  the 
various  kinds  of  cars  enumerated,  this 
company  has  a  large  business  in  repairs 
on  cars,  including  the  supplying  of  the 
various  parts,  as  well  as  of  trucks  for  en- 
gine tenders  and  cars. 

The  Pressed  Steel  Car  Company  began 
building  steel  cars  in  1897,  having  been 
first  in  the  field  in  a  work  that  has  since 
almost  revolutionized  the  transportation 
methods  of  the  country,  as  may  be  gathered 
from  the  foregoing  description.  The  com- 
pany now  operates  two  plants  in  the  Pitts- 
burgh district,  one  at  McKees  Rocks  and 
the  other  in  the  former  city  of  Allegheny. 
A  third  plant,  thoroughly  equipped  for 
building  steel  cars,  is  located  at  Hegewisch, 
111.,  near  Chicago.  The  company  has  a 
capacity  of  200  cars  a  day,  and  employs  a 
force  of  more  than  10,000  men  when  run- 
ning full.  The  plants  occupy  a  total  area 
of  145  acres,  of  which  sixty  acres  are  cov- 
ered with  steel  and  stone  buildings  of  mod- 


362 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


ern  construction.  The  average  consump- 
tion of  material  is  40,000  tons  of  steel 
each  month,  of  which  28,000  ton?  is  steel 
plate,  making  the  company  the  largest 
individual  consumer  of  steel  plate  in  the 
world. 

The  steel  car  has  done  much  to  improve 
and  increase  the  carrying  capacity  of  the 
railroads  on  which  they  are  used.  As 
late  as  1907,  a  capacity  of  100,000  pounds 
was  considered  by  railroad  men  to  meet  the 
maximum  that  a  freight  car  could  carry. 
Steel  freight  cars  are  now  being  con- 
structed for  general  use  with  capacities  up 
to  140,000  pounds,  showing  an  increase  of 
forty  per  cent,  in  six  years,  and  still  heavier 
capacities  up  to  ninety  tons  and  more  are 
being  built  at  the  present  time. 

In  January,  1906,  the  Goodwin  Car 
Company,  William  H.  Taylor,  president, 
with  headquarters  at  17  Battery  Place, 
New  York  City,  an  Illinois  office  at  10  La 
Salle  Street,  in  Chicago,  and  its  own  car 
building  plant  at  Clearing,  111.,  sent  a 
number  of  its  patent  gravity  dumping  cars, 
of  steel  construction,  to  the  Isthmus  for 
service  in  the  construction  work  on  the 
canal. 

The  cars  of  this  company  were  specially 
adapted,  and  proved  fully  equal  to  the 
severe  service  for  which  they  were  ordered, 
in  that  they  combined  all  of  the  requisite 
features  found  in  other  dumping,  ballast- 
ing and  gondola  cars,  together  with  a  num- 
ber of  additional  devices  that  are  unique 
in  this  particular  make  of  car.  One  of  its 
most  important  advantages  is  that  it  can 
be  immediately  diverted  to  many  required 
services  without  alteration  or  change  of 
parts.  The  load  which  it  carries  is  dis- 
charged by  its  own  gravity  alone,  on  both 
sides  or  on  either  side,  all  in  the  center,  or 
part  on  either  side  and  part  in  the  center, 
and  it  will  distribute  ballast  in  any  position 
required  without  careening  the  car  or  mov- 
ing the  car  body.  This  applies  to  practi- 
cally every  imaginable  kind  of  load,  whether 
tin  plate  or  rail  ends,  broken  stone  or  hot 
cinders,  large  rock  or  gravel,  or  any  other 
dumpable  materials.  These  cars  are  air- 


dumping,  air-replacing,  hand-dumping,  and 
hand-replacing,  all  in  one. 

The  Goodwin  car  is  built  entirely  of  steel 
plates  and  angles,  and  is  fitted  with  malle- 
able iron  and  steel  castings.  The  capacity 
of  the  car  is  thirty  to  forty-five  cubic  yards, 
with  a  weight-carrying  power  limited  only 
by  size  of  journal  and  from  100,000  pounds 
upward.  Through  its  new  air  replacing 
device,  one  man,  without  assistance,  can 
close  all  of  the  doors  and  set  the  car  ready 
for  reloading.  These  cars  are  extensively 
used  throughout  the  United  States  in  rail- 
road building. 

HYDRAULIC  DREDGES 

An  important  type  of  dredge  used  in  the 
canal  was  the  hydraulic,  utilized  to  meet 
certain  extraordinary  conditions  of  wet 
excavation,  where  a  machine  of  great  power 
and  capacity  was  needed.  At  a  cost  of 
$158,000  a  twenty-inch  hydraulic  pipe  line 
dredge,  built  by  the  Ellicott  Machine 
Company,  of  Baltimore,  Md.,  was  pur- 
chased. This  dredge  had  a  capacity  of 
excavating  750  cubic  yards  per  hour.  It 
required  twenty  days  to  tow  the  dredge 
from  Baltimore  to  Colon. 

The  dredge  was  of  the  cutter  type  with 
a  single  sand  pumping  outfit,  and  the  gen- 
eral dimensions  were  150  feet  over  all, 
beam  moulded  forty  feet,  and  extreme 
depth  of  hull  ten  feet  and  six  inches.  The 
hull  was  constructed  throughout  of  steel, 
and  was  divided  by  four  water-tight  com- 
partments. The  steam  plant  consisted  of 
four  wet  back  Scotch  marine  boilers  built 
for  a  working  pressure  of  200  pounds  per 
square  inch,  operated  with  both  oil  and 
coal  as  fuel.  The  aggregate  indicated 
capacity  of  the  engines  was  1,000  horse- 
power. 

The  pumping  machinery  consisted  of  a 
centrifugal  pump  of  the  side  suction  disc- 
lined  type,  constructed  throughout  of  steel. 
It  was  so  designed  as  to  admit  of  the  pas- 
sage of  sand,  stones,  or  gravel  without 
obstruction.  The  main  pumping  engine 
consisted  of  a  three  cylinder  expansion  ver- 
tical fore  and  aft  condensing  engine. 


DREDGES  AND   PUMPS 


363 


The  material  to  be  dredged,  which  con- 
sisted of  coral,  sand,  and  rock,  had  to  be 
loosened  or  "agitated"  before  it  could  be 
pumped.  For  this  purpose  on  the  bow  of 
the  dredge  was  located  a  steel  ladder  of 
framework,  carrying  a  revolving  cutter, 
which  was  of  the  spiral  type  and  constructed 
of  steel.  The  depth  of  the  cutting  was 
regulated  by  raising  and  lowering  the  outer 
end  of  the  ladder,  which  was  capable  of 
making  a  cut  to  a  depth  exceeding  forty 
feet.  The  suction  pipe  was  carried  by  the 
ladder  and  extended  to  the  outer  end  where 
it  passed  inside  of  the  revolving  cutter. 
The  "agitating"  engine  (it  was  a  double 
condensing  engine  especially  designed  to 
bear  the  constant  shocks  and  jars  incident 
to  the  work)  was  mounted  on  the  ladder. 

The  superstructure  over  the  hull  was  of 
wood  throughout  and  consisted  of  a  house 
over  the  main  deck  covering  all  parts  of  the 
machinery.  Above  the  main  house,  pro- 
visions were  made  for  the  living  quarters 
of  the  officers  and  crew,  which  were  spe- 
cially designed  for  convenience  and  comfort, 
together  with  the  pilot  house.  In  the 
pilot  house  were  located  levers  for  operat- 
ing all  the  machinery  except  the  main  en- 
gine, so  that  the  operator  had  full  control 
of  the  working  of  the  various  parts  from 
this  point.  All  the  door  and  window  open- 
ings of  the  living  quarters  were  fitted  with 
bronze  screens  and  slatted  blinds.  State- 
rooms for  the  officers  and  sleeping  quarters 
for  the  crew  with  appropriate  mess  rooms 
for  each  were  provided. 

The  dredge  was  also  fitted  with  an  ice 
plant  and  an  electric  plant.  The  refriger- 
ating plant  was  provided  with  ice  pans  for 
making  ice  for  drinking  water  and  to  cool 
the  refrigerator.  By  the  electric  plant  the 
whole  interior  of  the  dredge  was  lighted. 
It  also  carried  a  powerful  searchlight. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  canal  could  not 
have  been  dug  without  the  expenditure  of 
many  years  of  time  and  the  labor  of  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  diggers  had  not  the 
most  improved  dredges  operated  by  the 
latest  machinery  been  employed. 

The  equipment  of  a  first-class  modern 


dredge  does  not  end  with  the  machinery 
necessary  to  move  the  dredge  from  place 
to  place,  but  must  include  pumps  of  great 
capacity  and  endurance,  and  modern  ex- 
perience has  demonstrated  that  the  cen- 
trifugal pump  is  the  kind  best  adapted 
for  dredging  purposes.  In  fact  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  the  equipment  of  a  modern 
dredge  is  the  centrifugal  pump  for  handling 
solid  material  with  water.  The  dredges 
used  in  the  canal  work  were  equipped  with 
centrifugal  pumps  manufactured  by  the 
Morris  Machine  Works  of  Baldwinsville, 
N.  Y. 

From  the  dredging  pump  a  suction  pipe 
leads  to  the  bottom  of  the  river  or  canal, 
or  other  place  from  which  the  material  is 
to  be  pumped.  The  pump  produces  a 
high  velocity  in  the  suction  pipe,  sufficient 
to  draw  into  the  pipe  the  material,  pass 
the  material  through  the  pump,  and  then 
deliver  it  through  a  pipe  line  at  the  point 
desired.  Where  hard  material  is  found, 
revolving  cutters  are  employed  for  cutting 
the  material  before  it  is  drawn  into  the 
suction  pipe. 

A  number  of  the  Morris  pumps  were 
used  in  the  canal  work,  one  of  them  being 
of  capacity  enough  to  deliver  300  cubic 
yards  of  material  per  hour,  through  1,000 
feet  of  pipe  line,  while  another  delivered 
about  400  cubic  yards  through  a  pipe  line 
4,000  feet  in  length.  One  system,  con- 
sisting of  three  hydraulic  dredging  pumps, 
installed  by  the  Morris  Company  in  1909 
and  used  in  making  the  Gatun  fill,  was 
of  peculiar  interest.  In  this  work  the 
material  had  to  be  elevated  as  high  as 
eighty  feet,  through  pipe  lines  varying  in 
length  from  6,000  to  8,000  feet.  One 
pump  was  placed  on  the  hydraulic  dredge 
floating  on  the  water.  This  pump  took 
the  material  from  the  bottom  and  delivered 
through  the  pump  and  a  pipe  line  into  the 
suction  of  a  second  pump,  known  as  a 
"booster."  This  booster,  in  turn,  delivered 
it  to  another,  so  that  with  all  these  pumps 
operating  in  series,  one  boosting  the  other, 
the  material  was  delivered  to  the  elevation 
desired. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


The  Morris  centrifugal  pumps  were  also 
brought  into  play  as  an  aid  to  sanitation. 
In  a  climate  such  as  that  of  Panama  drain- 
age, sewage,  and  other  like  refuse  cannot 
be  permitted  to  remain,  but  must  be  dis- 
posed of  in  a  way  to  prevent  danger  to  hu- 
man health  and  life.  Four  Morris  pumps 
were  used  for  the  purpose  of  taking  drain- 
age and  sewage,  as  collected  in  pits,  and 
pumping  it  away  to  points  of  safety.  These 
pumps  are  driven  by  electric  motors,  and 
some  of  them  are  of  automatic  operation. 

The  Morris  Company  is  the  oldest  con- 
cern in  this  country  building  centrifugal 
pumps,  and  its  experience  has  covered  all 
classes  of  this  machinery. 

When  the  Canal  Commission  abandoned 
its  original  design  of  building  two  dams 
and  two  locks  at  La  Boca,  near  the  Pacific 
terminal,  it  made  necessary  the  dredging 
of  a  sea-level  canal  from  La  Boca  back  to 
Miraflores.  This  brought  into  play  the 
installation  of  engines  and  pumps  of  the 
International  Steam  Pump  Company,  of 
New  York.  A  vast  amount  of  material 
was  to  be  removed  and  it  was  necessary 
for  the  commission  to  secure  the  most  ade- 
quate type  of  machinery  to  accomplish  the 
purpose  in  the  shortest  time. 

The  contract  called  for  complete  machin- 
ery for  a  central  pumping  station  of  four 
units,  each  consisting  of  one  pressure 
pumping  engine,  boilers,  one  dredging 
pump,  one  motor,  piping  and  hydraulic 
monitors,  etc.  Speed  was  one  of  the  con- 
siderations, and  the  contract  of  the  Inter- 
national was  to  deliver  the  complete  plant 
in  200  days.  Such  was  the  capacity  of  the 
company  to  fill  all  contracts  that  all  the 
apparatus  was  delivered  in  much  less  time 
than  the  contract  specified. 

The  dredging  pumps  were  considered 
the  most  powerful  of  their  kind,  and  were 
intended  to  do  the  work  assigned  them  in 
one  lift  of  ninety-five  feet.  The  areas  to 
be  excavated  and  filled  by  means  of  the 
equipment  installed  by  the  International 
Company  were  eight  feet  above  mean 
tide,  and  the  average  depth  to  be  excavated 
was  thirty-five  feet.  The  material  to  be 


handled  was  dark  loam,  containing  fifteen 
per  cent,  sand,  with  a  mixture  of  gravel 
weighing  as  much  as  seventy-five  pounds 
per  cubic  foot.  In  some  parts  of  the  areas 
having  sand  and  clay,  stones  as  large  as 
twelve  inches  in  diameter  were  found 
weighing  ninety  pounds  per  cubic  foot, 
and  equal  to  twenty  or  twenty-five  per 
cent,  of  the  material  in  suspension. 

The  method  of  operation  was  to  sink  the 
dredging  pumps  by  stages  in  the  prism  to 
be  excavated,  until  rock  was  reached,  the 
sedimentary  material  being  mined  with 
the  monitors,  and  sluiced  by  the  dredging 
pumps.  For  mining  and  sluicing,  salt 
water  was  used  through  all  the  pumps. 
The  available  power  was  3,000  electrical 
H.  P.  The  plant  was  designed  on  this 
basis  for  operating  the  dredging  pump 
motors.  The  pumping  plant  had  a  capac- 
ity of  30,000  gallons  per  minute,  pumping 
the  same  through  3,600  feet  of  main  pipe, 
and  500  feet  of  branch  lines. 

The  central  pumping  station  consisted 
of  four  units  so  constructed  that  they  could 
be  operated  singly  or  in  multiple,  with  any 
or  all  boilers.  The  engines  took  their  water 
from  the  Rio  Grande,  having  a  variation 
of  tide  plus  ten  feet  and  minus  the  same 
distance.  The  equipment  included  a  com- 
plete condensing  system,  oil  and  coal  burn- 
ing furnaces  and  special  exhausters  for 
taking  care  of  the  priming  of  the  dredging 
pumps.  The  fourth  or  extra  dredging 
pump  was  used  for  the  excavation  of  more 
than  1,000,000  cubic  yards  of  material, 
delivering  the  same  to  a  hydraulic  dam 
west  of  Miraflores  locks,  making  a  total 
lift  of  ninety-five  feet. 

The  commission  made  many  attempts  to 
remove  the  vast  amount  of  soft  silt,  earth, 
clay,  and  hard  rocks  by  the  use  of  dredges, 
and  was  forced  to  the  conclusion  that  this 
material  could  not  be  economically  handled 
in  any  other  way  than  by  the  hydraulic 
method;  hence  came  the  contract  with  the 
International  Steam  Pump  Company.  It 
is  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  canal  construc- 
tion that  vast  amounts  of  earth,  silt,  sand, 
and  other  materials  were  lifted  from  the 


1.  Hydraulic  excavation  at  the  canal  under  pressure  from  Worthington  pumps. 

2.  One  of  the  giant  triple  expansion  steam  pumps  used  on  the  canal. 

(Supplied  by  the  International  Steam  Pump  Company  of  New  York.) 


SAND   PUMPS  AND   CRANES 


365 


bed  in  which  they  had  reposed  for  count- 
less ages,  and  pumped,  as  if  water,  through 
thousands  of  feet  of  pipe  and  lifted  to  a 
height  of  nearly  one  hundred  feet  and  there 
delivered  at  the  will  of  the  operator.  This 
pumping  process  shortened  the  time  of 
construction  many  months  over  what  would 
have  been  required  by  the  old  system.  A 
pump  capable  of  handling  300  cubic  yards 
of  solid  matter  per  hour  almost  staggers 
belief,  yet  the  International  Company  had 
four  such  pumps  at  work  on  the  canal. 

In  the  excavation  work,  especially  for 
deep  foundations,  wells,  and  for  caissons, 
vast  amounts  of  gravel  and  sand  had  to  be 
taken  out.  To  expedite  this  work  sand 
pumps  were  employed,  the  Nye  new 
model  high-pressure  pump  being  the  one 
selected.  These  pumps  were  built  by  the 
Nye  Steam  Pump  and  Machinery  Com- 
pany, of  Chicago,  111.  The  pump  is  a  small, 
compact  machine  designed  especially  for 
mining,  railroad,  draining,  irrigation,  coffer- 
dam and  well  sinking  work.  The  pump 
creates  a  very  high  vacuum,  thus  being 
able  to  lift  water  to  a  great  height.  One  of 
the  smaller  size,  requiring  a  space  of  only 
twenty  inches  square  for  installation,  is 
capable  of  delivering  water  to  a  height  of 
one  hundred  and  fifty  feet.  The  pumps 
used  on  the  canal  for  sand  pumping  were 
capable  of  pumping  seventy  tons  of  sand 
per  hour.  Thus  with  a  small  expenditure 
of  steam,  700  tons  of  sand  could  be  pumped 
from  an  excavation  in  a  day  of  ten  hours. 
One  of  the  advantages  of  these  pumps  for 
the  purposes  of  the  canal  construction  was 
that  they  could  be  worked  suspended  from 
a  beam,  or  when  placed  upon  a  stand. 

The  earth  fills  and  embankments  of  the 
canal  were  rolled  in  layers  with  Buffalo 
Pitts  special  embankment  rollers,  manu- 
factured by  the  Buffalo  Steam  Roller  Com- 
pany, of  Buffalo.  These  machines  were 
so  constructed  that  the  corrugations  could 
be  removed  from  the  rolls  and  the  ma- 
chines used  for  building  streets  and  high- 
ways in  the  Canal  Zone. 

Buffalo  Pitts  rollers  were  selected  be- 
cause they  are  the  result  of  twenty  years' 


development  of  this  machine  by  this  com- 
pany and  have  an  unequaled  record  for 
efficiency  and  durability.  Their  record  in 
the  service  of  the  various  departments  of 
the  United  States  government  and  the 
government  of  the  Philippine  Islands  was 
carefully  scrutinized  by  the  purchasing 
officials,  and  was  found  to  justify  their 
selection,  regardless  of  the  fact  that  they 
were  somewhat  more  expensive  than  other 
rollers  obtainable. 

Another  feature  of  these  machines  that 
recommended  them  to  the  engineers  was 
the  peculiarity  of  their  construction,  which 
enabled  them  to  be  utilized  as  hauling 
engines  for  drawing  graders  and  wagon 
trains  of  road  building  or  other  material, 
over  routes  where  it  was  impracticable  to 
lay  a  temporary  railway. 

CONSTRUCTION  EQUIPMENT 

In  the  construction  work  of  the  Panama 
Canal  the  immense  amount  of  heavy  ma- 
terial to  be  handled  made  necessary  the  use 
of  modern  locomotive  cranes.  The  prin- 
cipal cranes  selected  for  the  canal  work 
were  manufactured  by  the  Browning  En- 
gineering Company,  of  Cleveland,  Ohio. 
These  locomotive  cranes  were  self-propel- 
ling, and  could  rotate  and  hoist  either  in- 
dependently or  simultaneously.  They 
were  capable  of  lifting  from  one  to  100 
tons,  and  were  fitted  with  booms  100 
feet  in  length.  They  not  only  hoisted 
great  stones  and  immense  blocks  of  iron 
and  heavy  pieces  of  timber  to  their  proper 
places  in  the  work,  but  were  also  em- 
ployed in  digging;  using,  for  this  work, 
what  is  technically  known  as  the  "orange 
peel  bucket."  Blocks  of  stone  and  struc- 
tural iron  weighing  many  tons  were  han- 
dled with  the  greatest  ease,  some  of  them 
being  hoisted  to  a  height  of  nearly  100  feet. 

Among  the  manufacturers  who  fur- 
nished machinery  designed  to  expedite 
heavy  work  on  the  canal  was  the  Brown 
Hoisting  Machinery  Company,  of  Cleve- 
land, Ohio,  designer  and  maker  of  patent 
automatic  hoisting  and  conveying  appli- 
ances. 


366 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


In  the  autumn  of  1905  this  company 
shipped  to  the  Isthmus  one  five-ton  Brown- 
hoist  fast  plant  unloader  and  one  five-ton 
cantilever  crane.  These  machines  were 
used  on  the  docks  at  Cristobal.  The  un- 
loader was  used  for  unloading  coal  from  the 
barges  and  transferring  it  to  the  railroad 
cars  and  the  storage  pile,  and  continued 
its  work  after  the  completion  of  the  canal. 

The  unloader  is  equipped  with  a  raisable 
apron  67^  feet  long,  which  extends  out 
over  the  boat,  and  at  the  rear  of  the  un- 
loader there  is  a  cantilever  extension  of 
eighty  feet.  The  Brownhoist  trolley  trav- 
els on  the  runway  the  entire  length  of  the 
apron  and  cantilever  extension.  With 
this  machine  the  company  furnished  a 
seventy  cubic-foot  Brownhoist  coal  grab 
bucket  and  four  Brownhoist  tubs.  The 
grab  bucket  is  suspended  from  the  trolley, 
decends  into  the  hold  of  the  boat,  auto- 
matically picks  up  its  load,  and  carries  it 
back  to  the  storage  pile  or  to  the  sixty-ton 
bin  placed  on  the  machine,  from  which  the 
coal  is  dumped  into  the  railroad  cars. 
The  tubs  are  used  in  cleaning  up  when  the 
coal  is  to  be  shoveled  by  hand. 

The  unloader  travels  along  the  face  of  the 
dock  with  a  speed  of  seventy-five  feet  a 
minute.  It  is  steam  operated,  the  boiler 
and  engine  house  being  placed  on  the  pier. 
The  trolley  travels  in  its  runway  from 
1,000  to  1,200  feet  a  minute,  and  has  a 
hoisting  speed  of  500  to  600  feet  a  minute. 

The  cantilever  crane  was  used  for  un- 
loading general  merchandise.  It  consisted 
of  a  steam  operated  pier  running  upon  two 
tracks  of  thirty-seven-foot  gauge,  and  had 
a  cantilever  extension  on  each  side  of  153 
feet,  one  extension  being  out  over  the  boats. 
This  was  also  provided  with  a  runway  for  a 
Brownhoist  trolley,  the  entire  trolley  travel 
being  343  feet.  With  this  appliance, 
heavy  merchandise  of  all  kinds  was  un- 
loaded from  the  boats  and  deposited  on 
railroad  cars  or  a  storage  platform.  These 
cantilever  cranes  were  originally  con- 
structed for  work  on  the  Chicago  Drainage 
Canal,  and  were  the  first  of  their  kind  in 
the  world. 


Brownhoist  locomotive  cranes  for  han- 
dling sand,  crushed  stone,  coal,  machinery, 
large  block  stone  and  other  miscellaneous 
material  were  used  in  large  numbers  in  the 
work  on  the  Isthmus.  These  cranes  were 
of  fifteen  to  twenty-ton  capacity.  Brown- 
hoist  grab  buckets  of  various  capacities 
were  used  on  the  Lidgerwood  cableways 
for  handling  crushed  stone  and  other  ma- 
terials. Some  remarkable  records  were 
made  by  the  buckets  in  this  work,  and  the 
appliances  of  this  company,  designed  par- 
ticularly to  speed  the  handling  of  material 
of  all  kinds,  counted  heavily  in  the  rapid 
completion  of  Uncle  Sam's  task  at  Panama. 

The  fact  that  on  completion,  all  the 
power  required  for  the  operation  of  the 
canal  as  a  whole  was  to  be  electrical,  gen- 
erated by  water  power  from  the  spillways, 
gave  to  the  selection  of  boilers  to  be  used 
during  construction — for  the  generation 
of  steam  required  as  power  for  various 
purposes  connected  with  the  construction 
work — an  aspect  essentially  different  from 
that  ordinarily  found  in  a  work  of  such 
magnitude. 

The  numerous  plants  erected  for  con- 
struction work  had  to  be  considered  as 
being  of  a  temporary  character.  Further, 
a  number  of  the  plants  had  to  be  moved 
from  point  to  point  as  the  work  of  con- 
struction progressed,  which  made  it  ad- 
visable to  utilize  small  and  inexpensive 
boiler  units.  The  result  of  such  conditions 
was  the  installation  of  cylindrical,  or  re- 
turn tubular,  boilers  in  the  greater  number 
of  the  smaller  plants. 

In  certain  of  the  plants,  however,  which 
could  be  considered  of  more  than  a  tem- 
porary character,  that  is,  plants  designed 
to  operate  several  years,  the  added  effici- 
ency and  general  service  of  the  water  tube 
boiler  was  considered  desirable  despite  the 
greater  first  cost.  In  plants  of  this  kind 
boilers  of  the  Babcock  and  Wilcox  Com- 
pany's manufacture  were  installed. 

A  number  of  these  boilers  were  used,  the 
first  being  installed  at  Panama  in  1906  for 
the  Union  Oil  Company.  This  company 
furnished  the  government  with  oil  for  a 


BOILER   EQUIPMENT 


367 


number  of  its  plants,  all  the  way  across 
the  Isthmus.  Oil  was  brought  from  Cali- 
fornia in  tank  steamers  and  distributed 
to  various  points  by  pipe  lines. 

In  1907  the  Babcock  and  Wilcox  Com- 
pany installed  two  boilers,  rated  at  500 
horsepower  each,  for  the  Isthmian  Canal 
Commission  at  the  Balboa  compressor 
plant.  These  boilers  supplied  steam  for 
two  air  compressors,  and  for  a  small  elec- 
tric lighting  load.  Two  years  later  two 
more  of  these  Stirling  boilers  were  in- 
stalled for  the  commission  at  the  Porto 
Bello  power  plant,  where  the  steam  gen- 
erated was  used  mainly  for  stone  crushing. 

The  same  year  four  Babcock  and  Wilcox 
boilers  were  installed  in  the  Central  pump- 
ing station  for  hydraulic  excavation  and 
sluicing.  This  plant  was  designed  to  take 
care  of  the  dredging  and  pumping  work 
from  San  Miguel  to  the  Pacific.  This  con- 
tract was  awarded  because  of  the  superior 
merit  of  the  steel-cased  semi-marine  type 
of  boilers  which  were  sold  under  a  rigid 
guarantee  of  efficiency.  The  steel-cased 
feature  of  this  boiler  played  an  important 
part  in  its  selection  by  the  government 
officials.  Much  trouble  had  been  experi- 
enced with  boiler-setting  brickwork,  be- 
cause of  the  blasting  over  the  whole  length 
of  the  canal.  The  blasts  were  very  heavy 
and  it  was  almost  impossible  to  keep  boiler 
settings  in  place.  As  brick  on  the  Isthmus 
cost  in  the  neighborhood  of  $100  a  thousand 
laid,  the  upkeep  of  the  ordinary  boiler  set- 
tings was  excessive.  The  steel  casings  of 
the  boilers  installed  at  this  plant  did  away 
almost  entirely  with  this  difficulty.  An- 
other interesting  feature  of  these  boilers 
is  the  duplex  furnace.  By  this  arrange- 
ment either  oil  or  coal  can  be  used  as  fuel. 
The  boilers  installed  at  the  Central  pump- 
ing station  were  of  wrought  steel  construc- 
tion throughout,  and  nominally  rated  at 
2,100  horsepower. 

Among  the  contractors  for  permanent 
machinery  to  be  used  in  operating  the 
canal  was  the  D'Olier  Engineering  Com- 
pany, of  Philadelphia.  The  entire  boiler 
plant  equipment  for  the  power  house 


at  both  Gatun  and  Miraflores  was  fur- 
nished by  this  firm,  and  was  installed  by 
them.  Each  plant  contains  600  horse- 
power, horizontally  inclined,  water  tube 
boilers.  The  boilers  are  set  in  batteries  of 
two,  and  have  steel  casings  instead  of  the 
usual  brick  setting.  They  were  built  for 
205  pounds  absolute  pressure,  and  a  super- 
heat of  150  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Each  boiler  is  equipped  with  shaking 
grates  for  the  use  of  coal  by  hand  firing 
and  also  with  a  complete  system  of  oil 
burners,  for  the  use  of  California  fuel  oil. 
The  smoke  flue  is  of  steel,  lined  inside  with 
a  two-inch  non-conducting  lining.  Each 
plant  is  equipped  with  a  motor  driven  and 
a  steam  driven  induced  draft  exhaust  fan 
for  drawing  the  gases  through  the  boilers 
and  sending  them  up  the  chimney.  The 
arrangement  of  the  dampers  is  such  that 
either  the  motor  driven  or  the  steam 
driven  fan  may  be  used. 

The  contracts  of  this  company  also  in- 
cluded the  induced  draft  equipment,  pip- 
ing, boiler  feed  pumps,  feed  water  heaters, 
and  other  boiler  rooms  auxiliaries,  all  of 
which  were  installed  by  the  company. 
The  piping  system  is  very  complete  and 
consists  of  the  highest  grade  of  pipe  and 
fittings.  The  high  pressure  steam  pipe  is 
extra  heavy,  with  steel  flanges  welded  on, 
long  bend  connections  being  used.  The 
fittings  are  of  cast  steel  and  the  valves  are 
made  with  cast  steel  bodies,  bronze  fitted. 
The  high  pressure  piping  is  covered  with  a 
magnesia  covering  two  inches  thick.  Hot 
water  meters  are  provided  for  measuring 
the  amount  of  water  supplied  to  the 
boilers.  The  cost  to  the  government  for 
the  equipment  furnished  by  the  D'Olier 
Company  was  $175,000.  All  the  safety 
appliances  known  to  modern  science  were 
used  both  in  the  construction  and  instal- 
lation of  the  two  power  plants,  and  to 
secure  the  greatest  efficiency. 

As  speed  in  the  completion  of  the  great 
work  was  an  important  feature  in  the  cal- 
culations of  the  Canal  Commission  it  was 
sought,  even  in  the  smallest  appliances  to 
the  machinery,  to  secure  the  appliance 


368 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


best  adapted  to  the  work  it  would  be  called 
upon  to  perform,  and  under  the  severe 
climatic  conditions  prevailing  on  the  Isth- 
mus. Many  boilers  were  to  be  used  in 
various  parts  of  the  work,  and  it  was  sought 
to  have  every  appliance  necessary  for  con- 
tinuous work  of  the  most  complete  kind. 
In  looking  for  an  injector  for  supplying 
the  boilers  with  water,  the  choice  fell  on 
that  manufactured  by  the  Penberthy  In- 
jector Company,  of  Detroit,  Mich.  The 
superiority  of  this  injector  was  its  thorough 
automatic  qualities,  simple  construction, 
and  durability,  operating  with  equal  effi- 
ciency in  any  location  or  climate.  The  in- 
jectors excel  in  grading  the  amount  of  water 
delivered  to  the  boilers,  and  lift  water 
vertically  twenty-three  feet. 

Keeler  water  tube  boilers,  manufactured 
by  the  E.  Keeler  Company,  of  Williams- 
port,  Pa.,  were  and  are  used  at  several 
points  on  the  Canal  Zone.  In  connection 
with  the  Gatun  and  Miraflores  handling 
plants  for  the  Gatun  and  Miraflores  locks, 
these  boilers  were  put  through  a  series  of 
rigid  tests  in  which  they  made  a  remarkable 
showing. 

The  Keeler  water  tube  boilers  include  an 
unusually  complete  combination  of  fea- 
tures. They  are  designed  to  secure  sim- 
plicity and  durability,  together  with  the 
highest  safety  and  economy.  The  boiler 
consists  of  one  or  more  steam  and  water 
drums  to  which  are  securely  riveted  a 
front  and  rear  water  leg  or  header.  The 
tubes  are  expanded  into  these  headers  in 
straight  horizontal  and  staggered  vertical 
rows  with  an  inclination  of  one  inch  to  a 
foot.  The  drum  is  horizontal,  providing  a 
maximum  steam  disengaging  surface.  The 
steam  outlet  is  from  the  center  of  the  drum. 

Vertical  baffle  walls  of  a  special  grade 
of  fire  brick  with  a  backing  of  cast  iron 
direct  the  gases  three  times  through  the 
bank  of  tubes.  The  tubes  are  staggered 
and  the  gases  move  at  right  angles  to 
them,  thus  being  continually  divided  and 
reunited,  and  brought  into  intimate  con- 
tact with  the  tube  surfaces.  Horizontal 
baffles  are  provided  if  required  by  special 


conditions,  and  other  special  arrangements 
of  baffle  walls  are  made  when  desirable. 
Wrought  steel  is  used  for  every  part  of 
these  boilers  under  pressure,  and  the  high- 
est class  of  skill  and  material  is  used  in 
their  construction. 

Prominent  among  the  power  plants  in 
connection  with  the  construction  work  of 
the  canal  were  the  batteries  of  Robb 
boilers  built  by  the  Robb  Mumford  Boiler 
Company,  at  South  Framingham,  Mass., 
now  owned  and  operated  by  the  Inter- 
national Engineering  Works  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  For  the  machine  shop 
and  air  compressor  plant  at  Gorgona, 
twenty-four  large  Robb  boilers  were  built 
at  the  South  Framingham  plant.  These 
boilers  were  set  in  batteries  of  six  each,  and 
each  battery  formed  a  unit,  consisting  of 
six  boilers  discharging  into  a  horizontal 
flue  which  had  provision  for  cutting  out 
any  boilers  for  cleansing,  and  thence  into 
a  self-supporting  steel  stack  100  feet  high 
and  seven  feet  in  diameter.  The  boilers 
were  of  the  standard  horizontal  return  tube 
type,  each  eighty-four  inches  in  diameter 
and  nineteen  feet  ten  inches  in  length. 
The  Robb  boilers  are  constructed  accord- 
ing to  the  rules  formulated  by  the  Massa- 
chusetts Board  of  Boiler  Rules,  the  most 
rigid  requirements  of  any  State  in  the 
Union. 

The  question  of  water  for  use  in  running 
the  hundreds  of  boilers  required  on  the 
canal  work  was  one  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance. It  was  well  known  that  the 
water  on  the  Isthmus  is  particularly  bad 
for  boiler  purposes,  and  to  enable  the  en- 
gineers to  succeed  in  procuring  the  proper 
efficiency  from  their  boilers,  it  was  neces- 
sary to  use  chemicals  to  properly  neutral- 
ize the  water.  The  government  looked 
about  for  the  best  material  obtainable  for 
the  purpose,  and  adopted  the  chemicals  of 
the  Bird-Archer  Company,  of  New  York, 
purchasing  thousands  of  pounds  to  be  used 
in  the  marine,  stationary,  and  locomotive 
equipment  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific. 

The  materials,  made  in  liquid  and  pow- 
dered form  for  stationary  purposes  (accord- 


1.  Shipping  D'Olier  boiler  plant  equipment  to  the  canal. 

2.  The  boilers  installed  at  Miraflores  power  plant. 

(D'Olier  Engineering  Company,  Philadelphia,  Pa.) 


BOILER   CHEMICALS  AND   ENGINES 


369 


ing  to  analysis  of  water),  in  extract  and  solid 
form  (the  latter  in  zinc  containers)  for 
marine  purposes,  and  a  new  material  in 
solid  form  in  sticks  one-inch  square  and 
nineteen  inches  long,  known  as  polarized 
mercury  for  locomotives,  are  as  effective 
in  their  way  for  locomotive  use  as  the  canal 
will  be  for  shipping. 

In  supplying  a  compound  suitable  for 
the  conditions  existing  along  the  great 
waterway  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pa- 
cific, owing  to  the  many  different  condi- 
tions arising  from  the  vast  difference  in 
scale-forming  salts  found  in  waters,  it  was 
necessary  to  consider  both  chemical  and 
metallurgical  conditions. 

It  being  almost  impossible  to  secure 
analyses  of  the  different  waters,  there 
being  so  many,  it  was  necessary  to  make 
a  compound  in  extract  form,  combining 
along  with  chemical  reaction,  an  addition 
of  polarized  quicksilver  made  under  special 
process  known  only  to  the  Bird-Archer 
Company,  and  covered  by  letters  patent. 

Owing  to  the  use  of  different  types  of 
boilers,  working  under  different  conditions, 
it  was  necessary  to  depend  largely  upon 
mechanical  action  of  the  mercury  in  throw- 
ing off  scale  and  preventing  the  formation 
of  new  scale,  and  also  in  the  stopping  and 
prevention  of  any  galvanic  or  corrosive 
action  which  might  arise  from  acidity  in 
the  water,  or  through  the  negative  and 
positive  action  of  metals,  one  against 
another,  under  heat  and  pressure. 

The  Bird-Archer  Company  supplied  a 
very  large  quantity  of  these  special  chemi- 
cals, which  proved  to  be  the  most  efficient 
of  any  boiler  chemical  ever  used.  It  was 
also  necessary  to  put  up  this  extract,  on 
account  of  the  tropical  conditions,  in  a 
special  form  to  allow  for  expansion,  a  con- 
dition not  found  in  the  colder  climates. 

The  Bird-Archer  Company  manufactures 
special  chemicals  for  locomotive,  marine, 
and  stationary  boilers.  It  has  in  its  em- 
ploy the  most  skilled  officials,  in  its  chemi- 
cal, metallurgical  and  engineering  depart- 
ments, and  has  among  its  engineer  corps 
some  of  the  best  known  master  mechanics, 


chief  engineers  from  the  marine  service, 
and  superintending  engineers  in  stationary 
lines.  It  is  now  the  largest  manufacturer 
of  boiler  chemicals  in  the  world,  having  a 
trade  with  nearly  every  country,  and  sup- 
plies at  least  ninety  per  cent,  of  the  chemi- 
cals used  by  the  marine  trade  in  the  United 
States. 

For  over  thirty  years  the  Ball  Engine 
Company,  of  Erie,  Pa.,  has  been  exclusively 
engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  high  speed 
steam  engines,  and  it  was  but  natural  that 
it  should  have  an  important  part  in  the 
work  of  furnishing  engines  for  use  in  the 
construction  of  the  Panama  Canal. 

Seven  Ball  engines  were  used  in  con- 
nection with  the  work  on  the  canal.  The 
combined  power  of  these  engines  amounted 
to  800  K.W.  in  direct  connected  electric 
generator  units,  and  900  horsepower  in 
rope  drives.  The  largest  unit  was  of  the 
Cross  Compound  Corliss  type,  operating 
at  150  R.P.M.  and  driving  a  sixty-cycle 
Alternator  of  400  K.W.  capacity.  The 
other  units  were  of  the  tandem  compound 
type,  equipped  with  Sweet  balanced  valves. 

All  of  these  engines  were  of  the  side  crank 
construction,  which  has  been  adopted  by 
this  company  because  of  its  superior  adap- 
tation to  the  conditions  met  in  service. 
The  construction  eliminates  the  necessity 
for  three  bearings  in  engines  direct  con- 
nected to  generators,  and  avoids  the  unde- 
sirable feature  of  an  overhanging  wheel, 
which  is  particularly  objectionable  in  the 
case  of  belt  or  rope  drives,  and  in  alter- 
nating current  work. 

The  engines  furnished  for  service  in  the 
Canal  Zone  were  of  standard  construction 
throughout,  and  represent  the  result  of 
years  of  constant  study  and  care  in  an 
effort  to  produce  a  machine  superior  to  all 
others  of  its  kind. 

The  single  valve  engines  are  equipped 
with  a  flat  balanced  valve,  having  a  mini- 
mum amount  of  clearance.  The  valve, 
valve  seat,  and  pressure  plate  are  finished 
to  a  high  degree  of  accuracy,  permitting 
the  valve  to  work  freely,  but  being  steam 
tight.  Means  are  provided  by  which  the 


370 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


valve  may  be  readily  adjusted  to  take  up 
any  wear  that  may  occur.  This  is  accom- 
plished with  a  simple  micrometer  adjust- 
ment which  allows  the  pressure  plate  to  be 
minutely  adjusted  without  removing  the 
valve  chest  cover.  This  device  is  used 
exclusively  on  Ball  engines. 

On  the  Ball  non-releasing  gear  Corliss 
engines  the  non-detaching  valve  gear  is  en- 
closed in  a  tight  case  which  is  partly  filled 
with  oil.  This  ingenius  device  makes  pos- 
sible a  high  speed  engine  of  the  genuine 
Corliss  type  because  it  keeps  the  valves 
completely  at  rest  for  more  than  one  half 
the  stroke,  when  the  pressure  on  the  valve 
is  very  much  unbalanced,  and  when  move- 
ment is  detrimental. 

In  the  latter  part  of  1907,  the  canal 
officials  awarded  to  the  Buckeye  Engine 
Company,  of  Salem,  Ohio,  a  contract  for 
supplying  one  of  its  high-grade  automatic 
steam  engines,  at  a  cost  of  $3,245,  for  work 
at  the  Isthmus.  The  award  was  based  on 
the  well-known  merits  of  the  machinery 
manufactured  by  this  company,  the  gov- 
ernment having  previously  purchased  a 
number  of  its  engines  for  use  in  construc- 
tion work  at  other  points. 

The  engine  furnished  was  of  the  latest 
improved  type  as  built  by  the  company. 
It  was  of  exceptional  weight  and  strength, 
and  so  constructed  as  to  insure  the  greatest 
possible  durability  and  the  most  perfect  ad- 
justment of  all  its  parts.  Through  its  per- 
fectly fitting  valves  ample  travel  at  all 
adjustments  was  secured,  thus  eliminating 
untrue  wear.  The  governor,  being  of  the 
shaft  type,  is  secured  to  the  engine  shaft, 
driving  valves  through  an  eccentric  rod, 
rock  shaft,  and  valve  stem  as  positively 
as  the  main  shaft  is  driven.  This  type 
gives  the  closest  regulation  under  all  con- 
ditions, and  cannot  become  detached  and 
wreck  the  engine.  The  Buckeye  Engine 
Company  has  built  more  than  6,000  of 
these  machines,  besides  being  engaged  in 
the  manufacture  of  gas  engines,  and  its  lat- 
est product,  the  "Buckeye-mobile."  This 
is  a  remarkably  efficient  engine  and  boiler 
unit  for  the  effective  utilization  of  super- 


heated steam,  a  modification  of  the  Ger- 
man type  of  locomobile,  developed  and 
adapted  to  American  conditions. 

One  of  the  firms  whose  products  were 
interwoven  with  many  phases  of  the  canal 
work  was  the  Abendroth  and  Root  Manu- 
facturing Company,  with  its  main  offices 
and  works  at  Newburgh,  N.  Y.  This 
company,  which  manufactures  the  Root 
spiral  riveted  pipe,  machinery  and  foundry 
supplies,  plate  metal  construction,  Root 
sectional  water  tube  boilers  and  other  like 
equipment,  has  been  established  since  1867, 
and  its  products  were  known  in  Central  and 
South  America  long  before  canal  construc- 
tion was  undertaken. 

Many  years  ago,  the  company's  pipes 
were  used  in  installing  the  water  pipe  line 
at  Tegucigalpa,  Honduras,  the  line  being 
over  twelve  miles  long,  with  its  head  2,000 
feet  above  the  city.  An  interesting  illus- 
tration of  the  difficulties  of  shipments  to 
this  territory  before  the  completion  of  the 
canal  is  shown  by  the  roundabout  way  in 
which  this  pipe  reached  its  destination.  It 
was  shipped  by  steamer  from  New  York  to 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  transferred  to  the 
railroad  across  the  Isthmus,  then  on  a 
steamer  again  up  the  coast  to  Amapala, 
and  finally  by  barges  to  the  mainland.  It 
was  then  carried  in  carts  ninety  miles  to 
Tegucigalpa. 

With  the  completion  of  the  canal,  such 
a  shipment  could  now  be  carried  direct 
from  New  York  to  Amapala,  and  with  the 
impetus  given  commerce,  harbor  and  in- 
terior improvements  by  the  example  set 
by  the  United  States  at  Panama,  shipments 
to  these  remote  destinations  will  meet  few 
of  the  difficulties  of  years  gone  by. 

Despite  its  rough  journey,  this  pipe 
reached  its  destination  in  perfect  condition, 
and  a  report  fifteen  years  after  it  was  laid 
down  showed  that  it  was  working  as  per- 
fectly as  when  the  water  was  first  turned  in. 
The  only  damage  the  pipe  sustained  in  that 
period  was  when  it  was  twice  cut  during 
revolutions,  but  a  length  or  two  of  new  pipe 
soon  made  the  whole  as  good  as  new. 

Several  miles  of  this  company's  asphalted 


STANDARDIZING   PIPE 


371 


spiral  riveted  pipe  was  used  for  hydraulic 
excavation  work  on  the  Pacific  division  of 
the  canal,  together  with  two  of  its  hydraulic 
giants.  On  other  portions  of  the  canal, 
miles  of  pipe  ranging  from  eight  inches  to 
twenty-six  inches  were  used  for  exhaust 
steam,  compressed  air  and  water  supply 
lines.  The  pipe  was  found  suitable  for  all 
phases  of  the  work  where  such  piping  was 
needed  because  of  its  light  weight,  great 
strength,  and  simplicity  of  connections. 

A  number  of  the  Root  water  tube  boilers 
manufactured  by  this  company  were  pur- 
chased for  power  purposes  at  the  canal. 
These  boilers  have  a  superior  circulation 
that  permits  the  highest  degree  of  maximum 
fuel  economy,  easy  steam  qualities,  low  cost 
of  repair  and  large  capacity  for  overload. 

The  pipe  furnished  the  canal  by  this  com- 
pany was  made  by  its  specially  designed 
machinery,  and  coated  inside  arid  out  by 
its  special  asphaltum  composition  or  gal- 
vanizing process,  insuring  the  longest  pos- 
sible life  to  the  material  by  protecting  it 
from  corrosion.  The  spiral  riveted  con- 
struction gives  the  pipe  a  continuous  heli- 
cal rib,  giving  it  great  strength  and  rigidity 
combined  with  corresponding  lightness  in 
weight.  It  furnished  one  of  the  best  ex- 
amples of  the  thoroughness  of  American 
manufacture  in  the  list  of  general  equip- 
ment used  in  the  canal's  construction. 

In  the  preparation  for  actual  construc- 
tion of  the  canal,  to  say  nothing  of  con- 
struction work,  large  quantities  of  wrought 
steel  and  iron  pipe  were  required.  The 
water  and  sewer  systems  of  Colon  and  Pan- 
ama were  made  over,  or  rather  created 
anew;  the  sanitation  work  throughout  the 
Canal  Zone  called  for  piping  of  all  kinds; 
the  preliminaries  for  the  housing  and  feed- 
ing of  laborers  included  the  construction 
of  quarters,  storehouses,  ice  plants,  laun- 
dries, hospitals,  etc.,  all  of  them  fitted 
with  modern  plumbing  and  lighting  plants. 

The  question  of  standardizing  construc- 
tion materials  was  an  important  one  as 
affecting  pipe,  just  as  it  affected  all  other 
equipment.  The  Isthmian  Canal  Com- 
mission found  that  rapid  and  thorough 


preliminary  and  construction  work  re- 
quired both  standardization  and  a  formula 
that  would  insure  the  best  of  materials. 
A  board  was  appointed  to  consider  this 
matter,  and  tests  were  applied  which  were 
calculated  to  bring  out  the  best  points 
in  American  methods  of  manufacture. 
The  Youngstown  Sheet  and  Tube  Com- 
pany of  Youngstown,  Ohio,  submitted  a 
formula  and  specification  for  iron  pipe  and 
tubes  which  were  finally  adopted  by  the 
commission  as  a  standard,  and  all  material 
of  that  nature  subsequently  used  at  Pan- 
ama either  in  preliminary  work  or  in 
canal  construction  conformed  to  this 
standard. 

The  Youngstown  Company  received 
awards  for  over  $400,000  worth  of  black  and 
galvanized  wrought  steel  and  iron  pipe, 
constituting  shipments  embracing  practi- 
cally every  size  and  character.  These 
shipments  were  made  from  the  factory,  after 
inspection  by  an  engineer  appointed  by  the 
Isthmian  Canal  Commission.  As  the  op- 
erations on  the  Isthmus  depended  upon  the 
promptness  with  which  material  was  for- 
warded from  the  United  States,  it  fell  upon 
the  Youngstown  Company  to  expedite  its 
shipments  of  pipe,  and  the  manner  in 
which  this  duty  was  performed  drew  forth 
praise  from  the  government  officials  at 
Panama.  The  co-operation  of  American 
manufacturers  was,  in  fact,  a  vital  factor 
in  the  prompt  and  orderly  evolution  of  the 
work  at  Panama.  The  history  of  the  con- 
struction of  the  canal  is  also  a  history  of 
American  manufacturing  efficiency — of 
good  material  honestly  put  together  and 
systematically  forwarded.  The  list  of  im- 
portant manufacturers  who  contributed  to 
the  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal  has 
become  a  roll  of  honor,  and  among  the  first 
to  give  cordial  recognition  to  the  efforts  of 
American  manufacturers  were  the  engineers 
in  the  Canal  Zone. 

CEMENT  AND  CONCRETE 

Soon  after  the  construction  of  the  Pan- 
ama Canal  was  commenced  the  Isthmian 
Canal  Commission  bought  from  the  Allis- 


372 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


Chalmers  Company  the  first  stone  crush- 
ing plant  used  in  the  production  of  crushed 
stone  for  concrete  work.  This  plant  con- 
sisted of  one  No.  8  Style  "K"  and  two 
No.  5  Style  "K"  Allis-Chalmers  "Gates" 
Crushers,  and  the  necessary  auxiliary 
equipment.  The  plant  was  designed  by 
the  Allis-Chalmers  Company  and  erected 
by  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  near 
Ancon.  Its  capacity  was  about  1,000 
cubic  yards  per  day  of  eight  hours. 

Later  on  as  the  work  progressed  and  the 
Gatun  Locks  were  being  constructed  the 
government  engineers  decided  to  erect  a 
plant  at  Porto  Bello  to  produce  the  crushed 
stone  required  for  this  work.  The  rock 
in  the  Porto  Bello  quarry  was  very  hard 
and  abrasive,  closely  resembling  that  found 
in  the  Palisades  on  the  Hudson  River, 
New  York.  The  operations  at  the  quarry 
being  of  necessity  very  large,  and  the  addi- 
tional fact  that  the  peculiar  formation  of 
the  rock  caused  it  to  blast  out  in  pieces  of 
immense  size,  made  the  installation  of  a 
large  preliminary  crusher  necessary  to  ob- 
tain maximum  operating  economies.  The 
engineers  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Com- 
mission decided  upon  a  No.  21  Allis- 
Chalmers  "Gates"  Gyratory  Crusher  for 
this  work  as  the  most  modern  machine. 

The  great  and  rapid  advance  made  in 
crushing  machinery  is  shown  by  the  size  of 
the  receiving  openings  of  the  No.  8  crusher 
installed  at  Ancon  as  compared  with  the 
No.  21  installed  at  Porto  Bello.  The  No. 
8  crusher  has  two  receiving  openings 
eighteen  inches  by  sixty-eight  inches, 
whereas  the  No.  21  has  two  receiving 
openings  forty-two  inches  by  114  inches, 
the  former  machine  weighing  approxi- 
mately fifty  tons  and  the  latter  about 
235  tons.  To  give  some  idea  of  its  im- 
mense size  it  should  be  noted  that  it  will 
take  pieces  weighing  four  to  five  tons, 
breaking  them  down  to  about  seven  inches 
in  one  operation.  This  large  crusher  is 
capable  of  easily  crushing  5,000  cubic  yards 
of  rock  in  eight  hours,  although  it  was  never 
extended  to  its  fullest  capacity  as  only 
3,500  cubic  yards  were  used  at  the  Gatun 


lock  daily.  The  enormous  size  and  weights 
of  the  individual  pieces  that  go  to  make 
up  this  machine  made  the  transportation 
and  installation  (the  plant  being  located 
several  hundred  feet  above  water  level) 
a  difficult  one,  and  much  credit  is  due  the 
management  and  engineers  of  the  Isth- 
mian Canal  Commission  in  successfully 
mastering  these  problems. 

The  rock  in  the  quarry  was  loaded  with 
large  steam  shovels  into  six  to  eight-ton 
side  dump  cars,  and  trains  of  ten  cars  were 
brought  by  locomotive  to  the  crusher  and 
discharged  into  the  feed  hopper.  After 
being  crushed  in  this  preliminary  breaker  to 
about  seven  inches  the  material  dropped 
into  a  sixty-inch  Allis-Chalmers  pan  con- 
veyor and  elevated  to  additional  crushers 
which  further  reduced  it  to  about  three 
and  one-half  inches.  The  material  used 
in  the  concrete  work  at  Gatun  locks  being 
"crusher  run,"  no  sizing  screens  were 
necessary  at  the  crushing  plant.  Its  loca- 
tion being  on  a  hill-side,  all  the  crushed 
material  flowed  by  gravity  to  a  final  con- 
veyor located  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  which 
carried  it  to  the  storage  bins.  These  bins 
were  located  on  Porto  Bello  harbor,  and 
the  material  was  loaded  directly  from  these 
bins  into  barges  having  a  carrying  capacity 
of  about  700  cubic  yards.  The  barges 
were  towed  to  Gatun,  a  distance  of  about 
thirty-five  miles,  and  there  unloaded  with 
clam  shell  buckets. 

By  the  middle  of  1909  work  on  the  locks 
had  reached  the  stage  when  concrete 
construction  began  in  earnest,  and  immense 
quantities  of  material  were  accumulated 
at  Gatun,  Miraflores  and  Pedro  Miguel. 
The  extraordinary  size  of  the  culverts  and 
other  conduits  connected  with  the  locks 
make  it  necessary  that  specially  designed 
forms  should  be  employed  for  the  deposit  of 
concrete.  Experience  in  the  construction 
of  such  works  as  the  New  York  subways 
had  demonstrated  the  superiority  of  col- 
lapsible steel  forms  over  the  old  wooden 
forms.  Although  the  first  cost  was  higher, 
the  steel  forms  proved  much  more  eco- 
nomical in  large  operations,  because  of 


1.  Main  shaft  for  crushing  plant  at  Porto  Bello. 

2.  Stone  breaker. 

(Supplied  by  the  Allis-Chalmers  Company,  Milwaukee,  Wis.) 


1.  Twenty-two-foot  horseshoe  shaped  Blaw  Steel  Form  for  culvert  construction,  Panama  Canal. 

2.  Eighteen-foot  round  Blaw  Steel  Forms  showing  telescopic  features  used  for  culvert  construction  in  the  canal  locks. 

(The  Blaw  Steel  Construction  Company,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.) 


COLLAPSIBLE  STEEL   FORMS 


373 


the  rapidity  with   which   work   could    be 
done. 

After  considerable  study  of  the  problem, 
the  commission  adopted  a  design  furnished 
by  the  Blaw  Steel  Construction  Com- 
pany, of  Pittsburgh,  as  being  best  adapted 
to  canal  work.  Contracts  were  awarded 
to  this  company,  and  the  forms  were 
shipped  to  the  Isthmus  in  July,  1909,  and 
July,  1910.  The  accompanying  illustra- 
tions give  a  clear  idea  of  the  manner  in 
which  the  forms  were  used  for  culvert  con- 
struction in  the  locks.  The  forms  were 
of  great  size,  measuring  in  some  cases 
twenty-two  feet  in  diameter,  and  were  the 
largest  in  existence  at  that  time.  In  the 
tropical  climate  of  Panama  wood  forms 
would  have  warped  and  caused  no  end  of 
trouble  by  losing  their  shapes,  but  the  steel 
forms  retained  their  rigidity  under  all 
conditions,  and,  of  course,  were  not  affected 
by  tropical  heat. 

Instead  of  setting  up  a  temporary  form 
which  would  have  been  knocked  down 
again  with  each  completed  section  of  the 
work,  as  is  necessary  when  wood  forms  are 
used,  the  steel  forms  were  merely  telescoped 
and  moved  forward  to  a  new  section.  No 
repairs  or  renewals  were  required,  there  was 
no  waste  labor  or  material,  and  valuable 
time  was  saved  on  account  of  the  ease  with 
which  forms  were  set  up  and  removed,  and 
also  on  account  of  the  accurate  adjustment. 

Since  these  steel  forms  were  employed  at 
Panama  they  have  become  a  factor  in 
other  important  concrete  construction  proj- 
ects, notably  in  the  aqueduct  conveying 
Catskill  water  to  New  York  City,  and  in 
the  New  York  subways. 

The  steel  forms  furnished  for  the  cul- 
verts through  Miraflores  and  Pedro  Miguel 
locks  by  the  Blaw  Steel  Construction 
Company  were  ten,  eighteen,  twenty  and 
twenty-two  feet  in  diameter. 

The  heavy  loads  of  concrete  which  these 
forms  had  to  carry  and  the  requirement 
that  one  section  be  passed  through  the 
others  in  position  made  it  necessary  to 
use  the  most  advanced  ideas  in  the  design 
of  a  collapsible  telescopic  form. 


The  full  round  forms  were  made  in  five- 
foot  sections,  each  section  being  divided 
into  quadrants.  The  quadrants  were  rig- 
idly braced  with  angles,  making  it  impos- 
sible to  distort  the  forms  when  handling 
or  loading  with  concrete.  The  joint  lines 
of  the  quadrants  were  on  the  horizontal 
and  vertical  planes.  The  horizontal  joints 
were  reinforced  with  lap  plates  spanning 
the  joint  from  one  quadrant  to  the  other. 
At  the  vertical  joints,  top  and  bottom, 
hinges  were  provided  for  holding  the  quad- 
rants together. 

The  moving  of  the  forms  was  accom- 
plished by  means  of  a  special  traveler 
which  ran  on  a  track  attached  to  the  bot- 
tom quadrants.  This  traveler  was  pro- 
vided with  vertical  jacks  and  side  collaps- 
ing arms  which  engaged  the  top  quadrants. 
The  jacks  and  arms  after  being  fastened 
to  the  top  quadrants  were  collapsed,  draw- 
ing in  the  quadrants  to  a  position  of  less 
cross-sectional  area  than  when  in  full  po- 
sition, so  they  could  be  passed  through 
the  sections  in  place.  The  bottom  quad- 
rants were  collapsed  by  a  rope  and  block 
and  raised  by  a  chain  hoist  to  a  posi- 
tion which  would  allow  them  to  be  tele- 
scoped. 

The  horseshoe-shaped  forms  were  of  the 
three  hinges  type.  The  sections  were  five 
feet  long  and  divided  into  four  parts  called 
side  sheets  and  wing  plates.  The  side 
sheets  were  hinged  together  at  the  top  and 
to  the  lower  ends  of  the  side  sheets  were 
hinged  the  wing  plates.  The  collapsing 
and  moving  of  these  forms  was  done  on  a 
traveler  constructed  to  run  on  a  track  which 
was  laid  on  the  finished  invert  of  the  culvert. 
The  traveler  was  provided  with  vertical 
jacks  and  side  collapsing  arms.  The  ver- 
tical jacks  engaged  the  forms  at  the  top 
hinge  joint  and  the  collapsing  arms  en- 
gaged to  side  sheets  above  the  joint  of  the 
wing  plates.  After  the  traveler  was  made 
fast  to  the  forms,  the  wing  plates  were 
raised  and  folded  in  next  to  the  side  sheets. 
The  side  sheets  were  then  drawn  away  from 
the  concrete  by  the  collapsing  arms  and 
the  entire  form  lowered  by  the  vertical 


374 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


jacks  sufficient  to  pass  through  the  forms 
in  position. 

The  water  passages  under  the  floors  of 
the  locks  were  made  with  a  full  round  form. 
At  regular  intervals  an  opening  occurs 
from  these  water  passages  up  into  the 
locks.  This  opening  was  formed  by  a 
special  collapsible  steel  form  which  fitted 
on  the  full  round  form  and  projected  up 
to  the  floor  line  of  the  lock. 

These  forms  were  built  by  the  Blaw 
Steel  Construction  Company  from  their 
own  designs,  which  were  approved  by  the 
United  States  engineers.  The  forms  were 
erected  in  the  shops  and  inspected  before 
shipment.  No  skilled  labor  was  required 
to  handle  them,  as  all  parts  were*  inter- 
changeable, thus  avoiding  any  cutting  or 
fittjng  after  the  forms  were  erected. 

The  Alpha  Portland  Cement  Company, 
which  from  time  to  time  furnished  the 
Isthmian  Canal  Commission  with  large 
quantities  of  cement,  is  one  of  the  largest 
Portland  cement  concerns  in  the  United 
States,  as  well  as  one  of  the  pioneers  in 
the  American  manufacture  of  Portland  ce- 
ment. 

When  the  Alpha  Company  started  oper- 
ations in  1891,  there  was  but  little  Port- 
land cement  used  in  this  country.  The 
first  equipment  of  the  company  consisted 
merely  of  two  forty-foot  kilns,  and  the 
yearly  production  amounted  to  only  100,- 
ooo  barrels — a  quantity  that  the  six  great 
plants  of  the  Alpha  can  now  produce  in 
four  days. 

The  mills  of  the  Alpha  Company  are 
located  at  Martin's  Creek,  Pa.,  Alpha, 
N.  J.,  Manheim,  W.  Va.,  and  Cementon, 
N.  Y.  There  are  six  great  plants  on  six 
trunk  line  railroads.  The  Catskill  plant, 
with  its  private  docks,  is  also  directly  on 
the  Hudson  River  and  ideally  situated  for 
shipments  along  the  coast,  the  barge 
canal,  and  for  export  purposes. 

The  product  of  the  Hudson  River  Alpha 
plant  has  a  characteristic  that  fortunately 
fits  with  its  location,  that  is,  the  low  per- 
centage of  alumina  in  the  rock,  which 
adapts  the  cement  particularly  to  use  in 


sea-water.  Extensive  investigations  show 
that  a  cement  of  low  alumina  content  gives 
the  best  results  where  concrete  is  exposed 
to  salt  water,  sewerage  acids,  etc.  For  a 
time  only  imported  cements  were  used  in 
the  under-water  construction  on  the  Key 
West  extensions  of  the  Florida  East  Coast 
Railroad.  When  Alpha  cement  was  tested 
thoroughly  it  was  found  to  meet  every 
test,  and  thereafter  was  used  in  the  under- 
water construction  of  the  extension. 

The  Martin's  Creek  quarry  of  the  Alpha 
Company  is  perhaps  the  best  known  of  any 
of  the  Portland  cement  plants  on  the  conti- 
nent. Here  are  a  thousand  acres  of  the 
finest  quality  of  cement  rock,  the  face  of  the 
quarry  being  from  100  to  170  feet  high,  and 
the  limestone  possessing  just  the  proper 
percentage  of  lime  needed  for  a  perfect 
Portland  cement.  In  the  blasting  methods 
followed  at  the  Martin's  Creek  quarry,  holes 
are  drilled  in  sets  of  ten  to  fourteen  down 
the  entire  quarry  face  and  snake  holes 
driven  in  to  meet  the  vertical  borings.  In 
the  blasts  as  much  as  ten  and  one-half 
tons  of  dynamite  are  used  to  bring  down 
the  rock. 

In  addition  to  having  been  selected  as  one 
of  the  brands  for  use  on  the  canal,  Alpha 
Portland  cement  has  been  liberally  used 
by  the  United  States  government  in  im- 
portant operations,  such  as  the  fortifica- 
tions at  Egmont  and  Mullett's  Keys,  Forts 
Hancock,  Wadsworth,  Slocum,  Monroe, 
Strong,  Mott,  Totten,  and  Schuyler,  as 
well  as  in  the  Navy  Yards  at  Portsmouth, 
Charleston,  Brooklyn,  Norfolk,  League 
Island,  and  Boston.  It  has  been  also  used 
extensively  by  the  government  for  piers, 
sea  walls,  dry  docks,  light  houses,  etc. 
The  company  has  recently  enlarged  its 
capacity  so  that  now  it  has  a  producing 
capacity  of  9,000,000  barrels  a  year,  and 
storage  facilities  for  2,000,000  barrels. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  records  dur- 
ing canal  construction  was  that  of  the 
Atlas  Portland  Cement  Company.  The 
government  used  5,000,000  barrels  of  the 
company's  cement  in  the  Panama  Canal 
without  the  rejection  of  a  single  barrel. 


1.  Austin  concrete  mixers  at  work  on  the  canal.    (Miraflores  Locks.) 

2.  The  mixers  at  work  on  the  gate  sills.    Upper  locks,  Miraflores. 

(Supplied  by  F.  C.  Austin,  Municipal  Building  and  Contracting  Company,  Chicago.) 


ENORMOUS   CONSUMPTION   OF  CEMENT 


375 


Following  this  record  the  company  then 
practically  supplied  all  the  cement  needed 
to  supply  the  canal  work,  following  its 
first  consignment  of  5,000,000  barrels 
with  additional  shipments  which  soon  ran 
over  the  half  million  barrel  mark,  and  con- 
tinuing until  the  canal  was  finished.  In 
keeping  with  the  policy  of  "safety  first," 
cement  was  needed  at  Panama  which  by 
the  most  rigid  and  extensive  tests  could 
prove  its  superiority.  These  requirements 
were  met  by  the  Atlas  Company,  and  the 
enormous  consumption  of  cement  for  the 
work  and  the  possibility  of  loss  through 
idle  equipment  and  a  shifted  payroll  in  case 
of  slow  deliveries  made  necessary  the  selec- 
tion of  a  cement  manufactured  where  pro- 
duction not  only  met  but  could  exceed  any 
demands  made.  The  Atlas  Portland  Ce- 
ment Company,  having  a  daily  productive 
capacity  of  50,000  barrels,  or  18,000,000 
barrels  per  year,  therefore  was  able  to 
cope  with  any  demands  for  Panama  with- 
out interfering  with  other  shipments. 
The  company's  productive  capacity  was 
and  is  by  far  the  largest  in  the  world. 
The  first  5,000,000  barrels  furnished  by 
the  Atlas  Company  was  used  in  construct- 
ing the  canal  locks,  and  Gatun  dam  and 
spillway.  Because  of  the  importance  of 
this  phase  of  the  construction  the  cement 
was  given  most  rigid  and  exacting  tests  in 
the  government's  laboratories,  and  not  a 
single  barrel  was  rejected  for  any  reason. 
This  is  an  incomparable  record  of  indus- 
trial efficiency  in  production  and  one 
which  can  scarcely  be  paralleled  by  any 
concern  in  the  world.  It  can,  therefore, 
be  readily  understood  why  the  United 
States  government  when  it  found  it  would 
require  a  large  additional  supply  of  cement 
to  complete  the  work  decided  to  enter  into 
a  new  contract  with  the  Atlas  Portland 
Cement  Company  to  supply  the  cement 
required  to  complete  the  canal.  If  one 
could  realize  the  magnitude  of  5,000,000 
barrels  of  cement  or  5,000,000  packages  of 
any  kind,  some  appreciation  could  be 
reached  of  the  feat  of  the  Atlas  Company 
in  having  this  vast  number  of  deliveries 


passed  unchallenged  by  the  guardians  of 
the  canal.  The  achievements  in  Panama 
will  go  down  in  history  as  monuments  to 
those  who  labored  there,  but  not  the  least 
among  the  achievements  was  the  steady 
and  uninterrupted  delivery  of  great  quan- 
tities of  supplies  of  the  highest  efficiency 
by  American  industrial  concerns. 

MIXING  THE  CONCRETE 

A  total,  in  round  figures,  of  5,000,000 
cubic  yards  of  concrete  was  required  in  the 
structures  for  the  Panama  Canal.  The 
costs  of  this  concrete  are  available  only 
for  main  structures,  but  a  fair  average 
is  perhaps  $6  per  cubic  yard.  In  dollars 
and  cents,  therefore,  the  concrete  work 
of  the  Panama  Canal  represents  $30,000,- 
ooo.  Such  an  expenditure  warranted  ex- 
treme care  in  choosing  all  machinery  for 
making  concrete.  Besides  this  reason  there 
was  the  equally  important  reason  that 
these  concrete  structures  were  for  all  time 
and  were  to  be  a  monument,  before  the 
eyes  of  the  world,  of  American  engineering 
proficiency  in  concrete  construction. 
Every  motive  of  selfish  interest  as  well  as 
of  professional  honor  and  pride  prompted 
exceptional  precautions  to  insure  concrete 
construction  above  criticism.  One  of  these 
precautions,  and  logically  the  first  that 
would  occur  to  trained  engineers,  was  su- 
perior mixing. 

There  were  available  to  the  canal 
engineers  a  number  of  different  concrete 
mixers.  Claims  of  superiority  were  made 
for  all.  No  impartial  comparative  test 
records  existed.  In  order  to  decide  cer- 
tainly which  mixer  was  superior,  it  was 
determined  to  test  in  the  field  in  preliminary 
work  all  those  mixers  which  had  gained 
prominence  in  engineering  construction. 
The  field  tests  were  made,  and  from  the 
experience  thus  obtained  the  decision  was 
made  to  adopt  the  Austin  improved  cube 
mixer.  Altogether  over  a  hundred  of  these 
mixers  were  bought;  they  ranged  in  size 
from  two  cubic  yards  to  one-third  cubic 
yard ;  they  mixed  concrete  for  every  canal 
structure  from  building  blocks  of  less  than 


376 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


a  cubic  foot  to  the  great  Gatun  Locks  of 
1,945,457  cubic  yards  in  one  mass. 

The  success  of  the  Austin  improved  cube 
mixer  in  the  preliminary  competition  at 
Panama  was  not  fortuitous.  This  mixer 
had  a  history  which  was  unique  among  the 
records  of  machines  of  its  kind.  The  very 
first  form  of  machine  to  be  extensively 
used  for  mixing  concrete  was  a  cubical  box, 
journaled  at  diagonally  opposite  corners, 
and  having  a  door  in  one  side  through 
which  the  charge  of  cement,  sand,  stone 
and  water  was  filled  and  the  batch  of  mixed 
concrete  was  emptied.  These  machines 
were  mechanically  crude,  but  they  pro- 
duced a  remarkably  perfect  concrete.  Old 
concrete  makers  will  recall  the  arrange- 
ment— a  wooden  box  shod  with  iron  and 
hung  and  bolted  by  the  contractor's  car- 
penter and  blacksmith,  but  turning  out 
a  concrete  so  thoroughly  and  uniformly 
mixed  that  no  hand-mixed  product  could 
compare  with  it.  The  cube  mixer  first 
demonstrated  the  great  economy  of  ma- 
chine mixing  over  hand  mixing,  and,  it  is 
essential  to  remember,  it  did  so  not  because 
it  presented  any  nicety  of  mechanical  con- 
struction or  because  it  gave  an  enormous 
output,  but  because  it  made  a  better  con- 
crete. 

But  to  discharge  the  mixer  the  cube  had 
to  be  stopped  with  the  side  containing  the 
door  on  the  bottom,  and  to  charge  it  again 
it  had  to  be  turned  until  the  side  contain- 
ing the  door  came  on  top. 

In  other  words,  some  time  was  lost  in 
unclamping  the  door  to  discharge  the  batch 
and  in  clamping  it  in  place  again  to  enclose 
the  new  charge.  Altogether,  the  arrange- 
ment was  unmechanical,  but  it  had  the 
saving  grace  of  doing  good  work,  even  if  it 
did  it  slowly.  Through  this  quality  it 
supplanted  hand  mixing.  The  army  en- 
gineers, who  until  a  few  years  ago  were 
executing  most  of  the  concrete  work  being 
done,  adopted  the  cube  mixer.  They  did 
not  require  rapid  mixing,  but  they  did  re- 
quire unusually  perfect  mixing,  and  the 
old  style  cube  gave  them  this.  For  twenty 
years  no  other  mixer  was  used ;  practically 


no  other  mixer  was  known.  Then  the 
railways,  the  city  engineers,  the  big  public 
service  corporations,  and  the  general  build- 
ing public  began  to  see  the  great  advantage 
of  concrete  construction. 

The  possibilities  of  concrete  reinforced 
with  steel  gave  impetus  to  the  movement. 
All  this  meant  that  more  concrete  had  to 
be  made,  and  made  faster,  and  a  multi- 
tude of  inventors  set  about  to  devise  a 
mixer  that  would  beat  the  old  style  cube 
in  rapidity  of  mixing. 

Twenty  years  of  experience  had  demon- 
strated that  the  perfect  method  of  mixing 
concrete  by  machine  was  to  hold  the  entire 
batch  of  materials  together  and  incorporate 
them  with  one  another  by  the  criss-cross 
puddling  action  given  by  the  revolving 
slides  of  a  cubical  box  hung  at  diagonally 
opposite  corners.  The  inventors  who 
started  out  to  improve  the  old  style  cube 
did  not  fail  to  perceive  these  facts.  They 
adopted  the  batch  principle  at  once,  but 
the  problem  of  retaining  the  criss-cross 
puddling  action  troubled  them.  They 
did  not  see  how  a  cubical  box  could  be 
mechanically  arranged  so  that  it  would 
receive  the  charge  and  dump  its  batch 
quickly  and  without  stopping.  They  took 
the  easy  road  of  substitution.  Circular 
drums  were  substituted  for  the  cubical 
mixing  box,  and  as  a  smooth  circular 
drum  would  simply  slide  from  under  the 
wet  mass  of  concrete,  sand,  and  stone, 
they  riveted  shelves  or  fins  to  the  inside  of 
the  drums.  To  meet  the  criticism  certain 
to  occur  that  the  crosswise  movement  of 
the  materials,  which  was  a  cardinal  feature 
of  the  cube,  had  been  lost  in  their  substi- 
tute, they  fashioned  their  fins  or  shelves 
with  a  cant  or  slope,  designed  to  toss  the 
material  back  and  forth  longitudinally. 
Thus  came  about  the  rotating  drum  mixer 
with  inside  disintegrators.  It  was  cheap 
and  it  turned  out  concrete  rapidly,  but 
the  concrete  was  not  cube-mixed  quality. 

The  next  substitution  was  the  "con- 
tinuous" mixer.  In  this  machine  the  sub- 
stitution of  paddles  was  not  only  carried 
a  step  further,  but  a  substitute  for  the 


1.  Gatun  Spillway  Dam. 

2.  Gatun  Upper  Locks. 

(Cement  furnished  by  Atlas  Portland  Cement  Company,  New  York.) 


THE  AUSTIN   CUBE   MIXER 


377 


batch  principle  was  introduced.  The  rea- 
son was,  again,  cheapness  and  greater 
rapidity  of  output.  Quality  of  mixture 
was  still  further  discounted. 

The  remaining  chapter  in  this  story  of 
substitution  was  the  devising  of  the  "grav- 
ity "  mixer;  a  trough  studded  with  pegs  and 
ears  was  set  on  a  stand  and  the  cement, 
sand  and  stone  chuted  down  it.  Cheap- 
ness and  capacity  were  advanced  another 
step,  and  quality  of  mixture  was  practically 
relegated  to  the  non-essentials. 

Then  there  came  a  new  man  into  the 
mixer  manufacturing  field,  F.  C.  Austin, 
who  took  up  the  problem  of  bettering 
the  old  style  cube  mixer.  His  first  step 
was  to  eliminate  the  idea  of  substitution 
and  to  set  firmly  in  its  place  the  idea  of 
improvement.  It  was  seen  that  there 
could  be  no  substitute  for  the  distinctively 
peculiar  mixing  action  of  the  cubical  box 
journaled  at  diagonally  opposite  corners, 
if  concrete  equal  in  quality  to  that  pro- 
duced by  the  old  style  cube  was  to  be 
turned  out.  It  was  further  accepted  as 
an  article  of  faith  that  quality  of  mixture 
must  not  be  sacrificed  to  speed  and  cheap- 
ness of  mixing.  The  task  was  to  improve 
the  old  style  cube  mixer,  to  make  of  it  a 
compact,  portable,  self-contained  machine 
that  could  be  charged  and  discharged  with- 
out stopping  and  loss  of  mixer  time.  It 
would  have  been  easier  to  design  a  substi- 
tute, but  a  careful  study  of  the  possibilities 
of  substitution  convinced  this  engineer 
that  no  departure  from  the  cube  principle 
could  be  made  without  deterioration  in  the 
quality  of  the  product.  This  was  a  con- 
tingency which,  as  stated  above,  had  been 
eliminated  from  the  things  to  be  even  con- 
sidered— the  object  was  to  improve  the  old 
style  cube  in  every  function  it  possessed, 
not  merely  to  better  its  speed.  The  reader 
is  not  interested  to  know  all  the  steps  of 
this  labor,  but  the  result — the  finished 
Austin  Improved  Cube  Mixer — is  the 
machine  that  mixed  the  concrete  for  the 
Panama  Canal. 

Briefly  stated,  the  shaft  which  passed 
through  diagonally  opposite  corners  of 


the  old  style  cube  mixer  was  removed 
and  replaced  with  hollow  trunnions  riding 
on  rollers.  These  hollow  trunnions  were 
made  large  enough  to  serve  as  openings 
for  charging  and  discharging  the  mixer. 
To  rotate  the  cube,  a  strong  circumferential 
rack  was  fastened  around  it  on  a  drum  at 
right  angles  to  and  midway  between  the 
trunnions.  This  rack,  geared  with  a  pinion 
shaft,  was  operated  by  the  engine  shaft 
in  such  a  way  that  all  gearing  was  removed 
as  far  as  possible  from  the  material  which 
flies  about  in  charging  and  discharging. 
To  discharge  the  mixer,  a  simple  automatic 
power  dumping  device  was  introduced,  by 
means  of  which  the  discharge  can  be  made 
by  the  man  who  operates  the  engine, 
an  extra  man  not  being  required  to  tilt  the 
dumping  device.  To  permit  the  use  of  a 
larger  cube  in  the  same  space,  the  sharp 
corners  and  edges  were  rounded.  Finally 
the  whole  mechanism  with  its  motive  power 
was  mounted  compactly  on  a  frame  which 
could  be  put  on  wheels  and  moved  from 
place  to  place. 

The  records  of  the  Austin  Improved  Cube 
Mixer  at  Panama  justify  the  selection  by 
Mr.  Austin  of  the  cube  mixer  body  and  for 
all  his  labor  in  developing  it  into  a  perfect 
mixing  mechanism.  These  Panama  rec- 
ords are  too  voluminous  to  present,  but  a 
few  selections  indicate  the  character  of  all 
and  demonstrate  the  claims  made. 

During  the  year  ending  June  30,  1912, 
Austin  Improved  Cube  Mixers,  ranging  in 
size  from  one-half  cubic  yard  to  two  cubic 
yards,  mixed  a  total  of  1,209,506  cubic 
yards  of  concrete.  The  actual  working 
time  of  these  mixers  was  24,946  hours,  or 
3,118  eight-hour  shifts.  Therefore,  each 
mixer  mixed  per  hour  worked,  an  average, 
for  all  sizes,  of  48^  cubic  yards,  or  one 
cubic  yard  every  75  seconds.  This  output 
record  is  the  average  of  all  mixers,  large  and 
small.  Individual  batteries  of  mixers  made 
better  records.  For  example :  Two  mixers 
working  on  Gatun  Locks  mixed  80,544 
cubic  yards  in  1,175  hours  worked,  or 
68.54  cubic  yards  per  mixer  per  hour 
worked.  Output  life  records  have  not  been 


378 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


computed,  except  in  one  case  of  a  battery 
of  two  mixers  which  were  withdrawn  from 
canal  construction  and  put  on  fortifica- 
tion work.  These  two  mixers  had,  up  to 
the  time  they  were  withdrawn  from  canal 
construction,  mixed  410,000  cubic  yards, 
or  205,000  cubic  yards  each.  How  much 
greater  output  life  these  two  mixers  have 
cannot  be  stated — they  are  still  mixing 
concrete. 

Represented  in  the  American  machinery 
used  in  concrete  work  at  the  canal  were  the 
concrete  mixers  furnished  by  the  T.  L. 
Smith  Company,  of  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  which 
furnished  the  canal  commission  with  eight 
of  its  standard  equipments  between  1907 
and  1909.  All  of  the  machines  were  port- 
able outfits,  of  approximately  half-yard 
capacity,  and  consisted  of  the  mixer  on 
truck,  with  engine  and  boiler,  the  entire 
apparatus  in  actual  work  discharging  the 
mixed  concrete  into  position  without  shov- 
eling or  wheeling. 

?  The  mixers  furnished  by  the  T.  L.  Smith 
Company  gave  thorough  satisfaction  at 
the  canal.  They  had  already  won  an  en- 
viable record  in  construction  work  in  this 
country  on  the  Florida  East  Coast  Rail- 
way, the  Galveston  sea  wall,  the  Roose- 
velt dam,  and  the  great  dams  built  at  Keo- 
kuk  and  Helena,  as  well  as  in  extensive  con- 
crete jobs  completed  by  the  government  in 
Porto  Rico,  Hawaii,  and  the  Philippines. 

The  Corrugated  Bar  Company,  of  Buf- 
falo, N.  Y.,  entered  into  canal  work  in 
October,  1908,  and  continued  shipments  up 
to  June,  1912,  its  contracts  in  full  calling 
for  2,150  tons  of  steel  bars,  used  as  rein- 
forcement in  concrete  work  at  the  Isthmus. 
These  included  operations  in  connection 
with  the  construction  of  retaining  walls, 
locks,  docks,  and  other  similar  building 
operations  at  the  canal. 

In  addition  to  its  headquarters  at  Buf- 
falo, this  company  has  district  offices  in 
St.  Louis,  New  York  City,  Boston,  Chicago, 
and  St.  Paul.  It  was  the  first  to  introduce 
the  idea  of  a  mechanical  bond  for  re- 
inforcement in  concrete  work,  and  it  started 
in  business  in  1891  as  one  of  the  earliest 


of  the  expanded  metal  companies.  Its 
engineers  were  responsible  for  the  first 
scientific  formula  for  the  designing  of  re- 
inforced concrete  beams,  so  that  it  can 
rightly  claim  the  place  of  being  the  pioneer 
in  its  particular  line  of  activity  in  this 
country. 

During  the  first  ten  years  of  its  history, 
the  Corrugated  Bar  Company  confined  its 
operations  mainly  to  the  line  of  fireproof 
construction,  in  which  it  acted  as  an  en- 
gineering and  contracting  firm.  Later 
it  specialized  in  making  designs  and  selling 
reinforcing  material.  During  the  entire 
period  of  its  existence,  it  has  never  had  a 
failure  in  its  particular  field  of  operation. 
This  justifies  to  the  fullest  extent  its  slo- 
gan, adopted  a  few  years  ago,  of  "twenty- 
one  years  without  a  failure,"  for  no  build- 
ing collapse  ever  followed  where  it  furnished 
the  design. 

As  regards  the  work  of  this  company  at 
the  canal,  its  successes  in  competitive  bid- 
ding were  due  solely  to  the  superiority  of 
its  product.  As  steel  and  concrete  have 
practically  the  same  coefficient  of  expan- 
sion, tropical  conditions  on  the  Isthmus 
introduced  no  new  difficulties  that  had 
specially  to  be  met.  But  if  they  had,  the 
corrugations  on  the  steel  bars  furnished  by 
the  company  made  them  independent  of 
the  question  of  adhesion.  The  corruga- 
tions on  the  bars  are  sufficient  in  number 
to  make  the  bond  positive  and  entirely  in- 
dependent of  any  adhesion  with  the  con- 
crete. These  ribs  are  also  designed  in 
such  a  way  as  to  entirely  avoid,  at  all 
stresses  short  of  the  proof  load,  any  split- 
ting tendency  on  the  concrete,  this  repre- 
senting the  patented  novelty  of  this  type 
of  reinforcement. 

Corrugated  bars  used  at  the  canal  were 
rolled  from  billet  stock,  and  can  readily  be 
supplied  either  in  medium  or  high  carbon 
steel.  Large  stocks  are  carried  at  numerous 
points  throughout  the  country  for  immedi- 
ate shipment.  More  of  this  bar  has  been 
sold  in  recent  years  for  concrete  construc- 
tion than  of  all  other  types  combined,  and 
it  is  generally  regarded  by  engineers  as 


ACCESSORY   EQUIPMENT 


379 


representing  the  last  word  in  scientific  de- 
sign for  concrete  reinforcement. 

Extensive  examinations  recently  made 
of  important  concrete  structures  abroad, 
reinforced  with  plain  bars,  have  indicated 
that  the  results  were  by  no  means  as  sat- 
isfactory as  similar  structures  in  the  United 
States  and  elsewhere,  reinforced  with 
corrugated  bars,  and  preparations  are 
now  under  way  in  France  and  other  foreign 
countries  for  the  local  manufacture  of  this 
material. 

In  the  construction  of  the  rock  crushing 
plants  for  the  concrete  used  in  building 
the  locks,  a  great  quantity  of  accessory 
machinery  was  installed. 

Hill  friction  clutches  were  specified  and 
purchased  in  order  to  provide  for  the  de- 
sired flexibility,  as  these  clutches  permit 
starting  the  motors  under  no  load,  and 
also  provide  for  the  instant  release  of  the 
load  in  case  of  accident  requiring  repairs  to 
any  part  of  the  equipment. 

The  Hill  friction  clutches  have  been 
manufactured  since  1884.  There  have 
been  many  improvements  made  in  the 
design  and  action  since  the  original  Hill 
clutch,  but  the  essential  principle  of  oper- 
ation remains  the  same. 

Both  standard  type  and  Smith  type  Hill 
friction  clutches  were  installed, — the  latter 
being  a  later  development  of  the  former,  and 
perfected  after  the  date  of  the  first  order. 

English  system  rope  drives  were  used 
for  transmitting  the  power.  The  friction 
clutches  were  all  used  in  connection  with 
rope  sheaves,  and  the  complete  drives  were 
furnished  by  the  Hill  Clutch  Company, 
of  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Another  firm  which  furnished  equipment 
designed  for  the  speedy  handling  of  large 
quantities  of  material  was  the  Stephens- 
Adamson  Manufacturing  Company,  of 
Aurora,  111.  It  furnished  the  conveying 
machinery  used  in  the  crushing  plant  at 
Porto  Bello,  which  supplied  the  stone  for 
the  concrete  work  in  the  canal.  The  equip- 
ment included  two  "S-A"  pivoted  bucket 
carriers  and  two  "S-A"  steel  pan  carriers, 
each  with  a  capacity  of  conveying  about 


500  tons  of  material  per  hour.  The  com- 
pany has  installed  many  plants  for  han- 
dling crushed  stone,  with  capacities  run- 
ning from  100  to  1,000  tons  per  hour. 

Concrete  dumping  buckets  constructed 
of  steel  and  iron  for  handling  concrete  on 
the  canal  were  supplied  by  the  G.  L. 
Stuebner  Iron  Works  of  Long  Island  City, 
N.  Y.  These  buckets  were  supplied  under 
five  separate  contracts  entered  into  be- 
tween the  canal  authorities  and  this  com- 
pany, running  over  a  period  of  several 
years.  The  contracts  were  repeated  as  the 
buckets  were  needed.  They  were  cor- 
rectly balanced,  thoroughly  well  con- 
structed in  every  detail,  and  worked  per- 
fectly. 

Hercules  steel  bumping  posts,  placed  in 
cement  foundations  at  the  ends  of  the  tow- 
ing tracks  for  the  use  of  the  electric  towing 
engines,  were  furnished  to  the  canal  by 
the  Railway  Traction  and  Supply  Company 
of  Chicago.  These  bumper  posts  were 
made  of  boiler  plate  steel,  each  weighing 
about  1,000  pounds. 

They  were  adopted  on  the  canal  because 
they  were  stronger  than  any  other  post, 
more  easily  installed,  and  had  greater 
strength  and  lasting  qualities.  They  are 
impervious  to  tropical  insects  or  climatic 
influences,  with  no  wood  to  decay  or  burn, 
and  take  up  comparatively  little  track  room. 

There  were  six  heavy  car  springs  in  the 
head  of  each  post,  making  the  use  of  the 
bumper  very  easy  on  the  equipment,  the 
engines  catching  the  bumper  as  though 
coupling  to  another  car. 

EQUIPMENT  FOR  THE  LOCK  AND  DAM 
GATES 

As  described  elsewhere,  the  construc- 
tion and  general  equipment  of  the  gates  for 
the  Panama  Canal  locks  developed  prob- 
lems in  mechanical  engineering,  including 
operations  in  the  foundry  and  machine 
shop,  of  such  stupendous  proportions  as 
scarcely  to  be  overshadowed  by  the  civil 
engineering  work  on  the  Isthmus. 

The  material  and  construction  work  on 
the  gates  required  for  the  flights  of  locks 


HISTORY   OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


of  the  canal  system  were  largely  furnished 
and  performed  by  the  Wheeling  Mold  and 
Foundry  Company,  of  Wheeling,  W.  Va. 
The  total  contracts  of  this  company 
amounted  to  19,000  tons,  comprised  in 
iron  and  steel  castings  for  the  locks  and 
gates  (these  furnished  by  the  company), 
and  in  334  machines  for  operating  the 
gates  and  valves  (furnished  by  direct 
contracts  with  the  Isthmian  Canal  Com- 
mission); in  conductor  rails  for  supplying 
current  to  the  electric  locomotives  that  tow 
vessels  through  the  canal  locks  on  a  cogged 
way;  some  40,000  pounds  of  manganese 
bronze;  rolled  nickel-steel  pins,  bearing- 
plates,  and  the  like;  and  a  pumping  sys- 
tem covering  350,000  pounds  of  piping, 
valves,  etc. 

In  the  general  contract  for  all  the  gates 
proper,  the  Wheeling  Mold  and  Foundry 
Company  supplied  not  only  the  yoke  and 
the  pintle  bearings,  and  the  quoin  end  and 
miter  and  reaction  castings,  but  also  the 
nickel  steel  bearing  plates  for  both  ends  of 
the  gates.  It  also  furnished  the  heel  cast- 
ing which  carries  the  entire  weight  of  the 
gates  on  the  pintle  bearing,  this  being  the 
most  important  casting  used  in  connection 
with  the  gates.  It  has  been  estimated 
that  if  all  the  gates  leaves  in  the  canal  were 
to  be  piled  on  top  of  one  another  they 
would  make  a  tower  more  than  a  mile 
and  a  quarter  high. 

The  mechanism  for  operating  the  gates 
is  one  of  the  most  interesting  features  of 
the  mechanical  engineering  work  at  the 
Panama  Canal.  The  motion  imparted  to 
the  leaf  is  by  means  of  a  machine  so  con- 
structed that  it  is  capable  of  exerting  its 
greatest  force  at  the  moment  when  the 
resistance  is  greatest,  and  it  is  to  be  em- 
phasized that  the  rate  of  increase  of  the 
force  from  minimum  to  maximum  is,  in 
fact,  greater  than  the  rate  of  increase  of  the 
resistance.  The  contract  for  the  ninety- 
two  complete  machines  thus  required  was 
taken  directly  by  the  Wheeling  Mold  and 
Foundry  Company. 

In  addition  to  furnishing  material  for 
the  gates,  the  Wheeling  Mold  and  Foundry 


Company  also  furnished  for  the  McCiintic- 
Marshall  Construction  Company  the  cast- 
ings for  the  two  gates  for  the  Balboa  dry 
docks,  these  being  practically  duplicates  of 
the  lock  gates,  and  also  furnished,  through 
the  commission,  two  moving  machines  to 
operate  the  gates. 

With  regard  to  the  rising-stem  valves  and 
the  machines  for  their  operation,  the  valves 
themselves  were  obtained  under  a  separate 
contract.  However,  the  contract  for  the 
machines  and  the  lifting  connections  of  the 
mechanism  was  awarded  to  the  Wheeling 
Mold  and  Foundry  Company,  for  the  en- 
tire 116  machines,  which  are  for  the  valves 
that  control  the  main  culverts  of  the  locks. 
The  total  weight  of  the  moving  parts  is 
22,500  pounds  in  air,  while  the  rising-stem 
valve  machines'  complete  weight  is  about 
7,200  pounds.  The  guide  frames  for  the  ma- 
chines had  to  be  built  into  the  solid  ma- 
sonry, and  were  therefore  ordered  con- 
siderably in  advance  of  the  machines 
proper.  The  material  for  the  frames,  also 
furnished  by  this  company,  amounted  in 
weight  to  about  9,000,000  pounds. 

The  cylindrical  valves  used  for  operat- 
ing the  gates  for  each  lock  chamber  are 
located  at  the  points  where  the  lateral 
waterways  for  filling  the  locks  connect  with 
the  main  culvert.  They  are  six  and  one- 
half  feet  in  diameter,  and  have  a  lift  of 
three  and  one-half  feet.  Each  is  con- 
nected to  its  driving  mechanism  by  a 
machine  built  by  the  Wheeling  Mold  and 
Foundry  Company,  there  being  130  of  these 
machines  in  all,  weighing  altogether  about 
550,000  pounds. 

The  foregoing  account  only  briefly  re- 
views the  operations  of  this  company  in  its 
relations  with  the  construction  work  at 
the  canal,  but  it  is  calculated  to  indicate 
its  capabilities  for  handling  unusual  work 
as  well  as  work  of  great  magnitude.  The 
work  with  the  Isthmian  Canal  Com- 
mission represents  four  important  con- 
tracts, all  secured  in  open  competition. 

The  personnel  of  the  Wheeling  Mold  and 
Foundry  Company  is  composed  of  C.  E. 
Blue,  president  of  the  company  since  its 


I.  Roller  trains  for  lock  gates.  2.  Sealing  device  for  rising  stem  gate  valves.  3.  Assembling  the  sealing  device. 

4.  Bathing  the  rollers  in  oil.  5.  Forging  the  rollers. 

(Lock  and  Dam  Mechanisms  made  by  the  Westinghouse  Machine  Company,  East  Pittsburgh,  Pa.) 


1.  Method  of  using  steel  bars  furnished  by  the  Corrugated  Bar  Company,  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  for  reinforcing  concrete  and  other 

construction. 

2.  Dredge  dipper  made  entirely  of  manganese 'steel  furnished  by  the  Edgar  Allen  American  Ma^anese  Steel  Company, 

Chicago,  111. 

3.  Loading  Western  Wheeled  Scraper  Company's  (Aurora,  111.)  dump  cars  in  Culebra  Cut. 


SPILLWAY  GATE   MACHINERY 


organization,  in  1897;  L.  V.  Blue,  vice- 
president;  F.  du  Pont  Thompson,  chief 
engineer;  H.  S.  Bradley,  secretary;  H. 
Quarrier,  treasurer;  W.  V.  Hoge,  Jr.,  busi- 
ness manager,  and  E.  C.  Rauschenberg, 
superintendent. 

The  Steacy-Schmidt  Manufacturing 
Company  of  York,  Pa.,  furnished  all  the 
machinery  to  operate  the  spillway  gates  at 
Gatun  and  Miraflores  lake,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  electric  motors.  These 
spillway  gate  machines  are  designed  to 
raise  or  lower  the  spillway  gates  for  con- 
trolling the  water  levels  of  Gatun  and 
Miraflores  lakes.  There  are  twenty-two 
gates,  fourteen  at  Gatun  and  eight  at 
Miraflores.  Each  machine  consists  essen- 
tially of  two  counterweights  of  approxi- 
mately 47,000  pounds  each,  one  at  each 
end  of  the  gate. 

The  screws  are  of  a  special  composition 
forged  bronze,  4^  inches  diameter  and 
practically  28  feet  long  over  all  with  24 
feet  of  thread,  of  I  inch  pitch.  The  chains 
are  made  of  2-inch  diameter  stock  of  a 
total  length  of  approximately  67  feet  each. 
Each  link  is  5  inches  wide  and  7^3  inches 
long.  There  are  44  screws  and  44  chains 
for  the  22  machines. 

The  counterweights  practically  balance 
the  weight  of  the  gate,  so  that  the  machines 
have  to  overcome  only  the  resistance  to 
the  movement  of  the  gates  due  to  water 
pressure.  The  counterweights  are  guided 
and  travel  in  pits  beneath  the  floor  of  the 
machinery  tunnel. 

The  machinery  tunnel  extends  the  full 
length  of  the  spillway  within  the  darn  and 
contains  all  the  operating  machinery.  The 
screws  for  lifting  the  gates  pass  through 
this  tunnel,  extending  downward  to  the 
counterweights  and  upward  to  the  hoist- 
ing chains  through  openings  provided  for 
the  purpose. 

The  machinery  located  in  the  tunnel  con- 
sists of  the  worm  nuts,  worm  wheel  cast- 
ings, motor,  motor  driving  shafts  and  limit 
switches.  Portable  hand  operating  de- 
vices are  provided  in  case  the  electric 
motors  are  disabled  or  out  of  commission, 


which  are  clamped  to  the  driving  shafts 
when  in  use  and  are  operated  by  two 
cranks. 

The  two-inch  hoisting  chains  are  con- 
nected to  the  upper  ends  of  the  lifting 
screws,  passing  up  through  pipes  at  the 
top  of  the  gate  piers,  run  over  sheaves  and 
down  to  the  gates,  where  they  are  fastened 
approximately  in  the  plane  of  the  center 
of  gravity  of  the  gates. 

The  sheaves  on  the  bracket  move  with 
the  gate  until  the  gate  is  above  water, 
where  the  movable  sheaves  are  engaged  by 
a  casting  projecting  from  the  pier,  thus 
causing  the  roller  train  to  rise  more  rapidly. 
When  the  gates  reach  the  end  of  lift  the 
roller  train  is  well  clear  of  the  water,  thus 
protecting  it  from  floating  debris.  Just 
before  the  roller  train  starts  to  move  more 
rapidly  than  normal  the  gate  is  moved 
bodily  up  stream  a  short  distance  by  two 
rollers  near  the  ends,  so  that  the  pressure 
is  removed  from  the  roller  trains,  enabling 
them  to  move  freely. 

The  limit  switch  geared  to  the  driving 
shaft  prevents  over-travel  at  the  two  ends 
of  travel  of  the  screw  by  cutting  off  current 
from  the  motor  in  the  direction  of  travel. 
The  limit  switch  allows  the  motor  to  be 
reversed  at  the  ends  of  travel  or  at  any 
intermediate  point. 

The  main  level  of  the  canal  being  much 
higher  than  the  sea  level,  the  vessels  using 
the  canal  are  raised  by  water  collected  in 
the  upper  lake,  mainly  during  the  rainy 
season.  Should  the  locks  become  damaged 
through  any  means  and  this  water  escape, 
the  entire  canal  would  be  rendered  useless 
until  the  next  rainy  season.  This  contin- 
gency was  foreseen  by  the  Canal  Commis- 
sion engineers,  who  carefully  worked  out  a 
system  of  emergency  dams  in  the  form  of 
pivotal  bridges  carrying  hinged  girders 
and  sliding  water  gates,  together  with  the 
machinery  for  their  operation.  These 
emergency  dams  are  pivoted  at  one  side  of 
the  canal  and  will  normally  lie  parallel 
with  the  waterway,  but  are  so  arranged 
that  in  the  event  of  a  breakage  to  a  lock 
gate  permitting  the  escape  of  water,  they 


382 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA  CANAL 


may  be  quickly  swung  across  the  waterway 
and  the  emergency  gates  dropped  to  pre- 
vent the  further  escape  of  the  water.  In 
the  event  of  damage  to  a  lock  by  a  vessel 
which  afterward  should  founder  between 
the  gates,  the  emergency  dams  will  be  of 
value  in  permitting  the  prompt  raising  of 
the  ship  and  its  removal  from  the  path  of 
traffic.  The  wicket  girder  and  gate-hoist- 
ing machines  for  the  emergency  dams  at  the 
Gatun,  Pedro  Miguel,  and  Miraflores  locks 
were  supplied  and  installed  by  the  Otis 
Elevator  Company,  of  New  York  City. 

The  Westinghouse  Machine  Company, 
whose  offices  and  works  are  at  East  Pitts- 
burgh, Pa.,  furnished  the  sealing  devices  to 
render  watertight  the  rising  stem  gate 
valves  and  the  spillway  gates.  They  also 
furnished  the  roller  trains  upon  which  the 
valves  or  gates  move  in  their  compara- 
tively frictionless  passage. 

Most  of  this  machinery  thus  provided  is 
under  water,  and  being  out  of  sight  and 
difficult  of  access  for  repairs,  the  materials 
employed  are  the  very  best  for  the  pur- 
pose, and  the  workmanship  and  execution 
are  of  the  highest  order. 

The  rising  stem  gate  valves,  and  the 
spillway  gates  travel  on  roller  trains. 
There  are  sixty-three  rollers  in  each  train 
for  the  rising  stem  valves,  and  forty-seven 
such  rollers  in  each  of  the  trains  for  the 
spillway  gates.  The  rollers  themselves 
are  made  of  open  hearth  steel  of  a  grade 
known  as  "tool  steel,"  which  is  especially 
low  in  sulphur  and  phosphorus  and  con- 
tains about  0.70  per  cent,  carbon. 

In  the  execution  of  this  contract  18,794 
rollers  were  required.  These  rollers  are 
four  inches  in  diameter  and  six  inches  in 
length  of  working  face,  and  have  a  trun- 
nion on  each  end,  which  trunnions  engage 
in  suitable  holes,  in  channel  bars,  thus 
maintaining  constant  and  perfect  align- 
ment. 

The  rollers  were  first  cast  in  ingot  form 
and  rolled  down  in  blooming  mill  to 
four  and  one-half-inch  square  billets.  They 
were  then  reheated  and  hammered  in 
swage  dies  to  four  and  one-half  inches 


round,  after  which  they  were  cut  into 
suitable  lengths  and  turned  to  size  slightly 
larger  than  the  finished  dimensions.  The 
rollers  were  then  heat  treated  and  oil  tem- 
pered to  improve  their  wearing  qualities 
and  to  harden  the  working  faces,  after  which 
they  were  ground  on  centers  to  precise 
size. 

The  channel  bars  which  keep  the  roller 
train  in  alignment  are  rolled  steel  sections 
especially  made  for  the  Canal  Commis- 
sion, planed  on  the  inner  faces  and  drilled 
to  hardened  steel  templates  so  as  to  be  per- 
fectly interchangeable,  and  fitted  together 
with  steel  distance  pieces  and  steel  bolts, 
the  latter  being  protected  by  a  process  of 
zinc  coating  known  as  sherardizing. 

The  rollers  were  forged  into  round  bars 
in  the  forge  department  of  the  Westing- 
house  Machine  Company.  After  forging, 
the  round  bars  were  carefully  annealed  in  a 
special  annealing  furnace,  in  order  to  make 
it  possible  to  machine  these  high  carbon 
rollers  at  the  desired  speed.  After  an- 
nealing, they  were  cut  into  appropriate 
lengths,  turned  to  proper  size,  with  allow- 
ance for  subsequent  grinding,  and  were 
hardened  by  being  heated  to  proper  tem- 
perature by  electric  pyrometer,  and 
quenched  in  oil.  In  the  heating  descent 
from  the  cold  region  to  the  hottest  part  of 
the  furnace,  gradual  and  even  heating  was 
insured. 

In  order  to  protect  the  trunnions,  or 
small  projecting  ends,  from  being  over 
hardened,  special  tongs  were  employed  to 
pick  the  rollers  out  of  the  fire.  These  tongs 
prevented  the  cooling  oil  from  coming  in 
contact  with  the  trunnions  until  the  body 
of  the  roller  had  been  partially  cooled  by 
immersion  in  the  oil.  The  operator  seized 
the  heated  roller  with  the  protecting  tongs, 
dipped  the  roller  in  the  oil  bath,  and  moved 
the  heated  roller  back  and  forth  through 
the  oil  for  a  stipulated  number  of  seconds; 
this  time  being  determined  by  careful  ex- 
periment. At  the  expiration  of  this  per- 
fectly definite  period,  he  removed  the  tongs 
and  allowed  the  partially  cooled  roller  to 
drop  to  the  bottom  of  the  tank  of  oil. 


THE  SEALING   DEVICE 


383 


The  oil  was  kept  at  a  constant  tempera- 
ture by  means  of  water  cooling  pipes  placed 
'  in  the  tank,  and  kept  violently  agitated  by 
submerged  compressed  air  pipes,  which 
kept  the  oil  thoroughly  stirred  and  in  con- 
stant circulation. 

The  hardened  rollers  were  carefully 
tested  in  the  shops  to  insure  against  over- 
hardening  or  brittleness.  In  order  to 
obtain  a  standard  blow  employed  in  test- 
ing a  roller  to  destruction,  it  is  first  clamped 
rigidly  at  the  foot  of  a  drop  hammer,  and 
the  trunnion  has  a  ring  slipped  over  it,  so 
as  to  cause  the  blow  to  strike  constantly 
at  a  fixed  distance  from  the  body  of  the 
roller.  The  weight  is  lifted  to  a  fixed  height 
and  automatically  tripped  at  the  top.  The 
total  number  of  blows  which  a  roller  will 
stand  in  such  a  test  is  a  fairly  accurate 
measure  of  its  resistance  to  breakage. 

The  rising  stem  gate  valves  are  made 
in  the  form  of  hollow  box-like  structures 
built  up  of  structural  steel  shapes  and 
steel  plates. 

These  box-like  structures  must  slide  up 
and  down  in  metal-lined  ways  with  suffi- 
cient freedom  to  prevent  danger  of  sticking, 
and  this  freedom  of  fit  would  result  in 
water  leakage  if  it  were  not  for  the  sealing 
devices  which  are  employed. 

The  valves  have  in  the  neighborhood  of 
I K -inch  latitude  in  this  sliding  fit,  and  the 
sealing  devices  are  elastic,  spring  mounted 
strips  calculated  to  yield  under  the  pres- 
sure of  the  water,  and  make  contact  be- 
tween the  valves  proper  and  the  metal 
lining  of  the  ways. 

The  material  of  the  sealing  device  is 
manganese  bronze  of  very  high  tensile 
strength.  The  elastic  spring  portion  of  the 
device  is  of  the  same  material.  These 
manganese  bronze  shapes  were  produced 
by  the  extrusion  process,  and  the  bars  of 
which  it  is  composed  were  extruded  or 
hydraulically  forced  through  forming  dies 
in  such  a  way  as  to  impart  great  density 
and  strength  to  the  bronze  bars  as  well  as 
insuring  other  high  physical  properties. 

Bronze  was  used  because  the  device  will 
be  wholly  under  water,  and  because  any 


material  which  would  rust  or  corrode  would 
be  prohibitive  on  account  of  the  inacces- 
sibility for  repairs.  The  sealing  devices 
are  made  right  and  left  hand  for  each  gate. 
The  central  bar  of  the  assembly  table  is 
made  movable,  and  can  be  thrust  to  the 
extreme  right  or  to  the  extreme  left  po- 
sition corresponding  with  the  possible 
erratic  movement  of  the  gate  in  opening 
and  closing.  These  strips  were  tested  so  as 
to  prove  water  tight  in  the  shop. 

The  sealing  devices,  being  somewhat 
delicate,  might  be  easily  damaged  by 
floating  debris.  They  are  protected  by 
closely  fitted  steel  castings,  called  protec- 
tion castings,  which  prevent  anything  com- 
ing in  contact  with  the  sealing  device 
that  might  damage  them. 

The  spillway  gates  are  some  forty-eight 
feet  in  length,  and  since  they  were  certain 
to  deflect  under  pressure  of  water,  special 
rocker  bearings  were  devised  to  take  care 
of  this  deflection  and  insure  at  all  times  a 
normal  bearing  on  the  roller  trains,  and 
the  easy  opening  and  closing  of  the 
gates. 

These  roller  train  tracks  and  rocker  bear- 
ings were  produced  from  rolled  open  hearth 
steel  of  a  tensile  strength  of  about  100,000 
pounds,  and  the  semi-circular  grooves  were 
milled  with  great  exactness  so  as  to  per- 
form the  function  perfectly. 

All  of  the  machine  work  on  these  parts 
was  done  through  jigs,  so  that  every  part 
was  interchangeable  with  every  other  like 
part,  and  the  material  was  inspected  in 
each  stage  of  manufacture  by  government 
inspectors. 

The  great  castings  which  were  used  as 
slides  or  seals,  and  gate  guides  for  the  gates 
on  the  canal  were  furnished  by  the  Ex- 
celsior Tool  and  Machine  Company,  of 
East  St.  Louis,  111.,  a  firm  which  had  made 
a  record  with  all  government  officials  for 
prompt  deliveries.  In  the  case  of  the 
castings,  it  received  the  order  direct  from 
the  commission.  These  castings  filled 
twenty-four  freight  cars,  and  weighed  a 
total  of  1,200,000  pounds.  The  castings 
were  machined  and  bolted  together  in 


MACHINERY  AND  TOOLS 


385 


of  a  high  grade  were  necessary  for  the  work, 
and  that  the  safety  of  vessels  and  cargoes 
might  be  greatly  endangered  should  any 
part  of  the  steel  used  give  way  on  account 
of  the  corrosive  action  of  the  water  or 
climate,  the  importance  of  finding  the  best 
protector  for  all  the  steel  work  will  be  read- 
ily seen. 

The  forty-six  lock  gates  present  an  inter- 
nal surface  of  more  than  3,200,000  square 
feet,  all  strongly  subjected  to  the  deleterious 
influence  of  the  climate  and  water.  The 
same  is  true  of  the  dock  gates  at  Balboa, 
the  automatic  gas  buoys,  and  anchorage 
boxes.  To  replace  one  of  the  lock  gates 
would  require  a  large  expenditure  of  money, 
and  cause  a  loss  of  much  time,  and  might 
materially  interfere  with  canal  naviga- 
tion for  many  days.  Under  all  these  con- 
siderations it  became  necessary  to  secure 
the  best  preservative  from  corrosion  that 
could  be  had. 

The  lower  half  of  each  gate  is  an  air 
chamber,  into  which  water  will  rarely  enter, 
while  the  upper  half  is  a  water  chamber, 
which  is  filled  and  emptied  many  times 
each  during  the  progress  of  locking,  thus 
offering  the  most  destructive  corrosive  con- 
ditions which  could  possibly  obtain.  As 
the  most  effective  and  permanent  protec- 
tion against  these  corrosive  conditions 
the  canal  engineers,  after  an  exhaustive 
investigation,  adopted  "Bitumastic"  solu- 
tion and  enamel,  made  by  The  American 
Bitumastic  Enamels  Company,  of  Phila- 
delphia, Pa. 

In  the  words  of  one  of  the  leading  en- 
gineers connected  with  the  construction 
of  the  canal,  the  main  reason  for  the  selec- 
tion of  this  special  material  was  its  excellent 
record  in  the  vessels  of  the  United  States 
navy  and  on  foreign  vessels  of  war,  as 
well  as  vessels  engaged  in  the  merchant 
marine.  So  successful  has  been  this  ma- 
terial in  meeting  the  requirements  of  the 
difficult  conditions  on  navy  vessels,  and 
other  ships,  and  so  great  was  the  faith  of 
the  canal  engineers  in  its  efficiency,  that 
after  the  work  of  construction  was  started 
they  specified  "Bitumastic"  on  five  other 


contracts  connected  with  the  construc- 
tion of  the  canal. 

The  company  began  preparations  to  fill 
its  first  contract  August  12,  1911,  and  since 
that  time  the  "Bitumastic"  was  used  on 
forty-six  lock  gates,  the  Balboa  dock  gates, 
fifty-seven  automatic  gas  buoys,  ninety-two 
anchorage  boxes,  and  on  material  used  in 
the  hydroelectric  plant. 

Thus  American  manufacturing  ingenuity 
and  excellence  of  materials  contributed  to 
the  successful  construction  of  the  great 
steel  structures  at  Panama,  and  insured 
their  permanence  under  the  most  adverse 
conditions.  The  same  care  displayed  in 
construction  is  exercised  in  the  upkeep  of 
the  costly  canal  equipment,  and  American 
manufacturers  are  always  ready  to  meet 
any  demands. 

STEEL  AND  IRON  CASTINGS,  MACHINERY, 
AND  GENERAL  TOOLS 

Everything  about  the  canal  work  spelled 
immensity.  Machinery  and  supplies  did 
not  reach  the  Isthmus  in  small  units.  If 
rubber  hose  was  wanted,  the  material 
totaled  miles  in  length.  If  metallic  equip- 
ment or  fittings  were  needed,  the  amount 
ran  into  millions  of  pounds.  As  the  work 
progressed,  the  Isthmus  accumulated  the 
greatest  collection  of  machinery,  tools,  steel 
and  iron  material,  mechanical  parts,  and 
equipment  which  the  world  has  ever  seen 
assembled  in  one  territory.  A  great  number 
of  American  firms  participated  in  supplying 
this  varied  and  vast  quantity  of  material. 

A  large  part  of  the  manganese  steel 
castings  for  use  on  the  canal  work  was  fur- 
nished under  contract  by  the  Edgar  Allen 
American  Manganese  Steel  Company,  of 
Chicago,  111.,  and  New  Castle,  Del.  The 
steel  used  in  these  castings  was  entirely  of 
the  "Stag"  brand  manganese  steel.  The 
castings  furnished  by  this  company  were 
for  use  as  repair  parts  for  steam  shovels, 
such  as  dipper  teeth  with  renewable  points, 
dipper  lips,  latches,  latch  keepers,  dipper- 
shaft  pinions,  racks,  dredge  tumblers,  link 
pins,  bushings,  screen  sections  and  car 
wheels.  This  company  also  furnished  three 


386 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA  CANAL 


complete  dippers  made  entirely  of  the 
"Stag"  brand  of  manganese  steel.  One 
contract  alone  called  for  more  than  sixty- 
four  tons  of  tooth  points.  The  first  con- 
tract with  this  company  was  in  1908  and 
others  rapidly  followed.  "Stag"  brand 
manganese  steel  was  found  particularly 
adaptable  to  wearing  parts  of  the  excavat- 
ing machinery,  owing  to  its  extreme  tough- 
ness. Manganese  steel  is  so  tough  that  it 
cannot  be  machined  except  by  grinding,  yet 
it  can  be  bent  cold  without  breaking. 

One  of  the  government  requirements  in 
connection  with  material  ordered  is  as  fol- 
lows: "Test  specimens  one-half  inch  by 
three-fourths  inch  cast  under  the  same  con- 
ditions and  given  exactly  the  same  heat 
treatment,  shall  bend  cold  around  a  diame- 
ter of  one  inch  to  an  angle  of  180  degrees 
without  cracking  or  exhibiting  other  signs 
of  failure." 

Another  large  firm  which  supplied  steel 
castings  for  the  canal  work  was  the  Detroit 
Steel  Casting  Company,  of  Detroit,  Mich., 
which  furnished  large  quantities  of  mis- 
cellaneous steel  castings  for  dredges,  ma- 
chines, railroad  equipment,  and  dump  cars. 
In  all  it  entered  upon  more  than  twenty- 
five  contracts,  running  from  1909  to  the 
completion  of  the  work.  This  large  num- 
ber of  contracts  required  no  special  prepa- 
ration on  the  part  of  the  company,  as  its 
plant  was  equipped  to  handle  the  orders 
easily  with  its  standard  equipment.  All 
these  contracts  were  secured  in  competition 
with  other  manufacturers.  Its  castings 
were  turned  out  by  the  open  hearth  method. 

The  firm  of  Frank  Samuel,  of  Philadel- 
phia, Pa.,  consisting  of  Frank  Samuel,  S. 
M.  Tomlinson,  and  S.  A.  Cochran,  supplied 
a  large  tonnage  of  pig  iron  and  alloys  to 
the  Canal  Commission.  Their  facilities 
for  international  business  fully  equipped 
them  for  this  feature  of  construction  sup- 
plies, the  materials  furnished  by  them  go- 
ing to  the  foundry  at  the  Isthmus,  where 
it  was  converted  into  the  castings  used  in 
connection  with  the  construction  of  the 
canal.  This  firm  also  made  extensive  pur- 
chases from  the  Canal  Commission,  large 


quantities  of  equipment,  such  as  locomo- 
tives, engines,  pumps,  and  other  similar 
supplies  no  longer  needed  on  the  work 
having  passed  into  their  hands. 

Among  the  contractors  furnishing  me- 
chanical supplies,  the  H.  A.  Rogers  Com- 
pany, of  New  York  City,  was  prominent 
from  the  very  inception  of  the  work. 
When  the  French  company  was  attempting 
to  construct  the  canal  this  company  fur- 
nished large  quantities  of  gauge  glasses, 
pulleys,  steam  gauges,  waste,  shovels, 
picks,  etc.,  and  when  the  American  govern- 
ment took  hold  of  the  enterprise  it  became 
an  active  and  most  successful  bidder  for 
the  same  line  of  supplies.  During  the 
course  of  construction  it  sold  to  the  com- 
mission many  thousands  of  dollars  worth 
of  materials,  consisting  mainly  of  gauge 
glasses,  pulleys,  steam  gauges,  cement, 
gauge  glass  washers,  gaskets,  pliers,  cot- 
ters and  planer  knives.  The  Rogers  Com- 
pany, having  been  the  sole  United  States 
agents  for  the  Moncrieff  gauge  glasses — the 
glasses  used  altogether  by  the  canal  officials 
— has  sold  to  the  commission  all  such  glasses 
used  on  the  canal.  The  tremendous  energy 
by  which  the  work  was  pushed  to  comple- 
tion made  necessary  large  supplies  of  tools, 
and  various  parts  of  machinery,  and  when 
it  is  remembered  that  nearly  everything 
bought  in  connection  with  the  construc- 
tion work  was  by  the  competitive  bidding 
on  specifications  most  carefully  and  rigor- 
ously prepared,  it  will  be  recognized  that 
only  the  best  was  offered  to  and  accepted  by 
the  commission.  This  rigorous  supervision 
extended  to  the  smallest  tools  purchased, 
and  to  be  a  successful  bidder  was  to  receive 
a  certificate  of  quality  of  goods  handled. 

Early  in  the  history  of  the  construction 
of  the  canal  the  purchasing  agents  were 
solicitously  engaged  in  search  for  a  chain 
that  could  be  used  with  their  steam  shovels 
for  the  longest  continuous  period  without 
breaking.  This  was  particularly  desirable, 
for  with  a  break  in  the  chain  the  shovel 
stops,  and  all  the  work  must  stop  with  it, 
with  consequent  loss  of  time  as  well  as 
expense  for  repairs. 


1.  Niles  boring  and  turning  mill. 

2.  Bement  hammer. 

3.  Pond  planer. 

(High  class  canal  machine  shop  equipment  furnished  by  the  Niles-Bement-Pond  Company,  New  York.) 


MACHINE  SHOP  OPERATIONS 


387 


After  trials  with  various  kinds  of  chains, 
that  manufactured  by  the  Columbus  Chain 
Company,  of  Columbus,  Ohio,  was  finally 
selected.  It  gave  such  satisfaction  that 
the  "Hercules  Solid  Weld"  steam  shovel 
chain  manufactured  by  that  company 
eventually  became  a  standard  in  canal  con- 
struction work.  This  chain  is  made  of  the 
highest  grade  of  material,  by  a  special 
formula,  and  has  assisted  in  no  small  de- 
gree in  bringing  to  pass  the  unequaled 
records  achieved  by  the  modern  empire 
builder,  the  American  steam  shovel.  Its 
record  at  the  canal  in  the  heaviest  sort  of 
service — that  carried  on  in  the  stone  quar- 
ries— has  shown  a  continuous  service  for 
as  long  as  eleven  months  without  a  single 
broken  link. 

From  the  beginning  of  construction  work 
on  the  canal,  the  Buda  Company,  of  Chi- 
cago, 111.,  made  extensive  shipments  under 
their  contracts  covering  articles  used  in 
railroad  building.  All  supplies  furnished 
by  them  were  of  their  own  manufacture, 
and  their  plant  was  fully  equipped  and 
ready  to  furnish  a  class  of  material  that  is 
recognized  as  standard  on  ninety  per  cent, 
of  the  railroad  mileage  of  the  United  States. 
Among  the  articles  furnished,  all  bearing 
the  firm's  name,  were  hand  cars,  push  cars, 
pressed  steel  wheels,  track  jacks,  track  bits, 
drills,  switch  stands,  replacers,  rail  benders, 
gauges,  levels,  and  automobile  engines. 
More  than  a  thousand  cars  and  over  three 
thousand  switch  stands  went  toward  filling 
contracts  that  reached  a  total  of  $125,000 
with  this  firm. 

In  the  construction  of  the  canal  the  suc- 
cessful completion  of  the  work  depended,  to 
a  great  extent,  on  the  continuous  working 
of  the  construction  machinery,  such  as 
steam  engines,  cars,  steam  shovels,  con- 
crete mixers,  conveyors,  etc.  The  heavy 
and  continuous  service  required  of  the  canal 
equipment  caused  break-downs  of  mechani- 
cal parts,  thus  causing  delays  and  expense, 
and  interfering  with  the  continuance  of  the 
work.  To  avoid  these  delays  the  commis- 
sion installed  a  large  machine  shop  near 
the  base  of  the  work,  where  duplicate  parts 


could  be  made  or  repairs  quickly  accom- 
plished. 

The  machine  shop  covered  a  wide  range 
of  work.  It  was  largely  equipped  by  the 
Niles-Bement-Pond  Company,  of  New 
York  City.  This  company  occupies  a 
foremost  place  among  machine  tool  manu- 
facturers and  crane  builders.  The  largest 
and  heaviest  machines  were  required  for 
repairing  steam  engine  parts.  The  Niles- 
Bement-Pond  Company  furnished  for  this 
work  several  machines  designed  especially 
for  such  service.  The  heavy  engine  drivers 
were  turned  on  the  Niles  driving  wheel 
lathes;  car  wheels  up  to  forty- two  inches 
were  turned  on  Pond  car  wheel  lathes; 
Bement  axle  lathes  turned  and  trued  the 
axles;  the  wheels  were  pressed  on  the  axle 
by  Niles  hydrostatic  wheel  presses  of  200 
and  300  ton  capacity. 

Boring,  drilling,  turning,  and  planing 
machines  were  furnished  for  the  ordinary 
machine  shop  operations.  To  handle  large 
and  heavy  repair  parts  and  castings  through 
the  shop,  the  Niles-Bement-Pond  Company 
installed  several  electric  traveling  cranes. 
These  cranes  would  pick  up,  carry,  and 
set  down  pieces  weighing  from  one  ton  to 
sixty  tons,  with  the  precision  of  the  human 
hand. 

In  equipping  the  machine  shop,  the 
American  Tool  Works  Company,  of  Cin- 
cinnati, Ohio,  was  the  successful  bidder  on 
a  number  of  occasions,  and  consequently 
the  company  was  well  represented  in  the 
Canal  Zone. 

The  American  Tool  Works  Company  is 
one  of  the  largest  and  oldest  builders  of 
lathes,  planers,  shapers,  and  radial  drills  in 
this  country,  employing  600  men  in  their 
works  in  the  exclusive  production  of  the 
above-mentioned  machines.  The  types  of 
lathe  built  by  the  American  Tool  Works 
Company  for  use  in  the  Canal  Zone  were 
built  in  various  sizes  from  fourteen  inches 
to  forty-two  inches  swing.  One  of  the 
principal  characteristics  of  the  "American" 
lathe  is  its  patented  drop  bed,  which  gives 
additional  swing  over  the  nominal  swing, 
and  also  permits  the  use  of  an  unusually 


388 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA  CANAL 


deep  carriage  bridge.  A  complete  quick 
change  gear  mechanism  is  supplied  on  all 
sizes  of  American  lathes.  It  is  of  the  cone 
and  tumbler  type,  affording  forty-eight 
changes  for  screw  setting  and  feeding.  In 
addition  to  this  standard  range  any  odd 
thread  can  be  secured  by  simply  adding  a 
special  gear  to  a  quadrant  provided  for 
this  purpose. 

The  multifarious  details  of  the  work  of 
constructing  the  canal  will  probably  never 
be  understood  and  appreciated.  For  illus- 
tration, one  firm,  the  Oliver  Iron  &  Steel 
Company,  of  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  supplied  to 
the  commission  about  13,000,000  pounds 
of  such  small  articles  of  iron  and  steel  as 
bolts,  rivets,  nuts,  washers,  picks,  mat- 
tocks and  claw  bars.  These  articles  were 
used  in  every  branch  of  the  construction 
work,  and  were  supplied  by  the  Oliver 
Company  on  contracts  with  the  Canal 
Commission. 

During  the  months  of  May,  June,  Au- 
gust, October,  November,  and  December, 
1912,  the  Pittsburgh  Steel  Company,  of 
Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  shipped  to  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama  349  tons  of  wire  nails,  and  in  May 
also  ten  tons,  or  fifty-five  miles,  of  steel 
wire.  All  of  this  material  was  used  in  the 
construction  work  of  the  canal. 

Basic  open  hearth  material  is  used  ex- 
clusively in  all  the  steel  and  wire  products 
manufactured  by  the  Pittsburgh  Steel 
Company,  hence  it  was  this  superior  ma- 
terial which  went  into  the  products  sup- 
plied to  the  Canal  Commission.  Open 
hearth  steel  wire  possesses  a  fine,  even 
texture  of  strength  and  durability,  and  be- 
cause its  characteristics  exist "  uniformly 
throughout  the  wire,  from  its  skin  to  its 
core,  it  delivers  the  same  high  quality  of 
service  under  all  conditions  of  climate. 

This  company  owns  and  operates  the 
largest  independent  plants  in  the  world 
manufacturing  fencing,  nails,  and  wire. 
The  site  embraces  160  acres  of  land  along 
the  Monongahela  river  front,  with  forty- 
nine  and  one-half  acres  under  roof,  and  a 
water  frontage  of  two  and  three-tenths 
miles.  The  company  owns  60,000,000  tons 


of  iron  ore  in  mine,  which  it  ships  down  as 
needed,  unloads  by  its  ore  car  dumper  at 
the  rate  of  thirty  cars  an  hour,  and  stores 
by  two  massive  traveling  bridges.  Its 
two  blast  furnaces,  with  a  capacity  of  1,400 
tons  daily,  are  the  only  electrically  operated 
furnaces  at  the  present  time. 

The  finishing  departments  include  two 
complete  modern  rod  mills,  one  barbed  wire 
mill,  three  galvanizing  plants,  and  a  fac- 
tory for  making  electrically  welded  wire 
fencing.  These  departments  are  all  at 
Monessen,  Pa.,  but  at  Glassport,  a  few 
miles  down  the  Monongahela  River,  the 
Pittsburgh  Steel  Company  maintains  com- 
plete mills  for  hot  rolling  all  sizes  of  steel 
hoops  used  by  the  cooperage  trade,  steel 
bands,  cotton  ties,  bars  for  concrete  re- 
inforcing, and  rim  stock  for  automobiles 
and  motorcycles. 

The  annual  capacity  of  the  plants  is 
500,000  gross  tons  a  year.  Among  other 
wire  products  from  the  finishing  mills 
is  a  daily  output  of  350  miles  of  electrically 
welded  wire  fencing,  200  tons  of  barbed 
wire,  and  8,000  kegs  of  wire  nails. 

Chain  iron,  special  bar  iron,  iron  roofing 
sheets,  Carter  special  and  Carter  stay  bolt 
iron  were  supplied  the  canal  workers  by 
the  Carter  Iron  Company,  of  Pittsburgh, 
Pa.,  one  of  the  largest  concerns  in  this  line. 
The  company  has  furnaces  at  Ivanhoe, 
Va.,  and  rolling  mills  at  Paden  City,  West 
Virginia. 

A  firm  located  at  the  seat  of  government 
in  Washington,  and  which  furnished  a 
great  variety  of  iron  and  steel  appliances 
for  the  canal,  was  the  J.  B.  Kendall  Com- 
pany. This  firm  supplied  thousands  of 
tons  of  steel  bars  for  concrete  reinforce- 
ment, several  thousand  tons  of  steel  bars, 
plates,  channels  and  beams,  railroad  spikes, 
wire  nails,  and  rivets,  mostly  manufactured 
by  the  Jones  and  Laughlin  Steel  Company, 
of  Pittsburgh,  Pa.  The  Kendall  Company 
also  furnished  a  large  number  of  twist 
drills  for  use  in  canal  construction,  the 
drills  being  those  manufactured  by  the 
Cleveland  Twist  Drill  Company,  of  Cleve- 
land, O. 


1.  Artificial  limb  furnished  by  A.  A.  Marks,  New  York,  to  a  canal  workman. 

2.  Automatic  repeater.     (Gamewell  Fire  Alarm  Telegraph  Co.,  New  York.) 

3.  Standard  fire  alarm  box,  Gamewell  system,  used  in  Canal  Zone. 

4.  Duxbak  waterproof  leather  belting,  woodworkers'  shop,  Gorgona. 

5.  Schieren  leather  belting,  in  Gorgona  machine  shops. 


TYPES  OF  HIGH  CLASS  AMERICAN  TOOL  MACHINERY  AT  THE  CANAL 

1.  Late  design  high-duty  lathe.    Furnished  the  canal  machine  shops  by  the  American  Tool  Works,  Cincinnati,  O. 

2.  High  grade  automatic  steam  engine  furnished  by  the  Buckeye  Engine  Company,  Salem,  Ohio. 

3.  High  speed  engine  furnished  by  the  Ball  Engine  Company,  Erie,  Pa. 


THE   ITEM   OF   BELTING 


389 


Corrugated  copper  gaskets  supplied  by 
the  Akron  Metallic  Gasket  Company,  of 
Akron,  Ohio,  were  used  in  large  numbers 
for  making  joints  on  steam  lines  carrying 
from  100  to  200  pounds  pressure,  on  tugs 
and  dredges  in  the  service  of  the  Atlantic 
division,  and  also  in  the  power  plant  at  the 
dry  dock  shops  on  the  canal.  In  making 
these  gaskets  precaution  was  taken  to  see 
that  faces  of  flanges  were  smooth,  as  those 
of  the  irregular  surfaces  do  not  give  as 
satisfactory  results.  In  a  report  to  the 
company,  officials  of  the  canal  stated  that 
no  blowing-out  of  joints  made  up  in  this 
manner  had  occurred  and  that  the  results 
obtained  were  satisfactory.  The  officials 
further  reported  that  the  tug  Reliance,  be- 
longing to  the  commission,  had  a  joint  made 
up  in  this  way  between  the  main  steam 
line  and  the  throttle  previous  to  her  trip 
around  the  Horn  to  Balboa,  and  that  the 
joint  remained  tight  throughout  the  trip. 

On  account  of  the  extreme  dampness  of 
the  atmosphere  the  canal  engineers  were 
confronted  with  problems  in  the  operation 
of  the  machine  shops  at  Gorgona  and  Em- 
pire which  are  not  encountered  in  temper- 
ate climates.  The  steam  shovels  and  lo- 
comotives had  to  be  kept  going;  repairs 
were  made  to  the  shovels  on  the  spot ;  cast- 
ings were  made  for  all  kinds  of  purposes; 
and  it  was  necessary  that  the  shop  opera- 
tions should  be  continuous  and  efficient, 
in  spite  of  weather  conditions.  Here,  as 
elsewhere  in  the  canal  work,  minute 
attention  to  detail  and  the  application  of 
American  methods  brought  success. 

An  example  of  this  is  found  in  the  com- 
paratively minor  item  of  belting.  In  the 
maze  of  big  machinery  at  Gorgona  and 
Empire,  and  in  face  of  the  stupendous  con- 
crete works  at  Gatun,  Miraflores,  and 
Pedro  Miguel,  the  casual  visitor  would 
pay  little  attention  to  the  matter  of  belt- 
ing. "And  yet,"  said  one  of  the  canal 
engineers,  in  discussing  the  difficulties  that 
had  been  encountered,  "if  it  were  not  for 
the  belts  what  would  the  machinery  amount 
to?  These  belts  were  the  very  sinews  of 
our  shops.  They  simply  had  to  do  their 


work  without  regard  to  heat  or  dampness, 
oil,  or  dryness.  A  breakdown  in  these 
shops  on  account  of  poor  belts  would  have 
meant  a  stoppage  of  the  shovels  and  loco- 
motives, a  lack  of  repair  parts  and  castings, 
and  a  shut-down  of  canal  work  itself. 

"We  found  that  ordinary  belting  would 
not  do  on  the  Isthmus.  It  stretches  with 
the  moisture,  and  then,  when  it  dries  out  a 
bit,  it  opens  at  the  laps  and  has  to  be  cut 
constantly  in  order  to  keep  it  at  the  proper 
length  to  pull  the  machines.  Two-  or 
three-ply  belting  was  very  apt  to  part  com- 
pany and  prove  worthless  as  a  driver  of 
machinery  in  this  climate. 

"We  tried  several  kinds  of  belting,  and 
finally  an  American  concern,  as  usual, 
helped  us  out  by  furnishing  an  article  that 
would  stand  the  test  of  these  severe  con- 
ditions. The  Duxbak  belt  made  by  the 
Charles  A.  Schieren  Company,  of  New 
York,  we  found  satisfactory,  and  over 
18,000  feet  of  Duxbak  was  installed  in  these 
shops  and  along  the  canal.  It  was  worked 
under  the  most  trying  conditions  and 
really  it  is  with  a  great  satisfaction  that  I 
speak  a  word  for  it.  We  would  have  been 
up  against  a  serious  proposition  if  we  had 
not  been  able  to  find  somewhere  in  the 
United  States  a  belt  that  would  do  our 
work.  It  is  a  little  thing,  compared  with 
steam  shovels  and  ocean-going  dredges, 
but  if  you  look  into  the  building  of  the 
Panama  Canal  you  will  be  impressed  by 
the  fact  that  it  was  attention  to  the  '  little 
things'  that  made  the  big  thing  possible." 

Automatic  couplers  and  parts,  and  mis- 
cellaneous castings  for  the  equipment  for 
new  railway  cars  for  work  on  the  canal, 
and  for  maintenance  and  repair  of  rolling 
stock  already  in  use  were  furnished  to  the 
Canal  Commission  by  the  National  Mal- 
leable Castings  Company,  of  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  a  very  large  concern  which  has  works 
in  six  cities.  This  company's  shipments 
began  in  1906  and  continued  until  the  com- 
pletion of  the  canal.  From  October,  1906, 
to  August,  1912,  the  company  furnished 
6,000  couplers. 

The  majority  of  these  couplers  were  of 


390 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


the  style  known  as  the  "Tower"  coupler 
(named  after  the  inventor,  Mr.  A.  C. 
Tower),  of  the  master  car  builders'  verti- 
cal hook  type.  The  couplers  were  manu- 
factured principally  at  the  company's  steel 
castings  works  at  Sharon,  Pa.  They  were 
constructed  mainly  of  cast  steel,  under 
patents  owned  by  the  company. 

Couplers  of  this  make  have  been  in  use 
for  many  years  on  the  railroads  of  the 
United  States  and  in  Canada  and  Mexico, 
during  which  time  their  adaptation  to  the 
requirements  of  the  service,  their  simplicity 
and  perfection  of  design,  ease  of  opera- 
tion, and  durability  have  been  established 
by  experience  and  by  the  severe  tests  to 
which  they  were  continually  subjected. 

Recognizing  the  inadequacy  of  the  old 
spike  to  secure  the  rail  to  the  tie  in  modern 
railroading,  the  government  laid  all  its 
roadbed  in  the  Canal  Zone  with  screw 
spikes  and  tie  plates.  There  are  several 
points  of  view  from  which  such  a  practice 
should  be  studied.  The  means  of  holding 
the  tie  to  the  rail  should  have  the  following 
advantages,  which  are  found  in  the  screw 
spike  tie  plate: 

It  should  be  strong  enough  to  prevent 
rail  spreading  under  most  severe  traffic 
conditions;  it  should  have  a  factor  of 
permanence  which  obviates  too  frequent 
necessity  for  inspection  and  maintenance; 
it  should  minimize  abrasion  of  the  tie  by 
the  rail;  it  should  protect  the  tie  against 
the  elements  as  much  as  possible;  and  it 
should  be  capable  of  removal  and  reappli- 
cation  with  a  minimum  of  depreciation. 

The  original  practice  of  fastening  the  rail 
to  the  tie  by  the  use  of  a  spike  driven  into 
the  tie,  the  head  of  which  is  in  contact  with 
the  rail  flange,  has  been  found  open  to 
several  objections. 

There  are  in  service  two  forces  acting 
on  the  head  of  the  spike — a  lateral  thrust 
and  a  vertical  pull.  The  first  is  caused 
by  the  weight  of  the  traffic  being  applied 
against  the  inside  of  the  head  of  the  rail 
in  such  a  way  as  to  force  the  rail  against 
the  throat  of  the  spike,  this  continual 
action  eventually  distorting  the  spike 


by  breaking  down  the  fiber  of  the  tie  be- 
hind the  head  of  the  spike. 

The  second,  or  vertical,  action  on  the 
spike  is  the  result  of  so-called  "wave 
action"  in  the  rail,  and  tends  to  raise  the 
spike  from  one-eighth  inch  to  one-fourth 
inch  from  its  original  position,  until  there 
is  very  little  resistance  to  the  rail  spreading. 

In  addition  to  these  two  disadvantages, 
it  is  very  difficult  to  drive  a  spike  into  a 
tie  properly,  and  the  most  common  prac- 
tice necessitates  striking  the  back  of  the 
head  of  the  spike  after  it  is  driven  until 
a  perfect  bearing  on  the  rail  flange  is  se- 
cured, leaving  an  opening  of  about  one- 
sixteenth  inch  behind  the  head  of  the  spike. 
This  allows  for  an  initial  movement  of  the 
spike  head,  and  also  for  the  entrance  of  the 
water,  which  acts  on  the  crushed  fibers 
of  the  tie,  and  the  tie  soon  disintegrates  at 
this  point.  Then,  with  the  friction  caused 
by  pulling  out  the  spike  on  account  of  wave 
action,  a  mechanical  wearing  takes  place 
between  the  base  of  the  rail  and  the  top  of 
the  tie.  Dust  from  the  ballast  hastens 
this  wear  and  greatly  shortens  the  life  of 
the  tie. 

The  practice  on  the  Panama  Railroad 
avoids  as  much  as  possible  the  difficulties 
mentioned.  The  tie  plate  used  has  a 
shoulder,  against  which  the  outside  of  the 
rail  flange  bears,  and  bosses  which  support 
the  heads  of  the  spike  on  the  outside  pre- 
vent distortion  of  the  spike,  which  would 
take  place  where  the  spike  head  is  sup- 
ported on  one  side  only.  These  tie  plates 
are  supplied  with  screw  spikes,  for  which 
holes  have  been  bored  in  the  tie. 

The  holding  power  of  the  screw  spike 
in  wood  has  been  determined  by  several 
tests  to  be  about  three  times  as  great  as 
that  of  an  ordinary  spike,  and  when  to 
this  advantage  is  added  the  boring  of  the 
tie  in  a  vertical  direction,  so  that  the  screw 
spike  is  applied  under  most  favorable  con- 
ditions, and  then  the  support  given  to 
the  neck  of  the  screw  spike  by  the  tie  plate, 
and  to  the  head  of  the  screw  spike  by  the 
boss  on  the  outside  of  the  spike,  a  very 
much  more  satisfactory  condition  obtains. 


TYPES  OF  AMERICAN  BUSINESS  MEN  WHO  CO-OPERATED  ALONG  VARIOUS  LINES 
IN  AMERICA'S  GREAT  WORK  AT  PANAMA 


1.  William  B.  Harris,  New  York. 

2.  Howard  Elliott,  Pres.,  N.  Y.,  N.  H.  &  H.  R.  R.  Co. 

3.  J.  H.  Weaver,  J.  H.  Weaver  &  Co.,  Phila.,  Pa. 


4.  William  L.  D'Olier,  Pres.,D'Olier  Engineering  Co.,  Phila.,  Pa. 

5.  Herman  L.  Hohlfeld,  Pres.,  Hohlfeld  Mfg.  Co.,  Phila.,  Pa. 

6.  J.  H.  Einstein,  Pres.,  Tower  Mfg.  &  Novelty  Co.,  New  York. 


SCREW  SPIKE  TIE   PLATES 


391 


This  is  recognized  on  a  great  many  Amer- 
ican railways  to  the  extent  of  using  tie 
plates  and  screw  spikes  on  approaches  to 
bridges,  on  trestles,  and  around  switches, 
frogs,  and  crossings.  Their  use  in  these 
places  proves  that  this  method  of  apply- 
ing rails  to  ties  will  stand  heavier  traffic 
conditions  with  greater  factor  of  safety 
than  any  other  now  known.  The  commis- 
sion adopted  this  form  of  fastening  for  all 
of  the  roadbed  in  the  Canal  Zone  for  the 
reason  that  where  a  railbed  is  laid,  and  the 
maintenance  cost  is  figured  with  the  initial 
cost,  screw  spikes  and  tie  plates  make 
economical  installation. 

The  cost  of  inspection  and  maintenance 
has  a  growing  significance  in  railroad  oper- 
ation, and  the  greater  holding  power  of 
screw  spikes  used  with  tie  plates  minimizes 
the  amount  of  inspection  and  maintenance 
necessary  to  keep  railbed  in  proper  condition. 

Reference  has  been  made  to  the  abrasion 
of  the  tie  by  the  rail,  which  takes  place 
under  ordinary  conditions  as  soon  as  the 
spike  loosens  slightly.  When  tie  plates 
and  screw  spikes  are  used,  the  pressure  of 
the  rail  is  distributed  over  a  much  greater 
surface  of  the  tie,  and  the  tie  plate  is  fas- 
tened permanently  to  the  tie,  so  that,  were 
any  movement  possible  with  this  form  of 
installation,  it  would  take  place  between 
the  rail  and  the  tie  plate,  neither  of  which 
would  be  injured,  and  the  tie  would  not 
suffer  as  it  does  now.  However,  this  form 
of  tie  destruction  is  eliminated  by  the 
use  of  tie  plates  with  screw  spikes,  as  no 
movement  takes  place  between  the  rail 
and  the  tie. 

The  protection  of  the  tie  against  the 
elements  where  the  rail  bears  is  another 
important  advantage  gained  by  the  use 
of  tie  plates.  After  the  rail  loosens  slightly 
from  the  tie,  water  seeps  in,  is  forced  down 
into  the  tie,  and  soon  induces  decay.  Par- 
ticularly is  this  true  after  the  tie  has  been 
abraded  until  there  is  an  open  fiber,  into 
which  the  water  is  easily  attracted.  In  a 
broader  sense,  the  use  of  spikes  which  need 
to  be  redriven  at  frequent  intervals  results 
in  "the  spike  killing  the  tie,"  because, 


whenever  the  spike  is  redriven,  a  new  por- 
tion of  the  tie  fiber  is  crushed,  and  before 
long  such  a  large  part  of  the  tie  is  decayed 
that  no  more  firm  wood  remains  into  which 
to  drive  the  spikes.  The  greater  holding 
power  of  screw  spikes  and  tie  plates  re- 
moves this  necessity  for  redriving  the 
spikes  at  frequent  intervals. 

It  is  sometimes  advantageous  to  take  up 
a  section  of  track  and  relay  it  in  a  new  po- 
sition. Tests  have  shown  that  where 
common  spikes  are  pulled  and  redriven, 
their  holding  power  is  decreased  to  about 
one-third.  Where  screw  spikes  are  re- 
moved and  redriven  in  the  same  hole, 
their  efficiency  is  not  affected. 

Briefly,  then,  tie  plates  and  screw  spikes 
are  economical  on  account  of  the  safety 
factor  which  they  present  under  most 
severe  traffic  conditions;  on  account  of 
the  permanence  of  installation,  and  freedom 
from  "upkeep"  expense;  on  account  of 
the  longer  life  of  the  tie  secured  by  their 
use;  and  on  account  of  lending  themselves 
to  reapplication. 

The  screw  spike  tie  plates  used  in  the 
Canal  Zone  are  known  as  "Economy  No. 
9  R.  W.,"  and  were  manufactured  by  the 
Spencer  Otis  Company,  Chicago. 

The  Pennsylvania  Steel  Company,  of 
Steelton,  Pa.,  was  brought  into  connection 
with  canal  construction  through  the  ship- 
ment of  steel  castings  for  the  racks  for  the 
electric  locomotives  which  tow  vessels 
through  the  locks.  These  castings  were 
made  in  9,261  sections,  weighing  ap- 
proximately 717  pounds  each,  and  were 
shipped  to  the  Canal  Zone  between  Janu- 
ary, 1911,  and  January,  1913. 

For  their  particular  work,  it  was  re- 
quired that  these  castings  be  exceedingly 
accurate.  The  company  had  no  difficulty 
in  turning  them  out  to  the  complete  satis- 
faction of  the  canal  authorities. 

The  S.  G.  Taylor  Chain  Company, 
Chicago,  111.,  which  supplied  steam  shovel 
hoisting  chains  for  the  canal,  is  an  old 
established  concern,  organized  in  1873. 
While  it  manufactures  a  general  line  of 
welded  chains,  it  has  always  paid  particu- 


392 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


lar  attention  to  steam  shovel  and  dredge 
chain,  having  supplied  it  for  this  very 
exacting  service  in  all  parts  of  the  United 
States  and  in  several  foreign  countries. 
The  Taylor-Mesaba  chain,  the  particular 
brand  adopted  for  work  on  the  canal,  is  a 
hand  forged  chain  made  from  a  special 
brand  of  triple  refined  iron,  rolled  expressly 
for  this  purpose.  The  bulk  of  chain  used 
was  one  and  one-half  inch  diameter  ma- 
terial, and  one  hoisting  chain  of  this  size  for 
a  ninety-five  ton  shovel  weighed  about  one 
and  three-fourths  tons.  The  Canal  Com- 
mission specifications  required  that  sample 
breaking  tests  of  this  material  should  run 
not  less  than  134,000  Ibs.  The  tests 
actually  made  ran  up  in  some  cases  as  high 
as  165,000  Ibs. 

Bolts,  nuts,  rivets,  screws,  upset  rods, 
and  forgings  were  supplied  for  the  canal 
work  in  large  quantities  by  the  Pittsburgh 
Screw  and  Bolt  Company,  of  Pittsburgh, 
both  by  direct  order  and  through  other 
contractors.  This  company  has  for  many 
years  supplied  the  war  and  navy  depart- 
ments with  this  class  of  material. 

Another  Pittsburgh  concern  which 
shipped  large  quantities  of  iron  and  steel 
forgings  and  material  for  the  Panama  Rail- 
road tracks  was  the  Pittsburgh  Forge  and 
Iron  Company.  In  a  long  list  of  ship- 
ments from  this  company,  extending  over 
several  years,  track  bolts,  frogs,  and  stay- 
bolt  iron,  machine  bolts,  drift  bolts,  fish 
plates,  knuckle  pins,  and  other  equipment 
were  included. 

One  of  the  American  concerns  which 
more  than  met  the  rigid  specifications  laid 
down  by  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission 
was  the  Ross-Meehan  Foundry  Company, 
of  Chattanooga,  Tenn.,  which  supplied 
large  quantities  of  malleable  castings  for 
cars.  It  also  supplied  similar  castings  for 
dump  cars  under  a  sub-contract,  and  also 
under  sub-contract  supplied  conduit  cover 
plates  and  brackets,  insulator  clamps,  and 
other  malleable  castings.  The  conduit 
cover  plates  were  used  on  the  conduit 
for  the  electric  towing  locomotives. 

The  record  of  tests  taken  showed  physi- 


cal qualities  considerably  in  excess  of  the 
rigid  commission  specifications,  and  all  the 
work  turned  out  was  highly  satisfactory, 
great  care  having  been  exercised  as  to  the 
quality  of  the  crude  material.  The  cast- 
ings were  manufactured  in  the  company's 
reverberating  furnaces  and  annealing  ovens. 

Automatically  operated  valves  of  latest 
design  for  the  protection  of  boilers  and 
their  steam  lines  were  supplied  in  large 
quantities  by  the  Golden-Anderson  Valve 
Specialty  Company,  of  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
Double-cushioned,  triple-acting,  non-return 
valves  designed  to  automatically  protect 
boilers  in  case  of  a  bursting  tube  and  to 
act  as  a  safety  stop  to  prevent  steam  enter- 
ing a  cold  boiler,  were  among  the  variety  of 
valves  furnished.  These  valves  automati- 
cally shut  off  the  steam  from  every  boiler 
at  the  instant  of  a  pipe  rupture,  and  im- 
mediately cut  out  a  boiler  when  a  tube 
bursts.  The  valves  can  be  closed  by  steam 
or  electricity  from  any  part  of  the  plant, 
or  they  may  be  closed  by  hand,  like  an 
ordinary  valve. 

The  modern  plan  of  centralizing  the 
power  plant  with  its  batteries  of  boilers 
generating  high  steam  pressures,  and  par- 
ticularly where  they  have  a  large  number 
of  branch  lines,  has  suggested  the  provi- 
sion of  this  automatic  safeguard  against 
emergencies.  It  applies  to  all  power  plants 
in  a  general  way,  whether  one  or  many 
boilers  are  in  service. 

Another  corporation  which  supplied 
valves  of  various  kinds  for  the  canal  ma- 
chinery was  the  Roe-Stephens  Manufac- 
turing Company,  of  Detroit,  Mich. 

The  E.  F.  Keating  Company,  of  New 
York,  which  carries  the  largest  stock  of  pipe 
fittings,  valves,  and  tools  in  the  United 
States,  was  one  of  the  concerns  which  sup- 
plied the  canal  with  a  variety  of  materials 
in  its  line.  Their  orders  included  machines 
for  threading  pipe,  wrought  iron  pipe, 
malleable  iron  fittings,  screwed  and  flanged 
fittings,  plumbing  supplies,  and  steel  and 
iron  parts  of  infinite  variety. 

The  O.  F.  Jordan  Co.,  of  Chicago,  111., 
specialists  in  railroad  construction  and 


MISCELLANEOUS   EQUIPMENT 


393 


maintenance  equipment,  furnished  the 
canal  authorities  with  iron  and  steel 
material,  in  the  form  of  spreaders,  unload- 
ing plows,  cast  steel,  and  manganese 
crossings.  A  number  of  the  full  pneu- 
matic-control Jordan  spreaders,  manufac- 
tured by  this  company,  were  used  on  the 
Panama  Canal,  and  gave  great  satisfaction. 
The  spreaders  were  used  in  leveling,  spread- 
ing, and  ditching  material  along  the  canal 
route,  and  their  easy  disposal  of  heavy 
rocks  was  one  of  the  features  of  their  work. 
The  spreader  has  many  uses.  In  cold 
climates  it  renders  efficient  service  as  a 
snow  plow,  and  it  is  generally  used  in 
construction  work  where  the  moving, 
leveling,  and  spreading  of  material  is  nec- 
essary. 

Wrought  iron  washers  for  binding  bolts 
were  supplied  to  the  Canal  Commission 
during  the  entire  period  of  construction 
by  Henry  A.  Hitner's  Sons  Company,  of 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  dealers  in  iron,  steel,  and 
metals.  The  washers  were  manufactured 
from  new  plates,  under  power  pressure 
and  were  all  found  flat  and  true  to  center. 

Steel  and  copper  hose  for  steam,  air, 
water,  and  oil  transmission  was  supplied 
for  the  canal  by  the  Pennsylvania  Flexible 
Metallic  Tubing  Company,  of  Philadel- 
phia. This  hose  was  for  use  under  the 
highest  pressures,  and  was  particularly 
suitable  for  rough  usage.  As  it  was  made 
entirely  of  bronze,  with  asbestos  packings, 
it  was  unaffected  by  the  temperature  or 
general  climatic  conditions  at  the  Isthmus. 

The  company's  shipments  to  the  canal 
continued  until  the  completion  of  the  work. 
In  the  period  from  the  latter  part  of  1908 
to  the  beginning  of  1912,  the  shipments  of 
tubing,  steel  sectional  hose,  brass  conduit 
hose,  and  copper  hose  of  various  sizes 
totaled  nearly  six  miles  in  length. 

The  Boston  Belting  Company,  of  Boston, 
Mass.,  began  to  furnish  articles  of  its  own 
manufacture  to  the  Canal  Commission 
in  November,  1908,  and  continued  with 
other  contracts  as  late  as  April,  1912. 
Among  the  supplies  sent  were  thirty-three 
dredging  sleeves;  "Imperial"  stitched 


rubber  belting;  brass  wire  insertion  sheet 
packing;  and  5,000  feet  of  special  cotton 
jacket  fire  hose,  coupled  with  heavy  ex- 
pansion ring  couplings,  Chicago  fire  hose 
thread. 

The  numerous  pumps  and  engines  on 
the  Isthmus  required  large  quantities  of 
rubber  sheet  packing  for  flanged  joints,  and 
flax  packing  for  pumps.  Large  quantities 
of  this  material  were  furnished  by  the 
Home  Rubber  Company,  of  Trenton, 
N.  J.  The  company  also  supplied  a  large 
quantity  of  rubber  hose. 

Another  firm  which  supplied  great  quan- 
tities of  rubber  in  the  form  of  water,  steam, 
air  suction,  and  fire  hose,  and  dredging 
sleeves  and  belting,  was  the  Boston  Woven 
Hose  &  Rubber  Company,  of  Boston, 
Mass.  In  the  period  between  1908  and 
1912  this  company  supplied  the  canal 
authorities  with  nearly  ten  miles  of  rubber 
material,  and  continued  to  supply  additional 
material  until  the  completion  of  the  work. 

The  Manhattan  Rubber  Manufacturing 
Company,  of  Passaic,  N.  J.,  was  another 
firm  which  supplied  the  canal  with  steam, 
air,  water  and  fire  hose.  This  firm  is  a 
large  maker  of  mechanical  rubber  goods, 
and  its  articles  supplied  to  the  canal  were 
the  regular  commercial  qualities  and  sizes, 
common  throughout  the  United  States. 

Still  another  concern  which  furnished  a 
varied  assortment  of  rubber  equipment 
for  the  canal  was  the  Voorhees  Rubber 
Company,  of  Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  manufac- 
turers of  high  grade  mechanical  rubber 
goods,  including  hose,  belting,  packing, 
valves,  tubing,  and  "Nubian"  packing 
and  gaskets. 

The  Republic  Rubber  Company,  of 
Youngstown,  Ohio,  supplied  water,  steam, 
air  and  suction  hose  for  the  canal.  This 
was  used  in  the  general  construction  work, 
the  company's  shipments  beginning  in 
1905  and  continuing  until  the  completion 
of  the  canal.  The  hose  turned  out  by 
this  company  was  of  special  construction 
adaptable  for  tropical  climates  and  was 
manufactured  under  the  Canal  Commis- 
sion specifications. 


394 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


The  Cobb  Engineering  Company,  for- 
merly the  Rawles-Cobb  Company,  of 
Boston,  Mass.,  dealers  in  factory  and 
machinists'  supplies,  marine  hardware,  and 
special  mechanical  tools,  continually  fig- 
ured in  shipments  of  varied  equipment  to 
the  Canal  Zone  during  the  whole  construc- 
tion period.  This  concern  for  many  years 
has  supplied  the  Navy  and  War  Depart- 
ments with  different  lines  of  equipment,  its 
shipments  going  to  every  navy  yard  in  the 
United  States,  and  to  the  Philippines. 

With  reference  to  the  canal,  the  com- 
pany figured  regularly  in  all  miscellaneous 
hardware  and  general  tool  supplies,  its 
shipments  going  by  nearly  every  steamer. 
It  also  furnished  the  coal  tar  for  the  Canal 
Zone  roads,  and  each  year  was  awarded 
the  contract  for  wrenches  and  kindred 
tools. 

Among  big  firms  furnishing  vast  quan- 
tities of  varied  equipment  for  the  canal 
was  the  old  established  and  widely  known 
Crane  Company,  of  Chicago.  The  ma- 
terials supplied  to  the  Panama  Canal  by 
this  firm  composed  a  great  number  of  ship- 
ments, from  the  beginning  of  the  canal 
work  to  its  completion.  The  first  order, 
which  approximated  more  than  1,000,000 
pounds,  consisted  of  a  large  quantity  of 
standard  and  extra  heavy  flanged  fittings, 
screwed  fittings,  and  standard  and  extra 
heavy  iron  and  brass  gate  valves,  with 
pressures  running  from  100  to  250  pounds. 
The  company  also  supplied  many  thousand 
brass  globe  and  angle  valves,  principally  of 
the  regrinding  type.  Besides  its  own  man- 
ufactured product,  the  Crane  Company 
supplied  for  the  Canal  Zone  several  hun- 
dred bath  tubs,  more  than  1,000  enameled 
lavatories,  and  several  hundred  enameled 
sinks  and  sanitary  combinations.  The 
valves  and  fittings  were  used  in  the  equip- 
ment for  conveying  water,  air,  and  steam, 
during  the  construction  work,  and  the 
other  material  was  used  in  the  plumbing 
and  equipment  of  the  various  buildings. 

Machinery  furnished  by  Fairbanks, 
Morse  &  Company,  of  Chicago,  played  a 
rather  important  part  in  the  construction 


work  of  the  canal.  A  various  assortment  of 
material  and  equipment  was  shipped. 
Some  of  the  most  notable,  which  aided  in 
facilitating  the  construction  work,  were 
the  hand  and  push  cars,  gasoline  motor 
cars,  and  velocipedes.  Of  the  hand  and 
push  cars  over  300  were  supplied,  together 
with  a  large  lot  of  velocipedes  and  gasoline 
motor  cars,  the  latter  being  employed 
mostly  for  inspection  work.  Several  of 
these  gasoline  motor  cars  were  of  the 
larger  type,  having  semi-elliptical  spring 
mounting,  with  canopy  top  and  glass  vesti- 
bule front,  with  a  seating  capacity  for  nine 
people,  and  were  used  principally  by 
officials  of  the  commission  on  their  tours 
of  inspection. 

Ten  water  tanks  to  supply  water  to  the 
locomotives  were  furnished,  together  with 
the  same  number  of  standpipes  for  deliver- 
ing the  water  from  the  tanks  to  the  loco- 
motive tenders  where  the  tracks  were  re- 
moved some  distance  from  the  tank,  also 
a  large  number  of  steam  pumps  for  de- 
livering the  water  from  source  of  supply 
into  these  tanks.  Many  steam  boilers 
were  used  for  generating  steam  for  various 
steam  engines  and  pumps  throughout  the 
works,  and  for  feeding  water  into  these 
various  boilers,  Fairbanks,  Morse  &  Com- 
pany supplied  a  large  number  of  feed 
pumps,  of  various  sizes  and  capacities. 

Over  21,000  short  handle  shovels  were 
furnished  to  the  commission  by  Fair- 
banks, Morse  &  Company.  Much  of  this 
material  which  was  used  during  the  con- 
struction of  the  canal,  will,  of  course,  be 
used  in  connection  with  its  operation. 

One  of  the  firms  which  supplied  the  great- 
est variety  of  general  equipment  for  the 
canal  was  T.  S.  Banks  and  Company,  of 
New  York.  This  firm  in  the  period  from 
May  15,  1905,  to  July  15,  1912,  filled  258 
contracts  for  the  canal,  calling  for  147  kinds 
of  equipment  and  merchandise.  It  con- 
tinued to  fill  further  contracts  up  to  and 
following  the  completion  of  the  canal. 
The  equipments  shipped  varied  from  a 
number  of  dredger  buckets  used  in  digging 
the  canal  to  a  bewildering  variety  of  tools, 


SURVEYING   INSTRUMENTS 


395 


implements,  harness,  wagons,  wheels   and 
other  supplies  even  down  to  needles. 

SURVEYING   AND    OTHER   SCIENTIFIC    IN- 
STRUMENTS AND  MATERIALS 

Before  the  actual  work  of  construction 
began,  appliances  which  have  been  brought 
to  a  high  state  of  scientific  precision  by 
American  inventive  genius  were  busily 
engaged  all  along  the  canal  route.  These 
were  the  surveying  instruments,  which  in 
the  hands  of  the  engineers,  enabled  them 
to  map  out  in  advance  the  exact  details  of 
the  work  that  was  to  come.  Aneroid  ba- 
rometers of  American  make  early  found 
employment  in  taking  gradients  along  the 
Canal  Zone,  and  other  instruments  of  pre- 
cision did  their  part  in  preliminary  work. 

In  the  prosecution  of  survey  work  at 
the  Isthmus,  the  Buff  &  Buff  Manufactur- 
ing Company,  of  Jamaica  Plain,  Boston, 
Mass.,  was  early  in  the  field,  supplying  the 
triangulation  theodolites  that  were  used  in 
surveying,  leveling,  complete  triangulating 
and  all  manner  of  measuring  details. 
Their  contracts  extended  over  a  period  of 
five  years  and  comprised  numerous  orders. 

The  instruments  of  the  Buff  &  Buff 
Manufacturing  Company  were  selected  as 
the  result  of  competitive  tests,  in  which  their 
product  proved  superior  in  design,  work- 
manship, and  accuracy,  the  engineers  find- 
ing them  particularly  satisfactory  because 
of  their  ability  to  withstand  great  heat 
and  excessive  moisture.  The  evolution 
of  this  finished  instrument  embraces  a 
long  series  of  modifications  and  improve- 
ments in  mechanical  detail,  from  the  Stack- 
pole  transit  of  sixty  years  ago  to  the  Buff 
&  Buff  transit  of  today.  The  old  firm  of 
Stackpole  &  Sons,  of  New  York  City, 
manufactured  the  instrument  that,  in  its 
day,  was  used  and  demanded  by  the  best 
engineers  on  all  the  large  surveys  then 
being  made.  George  L.  Buff  was  foreman 
of  that  concern,  and  it  was  his  handiwork 
that  gave  the  instruments  their  reputation. 
The  principal  characteristics  of  the  old 
Stackpole  transit  that  differentiated  it 
from  the  cumbersome  English  theodolite 


were  the  increase  in  power  and  freedom  of 
motion  of  the  telescope,  the  greater  rigidity 
secured  by  mounting  the  telescope  axis 
in  double  cone  bearings,  the  introduction 
of  a  coarser  horizontal  graduation  reading 
to  single  minutes  that  permitted  greater 
speed  in  reading  and  at  the  same  time  de- 
creased the  liability  of  error,  and  important 
improvements  in  the  construction  of  the 
centers  and  graduations. 

In  1871  George  L.  Buff  left  the  firm  of 
Stackpole  &  Sons,  and  established  a  busi- 
ness in  Boston,  where  he  designed  and  con- 
structed the  first  Buff  &  Berger  transit, 
using  the  old  Stackpole  instrument  as  a 
basis  and  adding  to  it  numerous  improve- 
ments gleaned  in  research  work.  His 
personal  skill,  together  with  the  use  of 
special  bronze  mixtures  for  the  different 
bearings  and  parts,  brought  to  the  Buff  & 
Berger  transits  a  reputation  that  grew 
steadily  for  twenty-seven  years. 

The  partnership  formed  in  1871  was  dis- 
solved in  1898,  when  Mr.  Buff  and  his 
three  sons — all  of  them  technical  graduates 
— established  the  Buff  &  Buff  Manufac- 
turing Company.  Again  the  transit  was 
taken  in  hand,  and  nearly  fifty  distinct 
improvements  were  incorporated  in  the 
new  design.  It  is  this  finished  product, 
representing  fifty-seven  years  of  close 
application  and  hard  work  on  the  part  of 
the  senior  member  of  the  firm,  that  was 
used  at  the  canal.  Of  the  large  number 
of  instruments  furnished,  not  one  failed 
to  give  satisfaction. 

Many  of  the  large  number  and  variety 
of  instruments  manufactured  by  C.  L. 
Berger  &  Sons,  of  Boston,  Mass.,  were 
in  daily  use  on  the  Isthmus,  during  the 
survey  and  development  work,  notably 
levels  and  transits.  This  firm,  well  known 
in  its  particular  field,  was  founded  in  1871, 
having  been  reorganized  under  its  present 
management  and  control  in  1898.  At  its 
present  location,  at  37  Williams  Street, 
it  has  established  a  specially  designed  plant 
for  making  engineering  and  surveying  in- 
struments of  the  highest  accuracy.  The 
principal  output  consists  of  transits  and 


396 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


levels,  which  are  sent  to  all  parts  of  the 
world  wherever  American  engineers  are 
engaged  in  active  practice.  Over  10,000 
of  these  instruments  have  been  used  in  the 
various  lines  of  railway,  canal,  and  tunnel 
construction,  topographic  surveys,  and 
general  base  line  and  boundary  line  deter- 
minations. 

The  mechanical  features  of  its  transits 
and  levels  are  especially  adapted  to  work 
under  all  conditions  of  temperature  and 
climate,  which  largely  accounts  for  their 
popularity  and  the  unqualified  satisfac- 
tion which  followed  their  employment 
on  the  canal.  In  addition  to  the  regular 
type  for  civil  engineers'  use,  others  have 
been  devised  for  special  use,  as  in  iron  mines 
where  a  compass  could  not  be  employed,  in 
dripping  mines,  for  mountain  work,  and 
for  triangulation.  For  mining  work  numer- 
ous accessories  have  been  invented  in  order 
to  enable  engineers  to  solve  the  complicated 
problems  encountered  under  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  The  wet  mine  transit,  for 
example,  is  designed  to  protect  all  work- 
ing parts  from  corroding  gases,  as  well  as 
from  dripping  water  that  often  contains 
acid  or  alkaline  properties.  Other  con- 
trivances are  especially  adapted  to  deep 
shaft  work,  while  its  light  mountain  tran- 
sit has  in  view  conditions  of  reconnoissance 
work  in  which  lightness  of  weight  combined 
with  high  telescopic  power  is  of  great  im- 
portance. These,  together  with  many 
other  specially  designed  features  are  found 
in  the  instruments  of  this  company,  and 
have  been  introduced  not  as  novelties,  but 
for  practical  use  to  enable  engineers  to 
accomplish  the  maximum  amount  of  work 
in  the  shortest  time,  and  with  the  greatest 
ease  and  highest  degree  of  accuracy. 

Besides  supplying  apparatus  through 
other  agencies,  the  Hohmann  &  Maurer 
Manufacturing  Company,  with  headquar- 
ters in  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  and  branch  offices 
in  Boston,  New  York,  Chicago,  and  Lon- 
don, made  numerous  shipments  of  its  scien- 
tific and  engineering  instruments  direct  to 
the  Canal  Commission  at  the  Isthmus. 

These  instruments  consisted  of  various 


sorts  of  thermometers, — gas,  superheated 
steam,  feed  water,  flue  gas,  and  refrigera- 
tion thermometers,  and  a  number  of  ane- 
roid barometers,  the  direct  shipments  being 
made  on  contracts  entered  into  in  1911. 
Most  of  the  thermometers  were  for  the 
power  plant  at  Miraflores,  while  the  bar- 
ometers were  sent  to  the  Isthmian  Canal 
Commission's  dock  at  Colon.  The  Hoh- 
man  &  Maurer  Manufacturing  Company 
also  supplied  indirectly  a  number  of  special 
vacuum  gauges,  which  were  used  in  con- 
nection with  the  equipment  of  the  steam 
plants  furnished  by  other  companies  that 
had  contracted  for  outfits  as  a  whole. 

The  instruments  of  this  company  have  a 
world-wide  reputation  for  careful  construc- 
tion and  perfect  accuracy.  As  tempera- 
ture measurement  and  control  in  modern 
refrigeration  as  well  as  in  steam  plants  are 
vital  factors  in  their  economical  and  suc- 
cessful operation,  the  selection  of  Hohmann 
&  Maurer  thermometers  and  gauges  by 
the  canal  officials  furnished  its  own  guar- 
anty of  their  superior  excellence.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  the  Short  &  Mason 
aneroid  barometers  furnished  by  this  firm 
and  made  by  the  Short  &  Mason  division, 
which  found  service  in  ascertaining  va- 
riations in  gradients  and  levels  along  the 
course  of  the  canal,  as  well  as  in  deter- 
mining the  elevations  of  the  hills  and 
mountains  of  the  surrounding  country. 

The  Hohmann  &  Maurer  Manufacturing 
Company  is  a  division  of  the  Taylor  Instru- 
ment Companies.  Mr.  J.  M.  Taylor  is 
president,  and  Mr.  H.  J.  Winn  treasurer 
of  the  controlling  concern. 

Among  the  successful  bidders  for  furnish- 
ing materials  used  in  the  office  and  draught- 
ing departments  at  the  canal,  as  well  as  in  the 
survey  work,  were  F.  Weber  &  Company, 
of  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  manufacturers  and  im- 
porters of  artists'  materials  and  draughts- 
men's and  engineers'  supplies.  Their 
shipments  included  miscellaneous  articles, 
all  of  their  own  manufacture,  such  as  non- 
deteriorating  waterproof  India  inks,  water 
colors,  the  "  F.  W.  &  Company's  and  Riefler 
Tubular  Round  System"  drawing  instru- 


Emergency  dam  at  Gatun.  Normally  this  dam  is  pivoted  on  the  side  wall,  parallel  with  the  lock  instead  of  across  it. 
When  accidents  occur  it  will  be  swung  across  thelock,  the  steel  wicket  girders  let  down,  as  in  the  upper  picture,  and 
great  sheets  of  steel  let  down  on  them,  as  in  the  lower  picture,  thus  completely  closing  the  lock. 


LUBRICATING   OILS 


397 


ments,  blue  and  brown  print  papers,  and 
other  office  supplies,  and  engineers'  and 
mining  surveying  instruments.  These  sup- 
plies were  extensively  used  at  the  Isthmus, 
and  gave  thorough  satisfaction  both  in 
clerical  and  in  field  operations. 

Another  prominent  firm  which  supplied 
mathematical,  engineering,  and  survey- 
ing instruments  for  the  canal  experts  was 
Heller  &  Brightly,  of  Philadelphia,  Pa., 
makers  of  instruments  of  this  kind.  In 
addition  to  other  instruments,  a  number  of 
the  firm's  transits  and  levels  were  fur- 
nished to  the  canal  authorities.  The 
president  of  the  company  is  Charles  W. 
Heller,  a  native  of  Philadelphia. 

Nearly  all  of  the  blue  prints  prepared  for 
the  canal  were  made  on  paper  supplied  by 
Williams,  Brown  &  Earle,  Inc.,  of  Phila- 
delphia, one  of  the  leading,  as  well  as  one 
of  the  oldest,  of  the  manufacturers  of  en- 
gineering and  scientific  instruments  in  the 
United  States.  This  firm  also  supplied  the 
two  washing  and  drying  machines  and  the 
two  blue-printing  machines  that  were  sent 
to  the  Isthmus.  These  machines,  equipped 
with  electric  lamps,  motors,  and  dryers, 
were  so  constructed  as  to  wash  and  dry  the 
prints  in  a  single  operation  at  the  rate  of 
four  to  six  linear  feet  a  minute.  At  its 
full  capacity  the  machinery  provides  for 
the  production  of  completed  blue  prints 
fifty-four  inches  wide  and  of  unlimited 
length.  During  the  year  1912,  Williams, 
Brown  &  Earle  furnished  about  50,000 
yards,  or  nearly  thirty  miles,  of  blue  print 
paper  for  the  use  of  the  engineers  on  the 
canal,  in  making  blue  prints  for  construc- 
tion work. 

The  firm  manufactures  its  own  machines 
for  photographically  coating  its  paper, 
either  by  the  blue  print  or  other  photo- 
graphic processes.  The  paper  is  coated 
with  special  care  and  then  packed  in  metal 
tubes,  to  prevent  decomposition  and  change 
in  the  photographic  surface  liable  to  occur 
in  the  tropics.  Other  scientific  apparatus 
was  furnished  by  this  firm  for  use  in  various 
lines  of  scientific  investigation,  as  well 
as  for  the  purpose  of  furnishing  entertain- 


ment  and   amusement    to    those   residing 
along  the  canal  during  its  construction. 

The  firm  of  Ernst  Leitz,  of  New  York, 
N.  Y.,  supplied  microscopes  and  laboratory 
materials  for  use  in  medical  diagnosis  and 
the  examination  of  the  water  supply  that 
was  carried  on  in  connection  with  the  sani- 
tation work  at  the  canal,  for  the  protection 
of  health  and  maintenance  of  suitable  liv- 
ing conditions  for  the  immense  army  of 
workers.  The  Leitz  microscopes  are  manu- 
factured at  the  firm's  factory  in  Wetzlar, 
Germany.  Their  instruments  were  first 
introduced  in  1848,  and  have  obtained  ex- 
tensive use  in  critical  research  work  in  the 
laboratories  of  governmental  and  educa- 
tional institutions  all  over  the  world. 

OILING  THE  MACHINERY 

The  vast  quantities  of  lubricating  oils 
used  in  canal  construction  give  an  inkling 
of  the  tremendous  mechanical  powers  at 
work  on  the  Isthmus. 

Contracts  with  the  Canal  Commission 
for  furnishing  lubricating  oils  and  other 
related  materials  were  first  made  in  May, 
1910,  by  the  Texas  Company,  with  gen- 
eral offices  in  Houston,  Texas,  and  New 
York,  and  were  followed  by  numerous 
renewals.  The  total  of  these  contracts  up 
to  June,  1913,  reached  the  high  figure  of 
824,000  gallons  of  the  various  kinds  of 
lubricating  oils,  and  448,000  pounds  of  the 
greases  manufactured  by  the  company, 
with  lesser  shipments  of  kerosene  and  gaso- 
line in  addition.  Shipments  of  these  ma- 
terials followed  immediately  after  the  origi- 
nal award,  and  have  been  in  progress 
monthly  ever  since. 

The  samples  furnished  by  the  Texas 
Company  were  submitted  to  critical  labor- 
atory and  practical  tests,  and  successfully 
withstood  them  all.  The  adaptability  of 
"Texaco"  lubricants  was  proved  by  their 
action  under  the  severest  construction 
conditions,  in  which  lubricating  problems 
were  encountered  of  a  nature  that  are  ex- 
ceedingly difficult  to  overcome.  Some 
idea  of  these  difficulties  may  be  obtained 
from  the  statement  that  the  canal  dipper 


398 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


dredges  often  were  worked  under  thirty 
feet  of  water,  and  had  to  be  kept  properly 
lubricated  while  so  submerged.  The  rail- 
road equipment,  also,  was  often  com- 
pelled to  be  kept  moving  with  mud  and 
water  up  to  the  wheels,  axle  boxes,  and 
other  parts  of  the  machinery  usually  pro- 
tected from  dampness  and  grit.  Not  only 
did  the  oils  of  the  Texas  Company  meet 
these  deterrent  obstacles,  but  they  also 
earned  the  approval  of  the  canal  officials 
under  conditions  that  required  the  greatest 
economy,  as  well  as  continuous  service  for 
thousands  of  hours  without  cessation  or 
breakdown.  The  report  of  the  commis- 
sion for  1911  showed  that  in  all  the  power 
plants  where  this  lubricant  was  used,  not  a 
stoppage  was  made  on  account  of  a  heated 
bearing  or  any  other  lubricating  trouble 
during  the  whole  year.  The  oils  were 
also  used  generally  on  locomotives,  cars, 
dredges,  steam  shovels,  and,  in  fact,  all 
the  machinery  employed  on  the  Isthmus. 
The  company  manufactures  its  lubricants 
from  various  crudes,  each  best  adapted 
to  the  special  grade  of  oil  or  grease  desired. 
This  work  has  called  for  a  special  study  of 
oil  refining  in  order  to  meet  the  required 
commercial  conditions,  and  has  also  re- 
sulted in  the  designing  of  much  special 
equipment  to  achieve  the  ends  in  view. 
The  established  facilities  of  the  company  in 
the  way  of  ocean  terminals  and  storage 
sites  met  all  requirements  for  quick  trans- 
portation of  its  products  to  Panama. 

One  of  the  oldest  firms  which  had  a  part 
in  the  construction  of  the  canal  was  the 
Crew-Levick  Company,  of  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
This  firm  recently  celebrated  its  fiftieth 
anniversary,  and  is  one  of  the  oldest  re- 
finers of  petroleum  in  the  United  States. 
The  company  was  well  known  to  the  United 
States  Government  as  well  as  the  govern- 
ments of  the  European  and  Asiatic  coun- 
tries before  the  beginning  of  canal  construc- 
tion, and  after  the  commencement  of  the 
work  was  a  constant  supplier  of  large 
quantities  of  cylinder  engine  and  dynamo 
oils  to  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission. 
In  addition  to  its  wide  foreign  business  the 


company  has  always  enjoyed  a  very  large 
domestic  business,  making  a  specialty  of 
high-grade  products  meeting  all  the  de- 
mands of  the  manufacturing  industries,  and 
distributing  them  through  their  many 
branch  offices  to  all  parts  of  the  United 
States.  In  recent  years  the  company 
has  made  a  specialty  of  motor  oils,  and 
this  department  has  developed  rapidly. 
All  of  the  plants  of  the  company  are  located 
in  Pennsylvania,  and  in  addition  to  its 
United  States  agencies  it  has  agencies  all 
over  the  world  in  all  the  principal  business 
centers,  its  largest  export  trade  being  from 
the  ports  of  Philadelphia,  New  York,  and 
Baltimore.  The  company  was  one  of  the 
earliest  in  the  United  States  to  realize  the 
great  possibilities  of  trade  expansion  in 
foreign  fields.  Its  first  foreign  branch  was 
established  in  Liverpool  nearly  forty  years 
ago,  when  Mr.  Levick  ascertained  that  a 
great  market  awaited  the  company's  prod- 
ucts in  Europe.  Since  that  time  Mr. 
Levick  has  made  almost  yearly  trips 
abroad,  and  the  export  business  of  the 
company,  growing  steadily  in  volume,  has 
for  many  years  been  a  beacon  to  other 
American  lines  of  industry  in  pointing  out 
channels  to  foreign  trade. 

W.  N.  Best,  of  New  York,  engineer  in 
caloric,  supplied  the  commission  with  oil 
burners,  oil  furnaces,  and  fire  brick  for  re- 
lining.  The  oil  burners  were  used  for 
steams  boilers  of  all  types  and  sizes  in 
power  plants,  dredges,  etc.  The  furnaces 
were  used  for  bolt  making,  rivet  heating, 
forging,  welding,  plate  heating,  and  other 
purposes.  The  burners  supplied  by  Mr. 
Best  were  specially  adapted  for  using  the 
California  fuel  oil.  About  200  burners 
were  supplied,  with  twenty-one  furnaces. 

Early  in  1912  certain  achievements  in 
increasing  the  life  use  of  metals,  by  the 
Whitmore  Manufacturing  Company,  lubri- 
cating engineers  of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  came 
to  the  attention  of  the  Isthmian  Canal 
Commission,  and  thereupon  the  commis- 
sion requested  from  the  Whitmore  Com- 
pany full  details  regarding  their  special 
work  in  lubricating,  together  with  statistics 


HARD   PROBLEMS  SOLVED 


399 


of  past  performances,  and  samples  of  their 
material  for  testing  purposes. 

Upon  request  representatives  of  the 
Canal  Commission  furnished  the  Whitmore 
laboratories  minute  data  regarding  the  re- 
quirements of  lubrication  in  the  canal 
works.  In  brief  the  data  furnished  gave 
the  following  requirements: 

Lubrication  was  required  for  the  center 
pivot  bearings  and  the  roller  bearings  of 
the  emergency  dams.  The  nature  of  the 
service  was  very  unusual,  and  offered  a 
very  difficult  problem.  The  center  pivot 
bearings  are  constructed  with  three  discs, 
forty-three  inches  in  diameter,  the  upper 
and  lower  discs  being  of  forged  vanadium 
steel,  with  concave  bearing  surfaces,  har- 
dened to  test  eighty-five  to  ninety  on  the 
sclerescope,  and  the  center  disc  of  forged 
manganese  bronze,  having  an  elastic  limit 
of  90,000  pounds,  surfaces  convex,  with 
five  grooves  radiating  from  a  two-inch  hole 
through  the  center  to  within  one-fourth 
inch  of  the  circumference,  by  means  of 
which  the  lubricant  is  conveyed  to  the 
bearing  surfaces  during  the  period  of 
movement  only.  The  lubricant  is  forced 
through  twenty  feet  of  one-inch  pipe  to 
the  two-inch  hole  in  the  center  by  means  of 
a  screw  compressor  on  the  floor  of  the  dam. 

A  total  weight  of  6,700,000  pounds  rests 
on  each  bearing,  being  a  unit  of  pressure 
of  4,620  pounds  to  the  square  inch.  As  the 
emergency  dams  are  operated  only  once  in 
thirty  days  for  testing,  there  are  rest  periods 
of  twenty-nine  days  during  which  the  pivot 
bearings  must  support  the  entire  6,700,000 
pounds  weight.  A  lubricant,  therefore, 
must  be  employed  which  will  have  the 
capacity  of  holding  the  bearing  surfaces 
definitely  apart  during  those  twenty-nine 
day  rest  periods  of  super-excessive  pressure, 
because  if  not  definitely  apart  at  the  initial 
moment  of  the  movement,  the  bearing 
will  stick  and  cut,  and  the  dams  lose  their 
value  for  emergency  purposes. 

The  problem  in  connection  with  the 
roller  bearings  was  that  of  protection  of  the 
polished  steel  under  the  excessive  corrosive 
conditions  prevailing  on  the  Isthmus. 


With  complete  data  regarding  the  con- 
ditions of  the  service  in  their  possession, 
the  Whitmore  laboratories  set  to  work  on 
the  problem,  and  developed  a  product  es- 
pecially to  meet  the  requirements.  Tests 
of  the  Whitmore  product  were  conducted 
by  representatives  of  the  Isthmian  Canal 
Commission  under  reproduced  conditions. 
These  tests  showed  phenomenal  results. 
Whitmore's  anti-friction  composition,  made 
especially  for  this  purpose,  not  only  with- 
stood the  required  pressure  of  4,620  pounds, 
but  was  subjected  to  units  of  pressure  as 
high  as  13,300  pounds  to  the  square  inch, 
with  the  bearing  parts  definitely  apart,  and 
the  lubricant  still  capable  of  indefinite  fur- 
ther expansion ;  and  providing  a  factor  of 
safety  in  the  starting  coefficient  of  over 
700  per  cent,  compared  with  the  best  for- 
eign greases  submitted  for  tests. 

Expert  commission  men,  who  stocked  the 
chain  of  government  stores  of  the  Panama 
Canal  Commission,  recognized  in  advance 
that  they  had  a  mighty  rust  problem  to 
contend  with,  just  as  the  sanitation  de- 
partment had  to  face  the  mosquito  and 
yellow  fever  problem. 

Tropical  rains  in  torrents  and  moist  salt 
air  spelled  rust,  corrosion,  and  verdigris 
on  everything  metallic  in  the  Canal  Zone, 
unless  carefully  protected.  That  protec- 
tion was  afforded  by  oil,  the  product  of 
the  Three-In-One  Oil  Company,  of  New 
York.  It  was  used  on  guns,  revolvers, 
sewing  machines,  typewriters,  ice-cream 
freezers,  bolts,  locks,  clocks, — everything 
made  of  metal,  in-doors  or  out. 

"Three-in-One,"  the  conqueror  of  rust 
and  corrosion,  was  put  in  every  store  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific.  The  members 
of  the  commission  used  rust-preventing 
"Three-in-One"  oil  for  their  razors,  reels, 
golf  clubs,  and  other  personal  property,  as 
did  the  humblest  worker  in  the  zone.  And 
the  record  that  this  trouble-dispeller  made 
along  the  canal  was  notable. 

No  one  appreciated  "Three-in-One" 
more  than  the  soldiers  and  marines.  It 
kept  their  arms  and  accoutrements  in  per- 
fect condition,  thereby  saving  money  for 


400 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


Uncle  Sam,  as  well  as  saving  the  soldiers' 
and  marines'  time,  temper,  and  energy.  It 
helped  every  one,  every  day,  to  stand  up 
to  their  severe  tasks  under  climatic  handi- 
caps. "  Three-in-One  "  not  only  fought  off 
rust  and  corrosion  but  it  also  oiled  every 
kind  of  light  mechanism  or  device,  and 
kept  veneered  and  varnished  furniture  and 
woodwork. 

William  W.  Nugent  &  Company,  of 
Chicago,  supplied  oiling  devices  for  the 
machinery  on  the  canal.  Several  shipments 
were  made  of  Nugent's  patented  oil  system 
for  steam  and  gas  engines  and  refrigerating 
machines.  Among  these  were  the  Nugent 
patented  anti-stand  crank  pin  center  oiler, 
the  Nugent  anti-packed  telescopic  posi- 
tive feed  crosshead  and  top  guide  oil- 
ing device,  Nugent  oil  pumps,  oil  tanks, 
and  oil  filters,  and  automatic  water  separa- 
tors. The  superiority  of  these  machines 
was  in  guarding  against  the  waste  of  oil. 

With  the  largest  plant  in  the  world  de- 
voted to  the  manufacture  of  lubricating 
devices,  the  Detroit  Lubricating  Company, 
of  Detroit,  Mich.,  furnished  great  quanti- 
ties of  hand  oil  pumps  for  machines  oper- 
ating on  the  canal.  These  were  in  the 
form  of  glass  and  brass  body  push  pumps, 
and  other  forms  of  lubricating  devices. 
These  push  pumps  were  manufactured 
without  springs,  and  thus  were  less  liable 
to  weakening  because  of  heat  and  wear. 

The  Keystone  Lubricator  Co.,  of  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  furnished  large  quantities  of 
lubricants  to  the  canal. 

FUEL  SUPPLIES 

The  prosecution  of  any  engineering  work 
of  the  magnitude  of  the  Panama  Canal 
would  be  impossible  without  a  continuous 
and  uninterrupted  supply  of  fuel,  required 
by  the  modern  steam-driven  machinery 
that  played  such  an  important  part  in  the 
canal's  construction.  The  absence  of  any 
coal  of  commercial  value  nearer  than  the 
United  States  presented  to  the  canal 
officials  the  problem  of  obtaining  and  trans- 
porting to  the  Isthmus  huge  quantities  of 
coal  of  suitable  quality. 


To  avoid  all  possibility  of  delay  or  com- 
plete stoppage  of  work,  an  unfailing  source 
of  supply  from  responsible  shippers  was 
imperative,  and  coal  capable  of  being 
stored  under  severe  climatic  conditions 
without  deterioration,  and  not  liable  to 
spontaneous  combustion  under  the  tropi- 
cal sun,  was  required.  In  this  phase  of  the 
canal  work,  Castner,  Curran  &  Bullitt,  Inc., 
of  New  York,  had  a  large  part. 

The  conditions  comprised  in  the  specifi- 
cations for  coal  of  necessity  limited  the 
choice  of  fuel  to  the  best  to  be  found  in 
America.  This  fuel  proved  to  be  the  Po- 
cahontas  and  some  of  the  New  River  coal 
of  West  Virginia. 

The  following  letter  from  Mr.  E.  A. 
Drake,  vice-president  of  the  Panama 
Railroad,  who  had  full  authority  in  pur- 
chasing all  coal  for  use  on  the  Isthmus, 
sets  forth  the  coal  situation : 

New  York,  Sept.  27,  1912. 
Mr.  Lemuel  Burrows,  Jr.,  Vice-President 
and  General  Manager, 
Castner,  Curran  &  Bullitt,  Inc., 
I  Broadway,  New  York  City. 

Dear  Sir:  Complying  with  the  request  con- 
tained  in  your  letter  of  the  2ist  inst.,  I  take  pleasure 
in  saying  that  this  company's  relations  with  your 
company,  in  maintaining  our  coal  supply  at  the 
Isthmus,  for  many  years  have  been  intimate 
and  most  satisfactory. 

From  1895  to  1901  you  furnished  practically  all 
of  our  Isthmus  coal  requirements,  which  during 
that  period  increased  from  10,000  to  40,000  tons; 
and,  subsequently,  by  1906,  to  180,000  tons  an- 
nually. 

We  felt  justified  in  dealing  almost  exclusively 
with  your  firm  during  those  years,  because  you 
were  the  chief  purveyors  of  first  quality  "  Poca- 
hontas"  coal,  classed  in  naval  circles  as  highest  in 
efficiency,  which  rating  was  verified  by  results  we 
obtained  on  the  Isthmus. 

When  our  necessities  increased  so  that  there 
was  justice  and  propriety  in  the  claim  by  other 
firms,  who  had  entered  the  Pocahontas  and  New 
River  fields,  that  they  were  entitled  to  participate 
in  the  business  of  supplying  our  wants,  sharp  com- 
petition in  price  and  quality  was  inaugurated. 

Our  fuel  necessities  increased  for  1907  to  375,000 
tons,  and  that  quantity  was,  in  effect,  divided  be- 
tween your  firm  and  the  Berwind-White  Coal  Com- 
pany; later  our  purchase  increased  .to  500,000  tons 
per  annum,  and  other  large  firms  secured  a  share 
of  the  business. 

During  the  years  from  1895  to  1911,  in  which  your 
firm  supplied  all,  or  the  larger  part,  of  our  require- 
ments, the  character  of  your  coal  was  such  that  it 


POCAHONTAS   COAL 


401 


uniformly  met  our  B.  T.  U.  specifications,  and  in 
use  satisfactorily  passed  the  various  tests  of  its 
handling  in  railroad  and  canal  construction  work  on 
the  Isthmus,  and  in  bunkering  our  own  vessels, 
United  States  war  vessels,  and  those  of  our  co- 
carriers  at  that  point. 

It  was  subjected  to  very  many  trials,  being 
stored  in  enormous  quantities,  under  severe  climatic 
conditions,  without  perceptible  deterioration. 

Uninterrupted  progress  of  canal  work  often  de- 
pended upon  your  zeal  and  cooperation,  under  your 
contract,  in  aiding  us  to  keep  up  our  Isthmus  coal 
supply,  at  times  under  extreme  difficulties  of 
production  at  the  mines  and  dispatch  from  loading 
point.  I  refer,  with  peculiar  satisfaction,  to  this 
phase  of  our  relations,  as  a  dearth  of  fuel  on  the 
Isthmus  at  any  time  would  have  been  regarded  as  a 
national  disaster. 

You  are  aware  it  is  against  the  policy  of  this 
company  to  furnish  testimonials,  but  I  consider 
writing  such  a  letter  as  you  request  an  act  of  simple 
justice,  in  recognition  of  the  integrity,  helpfulness, 
and  cordiality  of  your  relations  with  this  company 
over  an  extended  period. 

Yours  truly, 

E.  A.  DRAKE, 

Vice-President. 

From  April  ist,  191 1 ,  the  fuel  needs  of  the 
Isthmian  Canal  Commission  and  the  Pan- 
ama Railroad  were  largely  supplied  under 
contract  with  the  original  Pocahontas  coal 
produced  by  the  Pocahontas  Consolidated 
Collieries  Company,  Incorporated,  and 
from  a  few  other  coal  mining  operators  in 
the  Pocahontas  and  New  River  fields  of 
Virginia  and  West  Virginia. 

Contracts  for  the  supply  of  more  than 
half  a  million  tons  annually  for  the  work 
on  the  canal  were  awarded  to  the  Poca- 
hontas Fuel  Company,  of  New  York  City, 
the  selling  agent  of  the  original  Pocahontas 
producers.  The  first  contract  was  for 
one  year  from  April  ist,  191 1,  and  such  was 
the  satisfaction  given  that  on  the  first 
of  April,  1912,  a  second  contract  was 
awarded  for  the  entire  estimated  period 
for  the  completion  of  the  canal,  namely,  to 
October  1st,  1914. 

The  producers  of  this  coal  congratulate 
themselves  that  their  fuel  as  a  power  pro- 
ducer was  a  strong  factor  in  the  remarkable 
record  of  construction  at  Panama. 

Pocahontas  coal  is  produced  in  south- 
western Virginia  and  southeastern  West 
Virginia  within  a  distinctly  limited  area, 
where,  however,  there  are  more  than 


a  billion  tons  of  this  coal  still  available 
for  mining.  Mining  was  first  commenced 
at  the  famous  Pocahontas  Baby  Mine, 
which  is  still  operated,  in  1882,  and  since 
that  time  the  opening  of  new  collieries 
has  proceeded  steadily  until  almost  the 
entire  Pocahontas  field  is  being  mined. 
The  Pocahontas  Consolidated  Collieries 
Company  alone  has  nineteen  mines  in  full 
operation,  the  output  of  which  is  nearly 
thirty  per  cent,  of  all  Pocahontas  coal 
marketed.  The  officers  of  this  company 
are  Isaac  T.  Mann,  president;  Charles  S. 
Thorne,  first  vice-president;  Jenkin  Jones, 
second  vice-president;  James  Ellwood 
Jones,  general  manager;  and  George  W. 
Woodruff,  secretary  and  general  counsel. 

The  Panama  Railroad,  buying  for  itself 
and  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  in 
1911  awarded  its  entire  contract  of  550,000 
tons  a  year  to  the  Pocahontas  Fuel  Com- 
pany, impelled  thereto  by  two  reasons, — 
that  it  might  get  the  greatest  power  effi- 
ciency from  its  engines  and  machinery, 
and  because  the  Pocahontas  Fuel  Company, 
having  control  of  a  greater  and  more  cer- 
tain output  than  any  other  Pocahontas 
and  New  River  selling  agency,  would  be 
able  to  supply  the  quantity  and  quality 
of  coal  contracted  for  promptly  on  the 
arrival  of  the  colliers. 

In  this  connection  it  is  interesting  to 
note  that  the  unequalled  quality  and  out- 
put, combined  with  the  ability  of  the 
company  to  give  prompt  despatch  to 
vessels  reporting  at  bunkers  for  cargoes 
of  coal,  has  made  it  possible  for  the  Poca- 
hontas Fuel  Company  to  invade  the  mar- 
kets of  Europe,  South  America,  and  the 
west  coast  of  Africa. 

Original  Pocahontas  coal  is  known  as 
a  "smokeless"  coal  for  the  reason  that  it 
has  so  little  volatile  matter  in  it,  and  also 
because  this  volatile  matter  readily  burns 
in  the  furnace  or  firebox,  and  thus  produces 
heat  instead  of  escaping  into  the  air  as 
gas  and  smoke.  It  has  been  in  use  in  the 
navy  for  many  years  and  is  sent  in  large 
quantities  to  the  Pacific  coast  for  naval 
purposes. 


402 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


Among  those  cooperating  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  canal  through  the  shipment 
of  supplies  were  J.  H.  Weaver  &  Company, 
mine  owners  and  coal  dealers,  with  general 
offices  in  Philadelphia  and  New  York. 
From  the  beginning  of  operations  this 
company  sent  large  quantities  of  bitumi- 
nous coal  to  the  Isthmus.  As  they  con- 
fined themselves  exclusively  to  the  sale  of 
their  own  coal,  they  give  personal  super- 
vision to  the  mining  and  shipping  of  their 
orders,  and  consequently  filled  all  orders 
with  the  Canal  Commission  satisfactorily 
and  with  dispatch.  The  mines  of  the 
company  are  located  on  three  great  coal- 
carrying  railroads — the  New  York  Cen- 
tral, the  Pennsylvania,  and  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio — with  shipping  piers  at  New 
York,  Philadelphia,  and  Baltimore.  A 
large  proportion  of  their  coal  output  is 
especially  adapted  to  steamship,  manu- 
facturing, and  power  house  use,  and  for 
general  steam  generating  purposes,  al- 
though they  have  other  mines  that  furnish 
coal  suitable  for  locomotives.  Their  suc- 
cess at  the  canal  has  already  served  them 
well  by  greatly  increasing  their  foreign 
exports  of  their  own  high  grade,  low  ash 
coals. 

THE  CANAL  AND  PETROLEUM  PRODUCTS 

The  full  effect  of  the  completion  of  the 
Canal  upon  the  petroleum  commerce  of 
the  world  is  yet  a  question  of  surmise, 
and  will  not  be  definitely  settled  until  the 
European  war  is  ended,  and  commerce 
has  resumed  its  normal  trend.  The 
adjustments  that  will  follow  the  war  may 
in  themselves  lead  to  great  changes  in 
international  trade  in  petroleum,  partic- 
ularly depending  on  what  the  status  of  the 
Dardanelles  will  be  at  the  conclusion  of 
the  war. 

A  study  of  the  map  of  the  world  and  its 
petroleum  producing  and  consuming  coun- 
tries is  suggestive  of  many  interesting 
possibilities.  The  canal  brings  the  markets 
of  the  east  and  west  coasts  of  the  United 
States  in  readier  contact,  subjecting  com- 


merce in  petroleum  to  the  fluctuating 
production  and  values  of  the  eastern  and 
western  oil  fields.  The  mid-continent  oil 
fields  may  find  an  outlet  through  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  canal  to  the 
western  countries  of  South  America  and 
a  number  of  important  Oriental  markets. 
Mexico  may  find  a  similar  outlet  for  its 
petroleum,  while  Peru  may  ultimately 
seek  European  markets  via  the  Canal. 
If  the  end  of  the  European  war  leaves 
the  Dardanelles  open  to  Russia,  petroleum 
and  petroleum  products  from  the  great 
Russian  and  Roumanian  fields  may  use 
the  canal  as  a  connecting  waterway  to 
Oriental  markets,  while  on  the  other  hand, 
the  petroleum  interests  of  the  Dutch 
Indies  may  utilize  the  canal  in  seeking  the 
great  consuming  markets  of  Europe.  In 
this  country,  the  Standard  Oil  Company, 
with  its  extensive  fleet  and  ramifying 
foreign  commerce  will  use  the  canal  ex- 
tensively in  its  trade,  and  will  be  keenly 
interested  in  the  canal's  effect  upon  the 
trade  of  foreign  oil  producing  countries. 

To  the  canal  work  itself,  American 
petroleum  contributed  no  less  than  five 
important  manufactured  products,  dis- 
tinctly different,  but  all  essential  to  the 
work  of  constructing  the  canal.  Of  these 
gasoline  and  kerosene  held  the  lead,  while 
petroleum  lubricants,  greases,  and  candles 
were  used  in  great  quantities. 

As  an  indication  of  the  importance  of 
petroleum  in  the  canal  work,  the  Standard 
Oil  Company  in  the  six  year  period  from 
1908  to  1914,  delivered  to  the  canal  author- 
ities 2,400,000  gallons  of  kerosene  and 
700,000  gallons  of  gasoline.  This  amount 
of  gasoline  would  enable  an  average  auto- 
mobile to  make  nearly  200  trips  around  the 
world. 

It  is  expected  that  the  Canal  Zone  itself 
will  become  one  of  the  world's  great 
entrep6ts  for  fuel  oil  to  meet  the  require- 
ments of  merchant  and  naval  ships,  with 
constantly  increasing  facilities  for  the 
storage  of  all  petroleum  products  required 
to  feed  the  commerce  of  the  canal  and  the 
growing  markets  accessible  thereto. 


1.  One  of  the  57  A-G-A  buoys  used  exclusively  in  lighting  the  canal. 

2.  Canal  lighting  and  buoying  rear  tower,  Pacific  entrance,  looking  Northeast. 

(American  Gasaccumulator  Company,  Philadelphia,  Pa.) 


THE   DALEN    INVENTIONS 


403 


LIGHTING  THE  CANAL 

In  its  great  work  the  Canal  Commission 
called  to  its  aid  the  discoveries  of  modern 
science,  not  alone  in  the  work  of  actual 
construction,  but  to  safeguard  life  and 
property,  and  expedite  the  transferring 
of  vessels  from  one  ocean  to  the  other. 
Nothing  was  left  to  chance,  and  so  far  as 
human  intelligence  and  foresight  could 
provide,  all  possibilities  of  accidents  were 
eliminated.  The  commission,  too,  kept  in 
sight  the  importance  of  so  completing  the 
work  that  the  cost  of  future  maintenance 
would  be  reduced  to  the  lowest  possible 
figure. 

One  of  the  great  discoveries  of  modern 
science  is  that  of  acetylene,  which  as  an 
illuminating  agent  surpasses  all  other  gases 
used  for  lighting  purposes.  The  lighting 
power  of  acetylene  is  five  times  that  of  the 
richest  oil-gas,  which  formerly  was  exten- 
sively used  for  lighting  aids  to  navigation. 

Acetylene  was  well  known  for  its  su- 
perior and  brilliant  light,  but  it  was  not 
until  the  French  chemists,  Claude  and 
Hess,  in  the  nineties,  made  their  discovery 
of  the  dissolving  capacity  of  acetone  that 
it  became  possible  to  store  large  quantities 
of  acetylene  under  pressure  in  an  entirely 
safe  manner. 

The  dissolved  acetylene  has  been  utilized 
by  the  commission  in  lighting  the  canal, 
for  the  purpose  of  safeguarding  navigation, 
so  that  the  route  is  as  safe  at  night  as  in 
daylight. 

The  American  Gasaccumulator  Company 
of  Philadelphia,  at  a  total  cost  of  $189,933, 
installed  along  the  line  of  the  canal  fifty- 
seven  acetylene  light  buoys,  eighteen 
front  and  rear  range  lights,  and  a  small 
number  of  beacons,  all  of  which  are  the 
AGA  system. 

From  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  or 
throughout  the  canal,  a  double  row  of 
these  buoys  mark  the  channel,  which  is 
further  defined  by  the  range  lights  and 
beacons,  each  having  its  own  characteristic. 

The  buoy  consists  of  a  cylindrical  float- 
ing steel  body  of  eight  feet  diameter, 


surmounted  by  a  steel  frame  which  sup- 
ports a  lantern  with  lens  and  flash-light 
apparatus  at  a  height  of  about  fifteen  feet 
above  the  water  level.  The  draught  of  the 
buoy  is  about  twelve  feet  and  it  is  moored 
on  its  station  by  a  heavy  chain  and  sinker. 

The  source  of  light  is  an  acetylene  flame 
of  about  forty  Hefner  candlepower,  which 
through  the  lens  will  develop  a  lighting 
power  of  about  400  Hefner  candles,  giving 
a  range  of  light  of  about  eleven  and  one- 
half  nautical  miles  in  clear  weather. 

The  acetylene  for  each  buoy  is  stored 
under  150  pounds  pressure  in  four  tanks, 
known  as  accumulators,  each  accumulator 
being  inserted  in  a  pocket  of  the  buoy  body 
from  which  it  may  be  easily  withdrawn 
when  empty  and  replaced  by  a  fully  charged 
accumulator  without  taking  the  buoy  out 
of  the  water. 

The  most  prominent  features  of  the  AGA 
system  are  the  flasher,  the  sunvalve,  and 
the  accumulators.  The  AGA  flasher  gives 
any  desired  characteristic,  thereby  elimi- 
nating the  possibility  of  mistaking  one 
light  for  another,  and  also  distinguishing  it 
from  fixed  lights  on  shore.  The  flasher 
is  acted  upon  by  the  pressure  of  the  gas, 
and  delivers  automatically  after  a  prefixed 
interval  a  quantity  of  gas  to  the  burner, 
where  the  gas  is  lit  by  a  small  pilot  flame. 

The  flasher  can  be  set  to  give  as  many  as 
55,000  separate  distinct  flashes  from  one 
cubic  foot  of  acetylene.  The  saving  of  gas 
effected  by  this  apparatus  depends  upon 
the  light  period  compared  with  the  total 
period;  i.e.,  the  light  plus  the  dark  period, 
which  is  generally  known  as  the  "luminous 
time."  For  instance,  with  a  luminous 
time  of  one- tenth,  i.e.,  .3  seconds  light 
plus  2.7  seconds  dark,  the  saving  of  gas 
will  amount  to  ninety  per  cent.  Thus 
this  light  consumes  only  ten  per  cent,  of 
what  a  steady  light  would  require. 

An  apparatus  known  as  the  sunvalve 
has  been  employed  on  range  and  beacon 
lights,  in  order  to  obtain  further  economy 
over  that  gained  by  the  flasher.  Its  con- 
struction is  based  on  the  well-known  law 
that  a  dark  surface  will  absorb  more  light 


404 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


than  a  bright  one,  transferring  the  lumi- 
nous energy  into  increased  molecular  action. 
The  sunvalve  is  therefore  composed  of  one 
copper  cylinder  coated  with  lampblack, 
and  three  rods  which  are  made  light-re- 
flecting by  being  gold-plated.  When  full 
daylight  appears,  the  black  cylinder  ab- 
sorbs light  and  expands,  thereby  closing  a 
valve  controlling  the  flow  of  gas  to  the 
installation.  This  valve  remains  closed 
until,  for  one  reason  or  another  (sunset, 
fog,  heavy  clouds,  etc.)  there  is  no  more 
light  to  be  absorbed,  when  the  black  cylin- 
der contracts,  and  the  valve,  acted  upon  by 
a  spring,  opens  again,  allowing  the  gas  to 
pass,  and  causing  the  light  to  flash. 

The  saving  effected  by  this  apparatus  is 
about  forty  per  cent,  of  the  gas  consump- 
tion of  the  burner,  and  the  saving  obtained 
by  employing  the  flasher  with  a  luminous 
time  of  one-tenth,  together  with  a  sun- 
valve,  is  about  ninety-four  per  cent.,  com- 
pared with  steady  light. 

The  gas  used  by  the  AGA  system  is 
stored  in  seamless  steel  tanks,  which  are 
completely  filled  with  the  AGA  porous 
mass,  entirely  eliminating  from  the  gas 
its  explosive  qualities.  An  accumulator 
thus  prepared  has  the  power  to  absorb  a 
quantity  of  acetylene  in  dissolved  form 
equal  to  100  times  its  own  volume  at  a 
pressure  of  ten  atmospheres.  This  large 
amount  of  gas  is  available  at  all  times. 

The  flasher,  as  well  as  the  sunvalve,  and 
the  AGA  porous  mass  were  the  inventions 
of  the  eminent  Swedish  scientist,  Gustaf 
Dalen,  for  which  he  was  awarded  the  Nobel 
Prize  for  Physics  in  1912. 

At  frequent  intervals  during  the  period  of 
the  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal, 
the  R.  E.  Dietz  Company,  of  New  York 
City,  furnished  the  commission  with  lan- 
terns. Those  used  most  extensively  on  the 
Isthmus  were  the  Dietz  iron  clad  pattern. 
The  main  points  of  superiority  in  Dietz 
lanterns  were  their  dependable  burning 
qualities  and  excellent  light.  The  special 
feature  of  the  iron  clad  lantern  which 
caused  it  to  be  selected  by  the  Canal  Com- 
mission was  the  heavy  iron  base,  which 


not  only  protects  the  oil  pot,  but  prevents 
the  lantern  from  being  easily  blown  over  by 
high  winds.  No  other  lantern  is  fitted  with 
this  attachment. 

Considering  that  the  cost  of  a  single  lan- 
tern is  small,  some  idea  of  the  number 
used  on  the  Isthmus  may  be  obtained  from 
the  statement  that  the  Dietz  Company 
furnished  more  than  $13,000  worth  of  its 
lanterns  to  the  commission. 

In  connection  with  lights  on  the  canal, 
the  Macbeth-Evans  Company,  of  New 
York  and  Pittsburgh,  supplied  large  quan- 
tities of  lantern  globes,  lenses,  and  railroad 
headlight  chimneys.  In  this  the  Macbeth 
Pearl  glass  was  specified.  This  firm  sup- 
plies lenses  to  the  light-house  service,  and 
the  United  States  Navy,  and  headlight 
chimneys  to  the  United  States  Army. 

SPECIAL  DEVICES  AT  THE  CANAL 

That  nothing  should  be  left  to  chance 
which  could  be  prevented  by  proper  pre- 
caution, the  commissioners,  early  in  1906, 
determined  to  have  installed  and  put  in 
operation  a  complete  automatic  electric 
fire  alarm  system  for  the  protection  of 
property  in  the  Canal  Zone.  The  auto- 
matic fire  alarm  and  telegraph  system 
manufactured  by  the  Gamewell  Fire  Alarm 
Telegraph  Company,  of  New  York  City, 
was  decided  upon,  and  a  contract  made  with 
that  company  to  install  a  complete  system 
at  Cristobal,  Ancon,  Empire,  Gorgona, 
and  Gatun,  the  contract  price  for  the  whole 
work  being  $20,264.35;  but  additions  and 
extensions  decided  on  later  added  $2,400 
to  the  cost. 

The  Cristobal  system  was  installed  in 
1906,  and  during  the  next  year  those  in 
Ancon,  Empire,  Gorgona,  and  Culebra 
were  placed  in  working  condition.  The 
Gatun  system  was  not  installed  until  1909. 
The  work  of  installation  was  done  by  the 
government  engineers,  under  instructions 
from  the  Gamewell  Company,  that  com- 
pany supplying  the  apparatus  and  all  ma- 
terial. The  completed  system  practically 
covers  the  entire  Canal  Zone,  with  a  large 
number  of  street  signal  stations,  and  a 


1.  Steel  bins  and  shelving  used  throughout  storehouses,  government  buildings.  Canal  Zone. 

2.  Aisle  between  two  assemblies  of  steel  bins  and  shelf  installation  at  Balboa  storehouses. 

(Furnished  by  Berger  Manufacturing  Co.,  Canton,  O.) 


FIRE   ALARM   AND  SIGNAL  SYSTEMS 


405 


number  of  auxiliary  substations  placed  in 
buildings  at  some  distance  from  the  street 
signaling  boxes.  By  these  auxiliary  sta- 
tions all  of  the  government  buildings  in  the 
Zone  are  in  direct  connection  with  the  whole 
fire  department  system,  thus  avoiding  de- 
lay and  loss  of  time  in  going  to  the  street 
signal  stations  when  fire  is  discovered  in  a 
building. 

The  contract  was  awarded  the  Gamewell 
Company  on  the  acknowledged  superiority 
of  its  system  in  other  important  govern- 
ment properties,  and  in  more  than  1,200 
municipalities  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 
Fire  alarm  stations,  being  placed  on  streets 
and  exposed  to  all  variations  of  tempera- 
ture, in  order  to  be  reliable  at  all  times 
must  be  constructed  and  adjusted  with 
such  exactness  as  to  resist  all  atmospheric 
changes.  The  apparatus  manufactured  by 
the  Gamewell  Company  was  especially 
adapted  to  meet  the  conditions  prevailing 
on  the  Isthmus. 

The  signaling  boxes  used  on  the  Zone  are 
of  the  positive-non-interfering-successive 
type,  which  represents  the  highest  develop- 
ment in  fire  alarm  telegraphy.  Boxes  of  this 
type  are  designed  to  prevent  any  confusion 
arising  from  alarms  being  sounded  from 
more  than  one  signal  station  at  about  the 
same  time.  They  are  so  constructed  that 
should  two  or  more  boxes  be  operated  at 
or  about  the  same  instant,  one  box  will  be 
automatically  selected  to  transmit  its  com- 
plete signal,  after  which  the  other  boxes 
that  were  operated  simultaneously  will 
each,  in  turn,  take  the  line,  one  after  the 
other,  and  transmit  its  complete  signal. 
By  the  use  of  these  boxes  the  fire  depart- 
ment is  never  misled  or  confused  by  a  min- 
gling of  signals. 

The  gongs  used  in  the  systems  on  the 
Zone  are  of  the  largest  size  and  are  com- 
bined with  visual  indicators,  thus  giving 
the  department  the  signal  by  both  eye  and 
ear.  So  complete  are  the  arrangements 
that  all  possibility  of  mistakes  in  signalling 
is  practically  eliminated.  Connected  with 
the  systems  are  automatic  registers.  Per- 
manent records  of  all  signals  received  at 


fire  department  houses  are  of  great  im- 
portance. The  registering  machines  used 
in  the  houses  on  the  Zone  register  the  lo- 
cation number  of  the  box  sending  the  signal, 
together  with  the  date  and  the  exact  time 
of  receiving  the  signal.  The  registers  are 
made  of  composition  bronze  and  steel. 

In  addition  to  the  non-interfering-succes- 
sive signal  boxes  and  the  visual  indicators, 
which  minimize  the  chances  for  mistakes 
in  transmitting  and  receiving  signals,  a 
repeating  device  is  used.  These  repeaters 
are  so  designed  that  all  circuits  are  oper- 
ative from  any  of  the  box  circuits,  and 
they  are  equipped  with  positive  non-inter- 
fering devices  which  prevent  any  inter- 
ference between  circuits.  The  repeaters 
are  so  arranged  that  should  a  break  occur 
in  any  circuit  the  instrument  after  trans- 
mitting the  signal  on  all  the  alarm  ap- 
paratus in  the  system,  will  automatically 
lock  out  the  disabled  circuit,  leaving  the 
rest  of  the  system  intact;  and  when  repairs 
are  made  in  the  disabled  circuit  the  repeater 
will  automatically  take  it  again  into  service. 

The  American  watchman's  time  detector, 
or  as  it  is  now  called,  the  Morse  magneto 
watchman's  clock,  supplied  an  important 
link  in  the  vigilant  watch  kept  on  the  Canal 
Zone  during  the  construction  period,  and 
now  has  a  permanent  place  in  the  adminis- 
trative equipment.  The  clock  apparatus 
is  designed  to  keep  a  record  of  the  various 
night  watchmen  assigned  to  the  buildings 
and  property  along  the  canal  and  was  fur- 
nished by  the  American  Watchman  Time 
Detector  Company  of  New  York. 

During  the  construction  period  the  clock 
itself  in  each  place  was  located  in  the  super- 
intendent's office,  and  wires  were  run  from 
this  clock  to  the  several  stations  where  it 
was  desired  that  the  watchman  should  go; 
and  as  he  operated  each  station  in  turn,  it 
registered  his  time  on  the  clock  in  the 
office,  so  that  a  permanent  record  was  made 
of  his  doings.  This  covered  the  records  of 
as  many  watchmen  as  were  employed  in 
that  zone  of  operation. 

The  station  instrument  is  simply  a 
magneto  generator,  similar  to  the  ringer 


406 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


which  was  formerly  in  common  use  on  the 
telephone  system.  The  watchman  merely 
turns  the  crank  in  the  box  at  the  station 
and  this  independently  operates  the  clock 
in  the  office,  without  the  use  of  battery 
or  other  electrical  current,  so  that  each 
station  is  entirely  independent  of  every 
other  station. 

While  the  original  installation  was  partly 
temporary,  there  is  a  constant  demand  for 
the  clocks  on  the  permanent  buildings,  and 
many  are  in  use.  The  device  conforms  to 
the  present  requirements  of  the  National 
Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  throughout  the 
United  States,  and  is  the  same  apparatus 
that  is  in  use  in  the  great  industrial  and  other 
establishments  in  this  country  and  Europe. 

The  fundamental  requirements  of  per- 
manence that  characterized  the  equipment 
throughout  the  Canal  Zone  is  strikingly 
apparent  in  the  steel  office  and  filing  devices 
used  in  the  offices  of  the  Canal  Commission. 
The  long  task  meant  a  vast  accumulation  of 
documents  of  all  kinds,  and  the  filing  sys- 
tem which  made  them  instantly  available 
for  reference  was  worked  out  with  the  usual 
thoroughness  of  the  canal  work. 

Much  of  this  equipment,  made  chiefly 
of  steel,  was  built  by  the  Art  Metal  Con- 
struction Company,  of  Jamestown,  N.  Y., 
the  largest  maker  of  steel  office  furniture  in 
the  United  States.  Among  the  devices 
installed  by  it  for  the  use  of  the  commis- 
sion were  160  four-drawer  vertical  letter 
file  cabinets,  with  a  capacity  for  more  than 
320,000  letters;  a  number  of  flat  and  roll 
top  steel  desks,  map  cases,  document  file 
cases,  and  a  large  number  of  built-to-order 
filing  cabinets.  It  also  supplied  steel  dining 
room  tables,  sideboards,  chiffoniers,  dressers, 
and  other  furniture,  such  as  are  supplied  by 
this  company  to  United  States  battleships. 

Before  contracts  were  ordered  for  this 
class  of  equipment,  a  careful  investigation 
was  made  into  the  merits  of  steel  furniture. 
The  conclusion  was  reached  that  no  other 
fixtures  were  so  impervious  to  moisture, 
dust,  microbes  and  vermin,  and  that  none 
were  so  readily  kept  clean.  Durability, 
convenience,  attractiveness  of  appearance, 


and  economy  of  space  were  also  factors  in 
the  selection  of  this  equipment. 

The  steel  filing  cases  were  found  to  pos- 
sess special  merits,  the  weather  having  no 
influence  upon  the  perfect  working  of  the 
drawers.  At  a  very  early  date  in  the  work 
on  the  canal  the  unsuitability  of  wooden 
office  furniture  became  apparent.  In  trop- 
ical climates  wooden  furniture  is  subject 
to  the  ravages  of  moths,  the  insects  eating 
away  the  wood  on  the  inside,  leaving  only 
an  outward  shell.  Wooden  furniture  was 
found  to  need  constant  replacing  because 
of  the  destructive  insects,  and  because  of  the 
tendency  of  the  weather  to  warp  the  wood. 
The  use  of  steel  equipment  was  found 
economical,  and  the  filing  cabinets  were 
especially  valuable  because  they  furnished 
protection  against  fire  for  the  important 
canal  records.  The  steel  filing  cabinets  were 
of  double-wall,  fire-resisting  construction. 

In  the  construction  of  its  steel  office  fur- 
niture, the  Art  Metal  Construction  Com- 
pany used  fine  plates  of  open  hearth  steel 
specially  rolled  for  their  product,  the 
plates  being  very  smooth,  without  scale, 
and  free  from  buckle.  The  workmanship 
throughout  was  of  the  highest  character, 
the  finishes  being  wear-proof  and  dust- 
proof,  with  several  coats  of  the  best  enamel. 

The  acme  of  efficiency  reached  in  the 
details  of  canal  construction  insured  the 
appearance  in  the  administration  offices  of 
automatic  time  stamps  to  keep  time  records 
of  all  kinds.  These  were  furnished  by  the 
Automatic  Time  Stamp  Company,  of  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  originators  of  the  "art  of 
printing  time."  This  useful  device,  so 
familiar  at  home  in  offices  where  efficiency  is 
the  watchword,  was  used  wherever  a  time 
record  was  indispensable,  and  as  many  time 
records  of  all  kinds  were  checked  up  at  the 
canal,  the  little  device  played  its  part  in 
the  canal  work. 

Where  so  many  large  steam  shovels, 
dredges,  dipper  buckets,  locomotives  and 
other  expensive  pieces  of  machinery  were 
engaged  in  such  arduous  work  and  running 
to  full  capacity  there  was  considerable 
breakage  of  important  machine  parts,  such 


CABLE  TERMINALS 


407 


as  locomotive  frames,  crank  shafts,  steam 
shovel  arms,  dredge  pump  casings,  etc. 
Here  the  Goldschmidt  Thermit  Company  of 
New  York  figured  in  an  important  capacity 
as  having  the  only  process  permitting  the 
welding  of  these  heavy  sections  without 
removing  them  from  their  position.  In 
the  case  of  locomotive  frames,  these  were 
welded  without  removing  the  frames  from 
the  engines  and  without  keeping  the  loco- 
motive out  of  service  longer  than  12  to  24 
hours.  In  one  instance,  a  two-throw  crank 
shaft  was  broken  through  the  crank  web 
and  about  half  way  around  the  crank  pin. 
This  was  welded  without  removing  it  from 
the  machine,  which  was  only  out  of  com- 
mission 15  hours. 

The  Thermit  used  for  this  work  is  a 
mixture  of  finely  divided  aluminum  and 
iron  oxide.  This  mixture  can  be  ignited 
by  means  of  a  special  ignition  powder  sup- 
plied by  the  Goldschmidt  Thermit  Com- 
pany, and  a  chemical  reaction  ensues. 
The  aluminum  burns,  and  in  so  doing, 
takes  away  the  oxygen  from  the  iron  oxide, 
becoming  aluminum  oxide,  while  the  iron 
is  set  free  and  is  precipitated  as  liquid  steel 
in  a  highly  superheated  condition.  The 
temperature  of  this  steel  is  approximately 
5,000  degrees  F.  and  the  time  of  the  reac- 
tion is  only  35  to  40  seconds.  In  practice 
the  welds  are  made  by  pouring  this  steel 
into  a  mold  surrounding  the  ends  of  the 
sections  to  be  welded  together,  and  which 
have  previously  been  brought  to  a  red 
heat  by  means  of  a  gasoline  compressed 
air  preheater.  The  superheated  liquid  steel 
melts  the  ends  of  the  sections  with  which 
it  comes  in  contact,  and  amalgamates  with 
them  to  form  a  single  homogeneous  mass 
when  cool.  The  process  permits  of  weld- 
ing the  heavy  sections  at  practically  any 
point  desired.  The  welding  was  executed 
entirely  by  the  mechanical  forces  at  the 
canal,  the  Goldschmidt  Thermit  Company 
supplying  the  necessary  materials  and 
appliances  and  furnishing  the  necessary 
instructions.  From  1906  to  the  end  of 
1914,  over  86,000  Ibs.  of  Thermit  were 
shipped  to  the  canal. 


The  Thermit  Process  still  continues  its 
good  work  and  is  being  used  for  repairing 
the  dredges  and  other  machinery  required 
for  operating  the  canal  and  keeping  it  in 
proper  condition. 

The  Standard  Underground  Cable  Com- 
pany, of  Pittsburgh,  supplied  for  the  elec- 
trification of  the  Panama  Canal  rubber 
insulated  lead-covered  cable,  varnished 
cloth  insulated  lead-covered  cable,  magnet 
wire,  fixture  wire,  weatherproof  wire,  and  ca- 
ble terminals  for  outdoor  and  indoor  service. 

All  the  terminals  used  in  the  canal  elec- 
trification were  made  by  the  Standard  Com- 
pany or  by  licensees  under  this  company's 
patents. 

A  cable  terminal  is  a  device  placed  over 
the  end  of  a  lead-covered  cable  to  protect 
the  insulation  from  moisture  or  from  elec- 
trostatic discharges  between  conductors, 
or  from  conductors  to  ground.  One  of 
the  distinctive  features  which  characterize 
Standard  open  air  cable  terminals  (known 
to  the  trade  as  D.  O.  A.  Terminals),  is  the 
method  of  joining  the  conducting  stem, 
which  acts  as  a  continuation  of  the  under- 
ground cable  conductor,  to  the  terminal 
insulator.  Since  this  stem  projects  through 
the  insulator,  the  joint  between  the  two  is  a 
vulnerable  point  for  the  entrance  of  mois- 
ture in  the  form  of  rain  or  fog.  The  joint 
is  made  by  means  of  a  hooded  flange  on 
the  stem  which  fits  over  the  top  of  the  insu- 
lator, the  joint  being  rendered  water-proof 
by  means  of  a  rubber  gasket  fitted  inside 
the  flange,  and  upon  which  the  stem  is 
tightly  screwed  down  when  the  terminal 
is  assembled.  This  moisture-proof  joint 
between  the  stem  and  cable  terminal  is  a 
distinctive  feature  of  all  D.  O.  A.  terminals. 
The  terminals  supplied  for  the  Canal  have 
special  features  to  adapt  them  for  certain 
conditions  on  the  Isthmus,  but  as  to 
their  protective  features  they  do  not 
differ  from  stock  terminals  supplied  to 
other  purchasers. 

In  connection  with  the  improvements 
on  the  Panama  Railroad  the  Morden 
Frog  and  Crossing  Works,  of  Chicago,  sent 
numerous  shipments  of  its  railway  ap- 


408 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


pliances.  This  included  split  switches, 
rigid  frogs,  switch  stands,  guard  rail  braces, 
derails,  compromise  angle  bars,  etc.  They 
were  manufactured  at  the  company's 
Chicago  Heights  factory,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  skilled  engineers  and  labor,  and 
with  the  highest  type  of  machinery,  and 
were  the  best  equipment  of  their  kind  at 
the  lowest  price.  The  company's  ship- 
ments continued  from  the  beginning  of 
the  improvements  on  the  Panama  Railroad 
until  the  completion  of  the  canal,  its  appli- 
ances being  used  in  the  many  tracks  which 
were  laid  in  connection  with  canal  con- 
struction. 

The  construction  of  the  dam  at  Gatun 
and  the  consequent  flooding  of  hitherto 
dry  territory  resulted  in  the  submergence 
of  the  original  right  of  way  of  the  Panama 
Railroad  for  a  considerable  part  of  its 
length  and  made  it  necessary  to  relocate 
the  line  at  a  higher  level.  The  new  line 
was  built  in  the  most  thorough  manner 
possible,  with  ties  of  the  best  quality  to 
withstand  the  severe  climatic  conditions, 
using  large  tie  plates,  screw  spikes,  etc. 
The  highest  refinement  was  considered 
economy  in  this  work. 

As  a  large  number  of  the  ties  used  were 
of  guiacum  or  lignum  vitae,  and  other  very 
hard  tropical  woods,  it  was  necessary  to 
prepare  the  ties  by  adzing  them  to  plane 
surfaces  where  the  tie  plates  would  rest, 
and  to  bore  them  for  the  spikes,  as  no 
spike  of  any  pattern  could  be  driven  directly 
into  these  dense  woods. 

An  ingenious  automatic  machine  for 
performing  these  adzing  and  boring  opera- 
tions simultaneously  was  supplied  by  Green- 
lee  Bros.&  Co., of  Chicago,  and  Rockford,  111. 

Greenlee  Bros.  &  Company  had  also  a 
number  of  interesting  machines  in  the  shops 
at  Gorgona  for  framing  the  heavy  timbers 
used  in  car  construction,  and  in  keeping 
in  repair  the  steam  shovels,  dredges,  etc., 
used  in  the  excavation  work.  Among 
these  were  a  large  automatic  timber  groin- 
ing machine  and  a  heavy  end  tenoner  for 
cutting  tenons  on  the  ends  of  timbers  up 
to  twenty  inches  square.  On  these  ma- 


chines the  work  is  done  from  six  to  ten 
times  as  fast  as  it  could  be  done  by  hand, 
and  much  more  accurately.  As  time  was 
the  important  factor  in  all  work  pertaining 
to  the  construction  of  the  canal,  these 
machines  repaid  their  cost  many  times 
following  their  installation  in  1908. 

Various  details  of  construction  plans,  as 
well  as  climatic  conditions,  called  for  the 
extensive  use  of  wood  screws  in  the  work  at 
the  canal.  The  wood  screws  manufactured 
by  the  American  Screw  Company,  of 
Providence,  R.  I.,  were  furnished  in  large 
quantities,  either  direct  from  the  point  of 
manufacture  or  by  outside  firms  handling 
their  goods. 

Samuel  M.  Nicholson,  who  is  president 
of  the  American  Screw  Company,  is  also 
president  and  general  manager  of  the 
Nicholson  File  Company,  of  Providence, 
which  filled  numerous  orders  and  contracts 
for  the  supply  of  files  to  the  Canal  Com- 
mission from  the  beginning  of  construction 
on  the  Isthmus. 

In  the  list  of  concerns  furnishing  the 
canal  authorities  with  special  efficiency 
devices  was  the  Belding  &  Franklin  Ma- 
chine Company,  of  New  York,  which  fur- 
nished for  the  commissary  department 
a  number  of  machines  for  peeling  vege- 
tables. These  machines  were  selected  for 
their  economy  and  speed,  and  were  found 
to  be  durable  and  efficient. 


No  single  work  ever  undertaken  by  man 
called  into  play  so  many  machines  of  differ- 
ent kinds,  and  for  different  purposes,  as 
the  building  of  the  Panama  Canal.  The 
natural  first  thought  of  the  layman  would 
be  to  ask  as  to  what  possible  part  of  the 
great  work  a  typesetting  or  typecasting 
machine  could  apply. 

The  commissioners  early  determined 
that  the  public  should  be  thoroughly  and 
correctly  informed  of  the  progress  of  the 
work.  They  believed,  as  the  canal  was  to 
be  the  property  of  the  people,  the  people 
should  be  given  an  opportunity  to  know 
just  how  the  work  was  being  done,  and 


1.  Welding  dredge  pump  casing  in  place,  by  Goldschmidt  Thermit  Process. 

2.  Stephens-Adamson  steel  pan  conveyors. 

3.  Crank  shaft  welded  by  Goldschmidt  Thermit  Process. 

4.  Sample  of  breaks  repaired  by  Goldschmidt  Thermit  Co.,  New  York. 


1.  Locomotive  crane  at  work  on  the  canal. 

(Supplied  by  the  Browning  Engineering  Company,  Cleveland,  Ohio.) 

2.  Ten-ton  refuse  destructor  at  Culebra,  Canal  Zone. 

(The  Morse-Boulger  Destructor  Co.,  New  York.) 


THE   MONOTYPE   MACHINE 


409 


know  it  from  official  sources,  so  a  record  of 
every  event  was  kept  and  made  public. 

In  this  rapid  age  the  old  method  of  set- 
ting type  by  hand  is  almost  a  tradition. 
It  was  too  slow  a  method  to  keep  abreast 
of  the  times,  and  new  inventions  were 
called  into  play,  among  them  being  ma- 
chines to  compose  type  and  cast  type. 
The  only  machine  of  this  kind  is  the  one 
known  as  the  Monotype.  It  is  a  modern 
creation,  and  has  rapidly  developed  from 
its  original  form  and  capacity  until  it  is  now 
in  fact  a  paragon  of  usefulness. 

Nine  years  ago  the  capacity  of  the  ma- 
chine was  limited  to  the  casting  and  com- 
posing of  type  in  four  sizes  only,  the  sizes 
most  in  use  in  newspaper  work.  The  range 
has  been  extended  until  today  it  casts  type 
of  thirty  sizes,  and  as  a  composing  machine 
its  range  has  increased  until  it  reaches  to 
what  is  known  in  printing  offices  as  eight- 
een-point.  At  the  same  time  the  measure 
or  width  of  the  line  has  been  extended 
from  seven  to  fourteen  inches. 

It  is  difficult  to  give  in  a  brief  space  a 
description  of  a  Monotype  which  the  lay- 
man can  readily  understand,  but  some 
points  can  be  made  clear  to  his  mind,  giving 
him  an  idea  of  the  great  advance  made  in 
printing  by  the  introduction  of  machines 
for  casting  type. 

The  Monotype  machine,  or  rather  the 
Monotype  system,  is  in  two  parts — the 
keyboard  and  the  caster.  This  separation 
of  the  keyboard,  or  operating  mechanism, 
and  the  caster,  or  casting  mechanism,  has 
resulted  in  a  very  high  degree  of  composing- 
room  efficiency,  because  the  operator  work- 
ing on  copy  is  undisturbed  and  has  no  more 
to  think  of  than  a  stenographer  operating 
a  typewriter;  and,  similarly,  the  casting 
machine,  which  is  wholly  automatic,  takes 
no  account  of  the  style  or  punctuation, 
and  doesn't  have  to  wait  for  copy.  On 
account  of  this  division  of  the  work  of  a 
composing  machine  the  Monotype  is  known 
among  printers  as  a  machine  of  continuous 
production,  because  one  part  of  the  Mono- 
type mechanism  is  always  busy. 

The  keyboard  mechanism  perforates  a 


ribbon  of  paper,  which,  in  turn,  controls  the 
movement  of  the  caster.  This  perforated 
ribbon  looks  very  much  like  the  music 
rolls  of  a  pianola.  The  perforations  are 
made  by  punches  controlled  by  the  finger 
keys,  arranged  in  identically  the  same  let- 
ter-arrangement as  that  of  the  standard 
typewriter.  There  are  two  hundred  and 
forty-seven  keys.  They  correspond  to  all 
the  characters  used  in  the  several  faces 
of  type  intended  to  perform  the  work  in 
hand,  with  thirty  additional  keys  which 
control  the  justifying  mechanism;  that  is, 
the  device  which  accurately  equalizes  the 
space  between  the  words,  so  that  all  the 
lines  within  one  measure  may  be  of  the 
same  length. 

When  the  paper  ribbon  is  fed  into  the 
casting  machine,  currents  of  compressed  air 
pass  through  the  perforations.  These  set 
the  mold  blade  to  the  right  size  for  the 
character  to  be  cast,  and  cause  the  matrix 
to  be  properly  positioned.  Metal  is 
pumped  from  a  metal  pot  below,  and  when 
cast  the  type  is  placed  in  its  proper  position 
in  the  line,  and  when  a  line  is  finished  it  is 
automatically  removed. 

A  great  national  undertaking,  such  as 
the  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal, 
necessarily  requires  an  amount  of  printing 
that  could  not  be  readily  handled  without 
a  composing  machine  and  a  typecaster.  The 
Monotype  was  selected  by  the  commission 
because  it  was  believed  to  be  the  best  adapt- 
ed to  meet  the  exacting  requirements  of  the 
work  it  would  be  called  upon  to  perform. 

The  capacity  of  this  machine  may  be 
best  understood  by  the  statement  that  the 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  the  largest  job 
of  type  composition  ever  placed  in  the 
United  States,  consisting  of  some  thirty 
thousand  pages,  was  cast  and  composed 
by  the  Monotype,  as  was  the  Standard 
dictionary,  a  work  requiring  a  great  variety 
of  special  characters. 

In  connection  with  the  office  work  of  the 
administrative  staff  at  Panama,  the  T.  S. 
Buck  Manufacturing  Company,  of  New 
York,  entered  into  contracts  for  supplying 
changeable  rubber  type  outfits  and  holders. 


4io 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


These  outfits  are  made  from  printers'  metal 
type,  which  is  pressed  into  a  matrix  or 
mold,  consisting  of  plaster,  talc,  dextrine, 
and  other  compositions.  The  mold  is 
dried  on  a  steam  table,  and  when  it  is 
dry  a  sheet  of  raw  rubber  is  forced  into  it 
with  a  vulcanizer  and  held  until  cured; 
then  the  letters  are  cut  apart  and  boxed. 
With  the  outfit  is  included  a  patent  flexible 
cushion,  so  that  a  perfect  impression  can 
be  made  on  any  surface,  rough,  uneven, 
concave,  or  convex,  as  well  as  flat. 

In  every  great  undertaking  two  factors 
and  two  problems  are  present — the  physical 
and  the  clerical.  The  modern  business 
world  is  an  illustration  of  this  fact.  Its 
physical  activities,  in  all  their  magnitude, 
presuppose  clerical  activities  of  corres- 
ponding magnitude.  Everything  that  is 
done  must  be  conditioned  by  the  means 
at  hand  to  record  what  is  done. 

The  modern  world  owes  a  real  debt  to 
the  writing  machine;  a  debt  which  it 
owes  in  particular  to  the  Remington,  the 
pioneer  of  the  industry.  The  typewriter 
facilitates  labor,  by  enabling  one  person 
to  accomplish  more  in  the  same  number 
of  hours  than  under  the  system  prevailing 
before  typewriters  were  invented.  The 
tremendous  volume  of  modern  business 
could  not  be  carried  on  without  the  aid  of 
this  invention.  This  is  the  age  of  vast 
enterprises,  and  its  business  activities  can 
be  carried  on  only  through  the  means  of 
clerical  labor  of  great  magnitude.  It  is 
the  writing  machine  that  makes  this  clerical 
labor  possible. 

The  building  of  the  Panama  Canal  was 
the  greatest  of  modern  undertakings,  in- 
volving not  alone  problems  of  physical 
labor,  but  problems  of  clerical  work.  It 
being  an  undertaking  by  the  government 
and  not  by  private  enterprise,  the  clerical 
work  was  greatly  increased  from  the 
necessity  of  making  many  and  extended 
reports  to  the  government  departments 
and  to  Congress,  which  would  not  be  re- 
quired from  a  private  enterprise.  It  takes 
but  a  moment  of  thought  to  convince  one 
that  without  the  aid  of  the  typewriter  the 


immense  amount  of  clerical  work  required 
in  the  building  of  the  canal  could  not  have 
been  performed  satisfactorily,  if  at  all. 
In  other  enterprises  of  great  magnitude, 
such  as  the  construction  of  the  Suez  Canal, 
or  the  building  of  St.  Peter's,  at  Rome,  the 
work  was  extended  over  a  long  series  of 
years,  that  of  St.  Peter's  passing  the 
century  mark.  Such  enterprises,  spread 
over  such  a  length  of  time,  required  com- 
paratively little  clerical  labor,  but  the 
building  of  the  Panama  Canal  was  crowded 
into  a  few  years.  Hence  the  speed  with 
which  the  work  was  done  added  im- 
mensely to  the  clerical  labor  required. 
Thus  the  Remington  typewriter  is  to  be 
classed  among  those  inventions  of  modern 
times  which  enabled  the  government  to  con- 
struct this  great  waterway  in  record  time. 

Remington  typewriters  were  used  in  con- 
nection with  the  work  of  building  the  Pan- 
ama Canal  from  the  very  beginning,  when 
the  government  took  hold  of  the  enterprise. 
They  were  used  in  Washington  in  the  pre- 
liminary clerical  work  of  correspondence 
in  connection  with  the  original  purchase, 
and  since  then  with  the  clerical  work  in 
all  its  branches,  and  at  all  principal  points 
in  the  Canal  Zone,  and  in  nearly  every 
department  of  the  work,  as  well  as  in  the 
offices  of  the  firms  and  manufacturing 
companies  engaged  in  supplying  machinery 
and  materials  for  the  construction  work; 

Conditions  of  work  in  the  Canal  Zone 
were  very  trying  on  all  mechanical  de- 
vices, not  only  because  of  the  exacting 
work  demanded,  but  because  of  the  climate. 
That  the  Remington  typewriter  success- 
fully met  all  these  conditions  is  established 
by  the  fact  that  several  machines  sent  to  the 
Zone  when  the  government  began  the  work 
are  still  there,  and  still  rendering  the  same 
efficient  service  as  when  first  purchased. 

The  immensity  of  the  correspondence 
and  copying  of  papers  and  specifications 
for  contracts  made  necessary  in  carrying 
on  the  work  of  building  the  canal  is  evi- 
denced by  the  fact  that  the  Underwood 
Typewriter  Company  sold  to  the  commis- 
sion 650  of  its  mechanical  writing  machines, 


OFFICE   EQUIPMENT 


411 


for  use  on  the  Canal  Zone,  in  addition  to 
the  very  large  number  in  the  offices  in 
Washington.  All  the  machines  sent  to 
the  Canal  Zone  were  of  bronze,  as  such 
machines  were  much  better  adapted  to  the 
climatic  conditions  prevailing  on  the  Isth- 
mus, being  entirely  rust  proof. 

The  machines  were  used  for  correspond- 
ence, for  the  preparation  of  data,  contracts, 
etc.,  and  for  filling  in  blank  forms  of  all 
widths  and  descriptions.  That  there  might 
be  no  delays,  no  mistakes,  no  duplications  of 
any  part  of  the  huge  undertaking,  daily 
reports  were  made  from  all,  even  the  most 
insignificant  branches  of  the  work,  and 
these  reports  were  required  to  be  copied 
for  the  information,  not  alone  of  those 
directly  in  charge  of  the  whole  undertaking 
but  those  in  charge  of  each  part  of  it. 
All  this  work  of  making  the  original  reports 
and  the  copies  was  done  by  the  use  of 
mechanical  writing  machines.  It  could 
not  have  been  done  otherwise. 

Every  piece  of  mechanism  used  on  the 
zone  or  in  the  construction  of  the  canal 
had  to  be  made  with  a  view  to  meeting 
the  climatic  conditions.  This  fact  added 
very  largely  to  the  labors  of  those  having 
direction  of  the  work,  in  seeing  that  all 
equipment  met  such  requirements.  The 
ordinary  mechanical  writing  machines,  or 
those  made  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the 
temperate  zone,  or  for  use  in  a  dry  climate, 
would  have  soon  failed  on  the  Isthmus; 
hence  the  wisdom  in  purchasing  those  made 
of  bronze.  The  Underwood,  being  con- 
structed for  work  of  varying  widths,  for 
preparing  tables,  filling  in  specifications,  etc., 
met  all  requirements  of  the  commission. 

For  handling  accounting  and  other 
records  in  connection  with  the  system  of 
keeping  track  of  the  canal  work,  a  number 
of  standard  writing-adding  machines  man- 
ufactured by  the  Elliott-Fisher  Company, 
of  Harrisburg,  Pa.,  were  furnished  to  the 
Canal  Commission.  The  wide  scope  of 
work  that  could  be  advantageously  handled 
on  these  machines,  and  their  superior 
durability  led  to  their  selection.  The 
machine  is  manufactured  from  parts  pro- 


duced from  the  finest  grade  of  machinery 
and  tools  in  the  Elliott-Fisher  factory,  and 
the  fact  that  the  writing  machine  with  the 
adding  machine  combined  can  be  placed 
over  any  number  of  columns,  permitted 
its  use  in  many  ways  that  made  for  econ- 
omy and  accuracy  in  keeping  the  canal 
accounts  and  records. 

Enormous  quantities  of  stationery  of 
various  descriptions  were  consumed  at 
Panama.  The  bulk  of  this  was  furnished 
by  the  Tower  Manufacturing  and  Novelty 
Company,  of  New  York,  and  during  the 
period  of  construction  hardly  a  steamer  left 
New  York  for  Panama  without  carrying 
a  consignment  of  stationery  and  miscel- 
laneous office  supplies  from  the  company 
to  the  canal  authorities.  The  company 
carried  such  a  large  and  complete  stock  on 
hand  that  it  was  able  at  any  time  to  meet 
the  wants  of  the  commission,  and  this  was 
a  factor  in  the  continuous  business  awarded 
to  the  company. 

A  great  American  concern  which  figured 
indirectly  in  the  canal  work  was  the  Interla- 
ken  Mills,  of  Providence,  R.  I.,  the  largest 
manufacturer  of  book  cloths  in  the  United 
States.  For  many  years  this  company  has 
supplied  nearly  all  the  cloth  for  the  gov- 
ernment printing  office  at  Washington, 
where,  in  addition  to  other  publications,  it 
was  used  in  binding  the  Canal  Record,  the 
official  publication  of  the  Isthmian  Canal 
Commission. 

CABLE  AND  TELEGRAPH  FACILITIES 

The  officials  at  Panama  Canal  were  kept 
in  instant  communication  with  the  Wash- 
ington government,  and  other  points  in 
the  United  States,  through  the  extensively 
equipped  cable  and  overland  telegraph 
system  of  the  Central  and  South  American 
Telegraph  Company.  The  lines  of  com- 
munication to  Mexico  and  Central  and 
South  America  available  through  this  sys- 
tem are  graphically  shown  in  the  ac- 
companying plate. 

J.  H.  Bunnell  &  Co.  Inc.,  manufac- 
turers, importers,  and  dealers  in  telegraph, 
telephone,  railway,  and  electric  lighting 


412 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


supplies,  with  headquarters  in  New  York, 
one  of  the  oldest  and  best  known  electric 
houses  in  the  world,  had  the  distinction  of 
furnishing  the  instruments  and  equipment 
in  its  line  that  were  used  to  facilitate  the 
construction  work  of  the  Panama  Canal. 
This  company  has  a  reputation  for  manu- 
facturing high  grade  apparatus,  and  its 
product  met  the  high  standards  of  efficiency 
called  for  on  the  Canal  Zone. 

BUILDING  MATERIAL  AND  EQUIPMENT 

In  1904  and  1905,  in  the  early  rush  of 
the  canal  work,  many  portable  houses  were 
set  up  by  the  Canal  Commission  along 
the  zone  of  construction.  These  buildings 
were  supplied  by  the  Ducker  Company, 
of  New  York,  the  pioneer  in  this  line  of 
manufacture  in  the  United  States.  The 
Ducker  sectional  portable  house  has  been 
manufactured  by  the  company  for  the  past 
thirty  years,  and  this  long  experience,  com- 
bined with  excellent  manufacturing  facili- 
ties, has  brought  about  the  production 
of  a  system  of  sectional  portable  con- 
struction that  is  acknowledged  by  the  en- 
gineers and  experts  to  have  reached  per- 
fection. 

Although  these  houses  are  erected  with- 
out the  use  of  nail  or  screw,  they  have  all 
the  attributes  of  the  best  permanent  con- 
struction, while  at  the  same  time  they  are 
adapted  to  speedy  demolition  and  quick 
reerection.  There  is  nothing  unusual  in 
the  appearance  of  these  buildings,  and  in 
fact  they  are  architecturally  correct.  They 
are  turned  out  by  machines,  assuring  me- 
chanical accuracy  of  parts,  perfect  fit,  and 
ready  interchangeability.  These  sections 
are  made  at  the  Ducker  factory  in  sections 
two  feet  and  nine  inches  wide  and  any  de- 
sired height,  including  windows  and  doors. 
The  construction  is  patented,  and  was 
adopted  by  the  United  States  government 
as  a  standard  of  excellence  after  a  rigid 
inspection  by  the  government  engineers. 
The  buildings  erected  at  the  canal  were  for 
offices  and  wireless  telegraph  houses.  They 
are  in  general  use  for  all  kinds  of  govern- 
ment buildings,  schools,  churches,  bunga- 


lows, railway  stations,  cottages,  garages, 
and  emergency  buildings  of  various  kinds. 

In  the  evolution  of  the  building  methods 
at  the  Isthmus,  following  the  beginning  of 
the  canal,  from  the  primitive  structures  of 
Spanish-Indian  character  down  to  the 
latest  types  of  finished  and  sanitary  con- 
struction, such  as  are  now  to  be  found 
throughout  the  entire  zone,  the  National 
Fire  Proofing  Company,  of  Pittsburgh, 
played  no  inconsiderable  part. 

The  main  product  of  this  company  used 
in  building  construction  at  Panama  was 
its  "  Natco"  hollow  tile,  an  article  that  had 
commended  itself  throughout  the  build- 
ing world.  At  the  time  the  National  Fire 
Proofing  Company  was  called  upon  by  the 
Isthmian  Canal  Commission  to  furnish 
supplies  no  information  was  given  regard- 
ing the  buildings  in  which  the  tile  was  to 
be  used.  It  was  subsequently  ascertained, 
however,  that  such  mention  was  not  neces- 
sary, as  the  tile  was  used  in  the  construc- 
tion of  practically  all  prominent  buildings 
erected  in  the  Canal  Zone.  Foremost 
among  these  are  the  government  cold 
storage  plant,  the  administration  building, 
the  Washington  hotel,  and  the  new  sta- 
tion for  the  Panama  Railroad  at  Panama 
City,  all  of  which  are  fireproof  throughout. 

The  government  cold  storage  plant, 
located  in  Colon,  is  one  of  the  largest  and 
most  completely  equipped  plants  in  the 
world.  The  capacity  of  the  plant  is  such 
that  from  it  50,000  people  can  be  sup- 
plied daily  with  fresh  foodstuffs.  The  ex- 
traordinary climatic  conditions  under  which 
this  plant  is  maintained,  with  the  excessive 
tropical  temperature  and  humidity  the 
year  round,  necessitated  its  construction 
throughout  with  an  absolute  non-conductor 
of  heat.  Such  a  non-conductor  was  found 
in  "Natco"  tile,  serving  at  the  same  time 
as  fireproof  protection  for  the  vast  amount 
of  perishable  products. 

The  administration  building  at  Ancon 
is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  architectural 
structures  on  the  Isthmus,  and  was  de- 
signed as  a  permanent  and  practically 
indestructible  home  for  the  executive  and 


H 


>  c 

a 


\ 


CABLE   CONNECTIONS 


413 


Central  &  South  American 
Telegraph  Co. 

Submarine  Cables 

In  Gulf  of  Mexico 328  Nautical  Miles 

In  Atlantic  Ocean  fin  joint 
ownership.o£  New  York- 
Colon  Cable  with  Mexi- 
co can  Telegraph  Co.) 1,521         "          " 

In  Pacific  Ocean 9.112        "         " 

o  10,991  Nautical  Miles 

Landlines 

Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  ....      191  Statute  Miles 

"       "Panama  (Cable).       50  «•  " 

Guayaquil Undline 93  "  " 

Trantandine  Landline 1,356  "  " 

"               ••     (Moun- 
tain Cables) 40  "  " 

1.730  Statute  Miles 

Mexican  Telegraph  Co. 

Submarine  Cables 

In  Gulf  of  Mexico 2,133  Nautical  Miles 

In  Atlantic  Ocean  (in  joint 

v  ownership  of  New  York- 
Colon  Cable,  with  Cen- 
tral and  South  American 
Telegraph  Co.) t52  " 

2.885  Nautical  Miles 

Landlines 
Vera  Cruz-City  of  Mexico 266  Statute  Miles 


Joint  Cable  Repair  Fleet 

Steamer  "Guardian" 1,800  Tons 

••       "Relay" 1.200     •• 

"        "Mexican" 402     M 


Cable  Connections  with  the  Isthmus. 


414 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


administrative  affairs  of  the  canal  and  the 
United  States  government. 

The  new  Washington  hotel's  a  three- 
story  structure,  the  only  wood  being  that 
used  in  door  and  window  frames  and  the 
ball-room  floor.  All  other  floors  are  of 
Natco  hollow  tile,  furnished  by  the  Na- 
tional Fire  Proofing  Company,  while  the 
walls  are  of  steel  and  reinforced  concrete 
frame  work,  with  hollow  tile  curtain  walls. 
In  the  $85,000  station  at  Panama,  hollow 
tile  was  utilized  to  the  fullest  extent,  find- 
ing a  place  not  only  in  wall  construction 
but  in  the  circular  pillars  and  arches  of  a 
building  of  classic  design. 

With  characteristic  official  policy,  the 
representatives  of  the  government  refused 
to  commit  themselves  on  the  subject  of 
materials  to  be  used  in  all  the  permanent 
buildings  without  making  experiments  with 
cement  blocks,  as  in  the  fire  department 
headquarters  at  Cristobal,  and  with  rein- 
forced concrete,  each  of  which  defeats  the 
devouring  ant,  and  offers  resistance  to  the 
sun  and  fire,  whatever  may  be  said  against 
their  value  in  a  climate  of  excessive  damp- 
ness. But  with  all  the  materials  of  the 
United  States  to  draw  from,  and  with  no 
restrictions  beyond  those  imposed  by  con- 
ditions at  the  Isthmus,  the  government  se- 
lected for  its  first  permanent  buildings, 
inside  and  out,  terra  cotta  hollow  tile. 
"Will  hollow  tile  make  good  in  the  tropics?" 
was  asked  of  the  man  on  the  ground  repre- 
senting the  Central  American  Construc- 
tion Company.  "It's  the  ideal  building 
material  for  this  country,"  was  his  answer. 
"It's  cooler  than  any  other.  It  is  imper- 
vious to  moisture,  which  counts  in  a  land 
where  it  rains  nine  months  out  of  the 
year.  The  ants  can't  harm  it,  and  it  is 
proof  against  fire." 

What  is  true  of  its  use  in  the  tropics  is 
applicable,  of  course,  to  the  conditions 
experienced  in  the  temperate  zone.  The 
hollow  tile  block  of  the  National  Fire 
Proofing  Company  is  the  outcome  of  many 
years  of  experimenting.  Its  dead  air  space 
makes  it  warmer  in  winter  and  cooler  in 
summer  in  houses  or  other  buildings  where 


it  forms  part  of  the  construction  work. 
Other  advantages  are  its  minimum  weight, 
its  sound  proof  qualities,  its  impervious- 
ness  to  moisture,  the  possibilities  of  rapid 
construction  where  it  is  used,  and  the 
fact  that  it  may  be  laid  at  any  time  of 
year,  without  reference  to  weather,  tem- 
perature, rain,  or  snow. 

Thousands  of  buildings  in  the  United 
States  have  used  hollow  tile,  including  trust 
and  bank  buildings,  apartment  houses,  art 
galleries,  sky  scrapers,  bungalows,  and 
costly  private  residences,  as  well  as  silos 
in  the  agricultural  districts.  It  is  also 
adapted  for  use  in  the  construction  of  less 
pretentious  residences,  as  it  gives  to  them 
all  the  stability  and  strength  that  is  to  be 
found  in  the  structural  work  of  the  sky- 
scraper order  of  architecture. 

The  National  Fire  Proofing  Company 
was  organized  in  1889.  It  is  engaged 
in  the  manufacture  and  installation  of 
fire-proofing  material  of  every  description, 
hollow  building  blocks,  conduits,  sewer 
pipes,  drain  tile,  and  other  forms  of  clay 
products.  The  raw  material  used  is  clay, 
which  is  mined  from  properties  owned  by 
the  company  in  proximity  to  the  markets, 
thus  providing  for  the  transportation  of  the 
finished  ware  with  economy. 

The  factories  of  the  company,  twenty- 
six  in  all,  have  a  total  annual  capacity  of 
about  1,000,000  tons  of  finished  product. 
The  company  has  engineering,  construct- 
ing, and  draughting  organizations  in  con- 
nection with  its  offices  in  Pittsburgh,  New 
York,  and  Chicago,  and  maintains  a  com- 
pletely equipped  testing  laboratory  in 
Chicago.  It  has  offices  in  several  of  the 
more  important  cities  of  the  United  States, 
from  New  England  to  the  Pacific  Coast. 

With  the  introduction  of  modern  build- 
ing construction  at  the  Isthmus,  consequent 
upon  the  beginning  of  work  at  the  canal  and 
the  housing  of  government  employees,  calls 
were  made  on  manufacturers  of  all  sorts  of 
building  material  combining  elements  of 
ornament  and  attractiveness,  as  well  as 
durability  and  protection.  In  this  con- 
nection there  was  brought  into  the  canal 


TYPES  OF  AMERICAN    BUSINESS   MEN  WHO   CO-OPERATED   ALONG  VARIOUS  LINES 
IN   AMERICA'S   GREAT  WORK  AT   PANAMA 

i.  George  E.  Earnshaw,  Pres.,  Earn  Line  S.  S.  Co.,  Phila.,  Pa.  4.  John  Kolb,  Pres.,  Theobald  &  Oppenheimer  Co.,  Phila.,  Pa. 

2   S  W  Whitmore,  Whitmore  Mfg.  Co.,  Cleveland,  O.  S.  Gustav  Dalen,  American  Gasaccumulator  Co.,  Phila.,  Pa. 

3.  L.  E.  Johnson,  Pres.,  Norfolk  &  Western  Ry.  6.  Thos.  E.  Coale,  Pres.,  T.  E.  Coale  Lumber  Co.,  Phila.,  Pa. 

7.  F.  C.  Austin,  Pres.,  Municipal  Engineering  and  Contracting  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 


BUILDING  MATERIALS 


415 


work  the  firm  of  David  Lupton's  Sons 
Company,  of  Philadelphia,  which,  in  1911, 
furnished  to  the  Canal  Commission  no 
Lupton  hollow  metal  windows  for  the  gov- 
ernment buildings  at  Colon. 

These  windows  were  glazed  with  wire 
glass,  and  were  used  to  protect  from  fire 
the  buildings  in  which  they  were  installed. 
The  material  used  was  keystone  metal,  a 
copper-bearing  open  hearth  steel,  which 
offers  a  particularly  successful  resistance 
to  corrosion  and  to  the  action  of  all  gases 
and  fumes. 

The  Lupton  Company,  which  was  one  of 
the  earliest  manufacturers  of  this  type  of 
fireproof  windows,  has  had  over  forty 
years'  experience  in  roof  lighting  and  metal 
windows.  Among  its  specialties  in  con- 
struction are  roof  formations  to  aid  in  the 
quick  removal  of  gases  and  fumes,  as  in 
foundries  and  laboratories;  arrangement 
of  roof  levels  in  power  houses  for  the  con- 
duct of  heat;  special  adaptation  of  material 
and  construction  to  the  needs  of  forge 
shops,  machine  shops,  and  weave  sheds, 
and  the  arrangement  of  sash  panels  and 
lighting  and  ventilating  areas  in  multiple- 
story  buildings.  The  Lupton  Company 
furnishes  and  installs  the  latest  develop- 
ments in  steel  sash,  steel  partitions  and 
doors,  rolled  steel  sky-lights,  hollow  metal 
windows,  louvers  and  operating  devices  for 
the  effective  control  of  all  types  of  win- 
dows. 

The  main  office  and  works  of  the  David 
Lupton's  Sons  Company  are  at  Allegheny 
Avenue  and  Tulip  Street,  Philadelphia, 
Pa.  The  works  are  given  over  exclusively 
to  the  special  construction  of  material  for 
light  and  ventilation  in  fireproof  buildings. 
The  company  also  has  offices  in  New 
York,  Pittsburgh,  and  Chicago.  Its  lead- 
ing officers  are:  Edward  Lupton,  president; 
David  D.  Lupton,  treasurer;  and  E.  T. 
Wilkinson,  secretary. 

The  prominent  part  played  by  the 
Thomas  E.  Coale  Lumber  Company  in 
construction  work  at  the  canal  is  shown  by 
its  record  of  lumber  shipments,  which 
in  two  years  reached  nearly  4,000,000  feet 


of  lumber  and  piling,  with  nearly  half  a 
million  feet  of  orders  for  lumber  to  be  filled. 

It  was  not  until  the  latter  part  of  1911 
that  the  company  entered  into  business  re- 
lations with  the  Canal  Commission.  At 
that  time  its  New  Orleans  agent  took  the 
first  order  for  a  quick  shipment  from  that 
port.  This  was  followed  by  large  bids 
for  piling  and  lumber,  resulting  in  many 
awards,  all  of  which  were  filled  promptly 
and  some  under  unusual  conditions  calling 
for  the  highest  order  of  business  enter- 
prise. One  instance  of  this  character  was 
of  especial  interest.  At  the  height  of  the 
task  of  filling  its  contracts,  the  failure  of 
one  of  its  sub-contractors  left  the  com- 
pany without  the  supply  of  piling  neces- 
sary to  fill  its  order.  Realizing  its  re- 
sponsibility to  the  government,  the  com- 
pany at  once  chartered  a  steamer  at 
Gulfport,  at  a  freight  rate  of  $250  a  day, 
before  it  had  secured  a  single  foot  of  lum- 
ber to  go  on  the  boat.  It  then  took  up  the 
business  which  its  sub-contractor  had  failed 
to  handle  successfully,  and  within  ten  days 
the  boat  was  loaded  and  on  its  way  to  the 
Isthmus. 

Thus  began  the  relations  of  the  Thomas 
E.  Coale  Lumber  Company  with  the  canal. 
It  first  utilized  the  steamers  of  the  United 
Fruit  Company  in  transporting  its  ma- 
terials. Later  the  company  chartered  the 
Haakon  VII  and  the  Thelma  through  its 
Jacksonville  agent,  and  after  August,  1912, 
kept  those  vessels  in  constant  commission 
carrying  lumber  and  piling  from  the  At- 
lantic coast  to  Colon. 

In  the  construction  work  large  quantities 
of  heavy  timbers  were  used,  practically  all 
shipped  to  the  Canal  Zone  from  the  United 
States.  The  heavy  timbers  were  mainly 
used  as  dipper  handles  and  spuds  for 
dredges,  and  were  chiefly  of  Douglas  spruce 
shipped  from  Seattle  and  Tacoma,  Wash. 
Four  of  these  timbers  were  twenty-four  by 
twenty-four  inches  and  sixty-five  feet  long. 
Four  other  pieces  of  the  same  length  were 
twenty-eight  inches  in  diameter,  dressed 
round.  Firm  white  oak  and  yellow  pine 
were  used  in  the  construction  of  the  spill- 


416 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


ways,  repairs  of  cars,  and  for  car  stakes. 
The  oak  and  pine  were  shipped  from  Balti- 
more. George  R.  Johnson,  of  Baltimore, 
was  the  contracting  party  for  furnishing 
much  of  the  lumber  and  heavy  timber  used. 

J.  K.  Joice,  of  Chicago,  had  the  dis- 
tinction of  receiving  the  Canal  Com- 
mission's first  order  for  lumber,  and  he 
continued  with  additional  shipments  from 
time  to  time,  his  total  consignments  run- 
ning in  value  to  about  $750,000.  The 
lumber  supplied  was  used  throughout  the 
Canal  Zone  in  various  ways,  much  of  it  go- 
ing into  buildings,  and  the  remainder  being 
used  in  the  construction  of  the  canal  works. 

The  D.  L.  Gillespie  Company,  of  Pitts- 
burgh, a  large  firm  widely  known  through- 
out the  country,  was  prominent  in  the  canal 
work  through  shipments  of  lumber  and 
building  material  in  great  quantities. 

Early  in  the  history  of  canal  operations 
the  Gold  Metal  Camp  Furniture  Manu- 
facturing Company,  of  Racine,  Wis.,  re- 
ceived orders  from  the  Isthmian  officials 
for  supplies  of  its  Gold  Medal  camp  cots 
for  the  use  of  the  employees  at  the  canal. 
In  all  between  30,000  and  40,000  cots 
manufactured  by  this  company  were  or- 
dered. Of  this  number  nearly  15,000 
were  contracted  for  by  direct  order,  and 
thousands  more  were  supplied  through 
dealers  at  Panama.  The  orders  filled 
from  the  Racine  headquarters  aggregated 
$38,000  in  total  cost. 

The  Gold  Medal  Camp  Furniture  Man- 
ufacturing Company  received  its  orders 
as  the  result  of  competitive  bidding.  Its 
bids  were  not  only  the  lowest  for  the 
quality  of  cots  called  for,  but  the  cots 
were  recognized  as  best  adapted  to  use  in 
tropical  climates,  being  constructed  of 
wood,  steel  and  canvas,  in  accordance  with 
the  United  States  army  specifications. 
The  company's  highly  developed  manufac- 
turing plant  also  gave  it  exceptional  facil- 
ities for  the  immediate  filling  of  large  orders. 
The  cots  were  mainly  used  as  beds  for 
laborers,  and  in  the  hospital  wards.  In 
addition  to  the  direct  shipments  and 
those  supplied  through  local  dealers,  it  is 


understood  that  the  War  Department 
furnished  many  more  cots  from  its  stock 
of  these  goods,  of  which  it  usually  has  a 
large  quantity  on  hand. 

The  high  estimate  in  which  these  cots 
are  held  is  attested  to  by  their  general  use 
in  the  government  departments.  Immedi- 
ately after  the  close  of  the  Spanish-Ameri- 
can war  the  War  Department  advertised 
for  67,000  cots,  and  after  thoroughly  testing 
the  different  kinds  offered,  of  which  there 
were  more  than  twenty  samples  submitted, 
the  product  of  this  company  was  selected 
as  the  best  suited  for  war  purposes,  and 
especially  for  service  in  the  insular  pos- 
sessions of  the  United  States,  as  well  as 
for  the  soldiers  then  still  stationed  in  Cuba. 
The  Medical  Department  of  the  United 
States  army  and  also  of  the  navy  have 
adopted  this  cot  as  their  standard. 

Some  of  the  stools,  chairs,  and  portable 
bath  tubs  of  this  company  have  likewise 
been  adapted  as  standards  in  the  army 
and  navy,  to  which  large  quantities  have 
been  furnished  from  time  to  time.  An- 
other product  of  the  Racine  concern  which 
has  been  purchased  in  large  numbers  by 
both  the  army  and  navy  is  the  United  States 
army  standard  litter.  These  are  also 
manufactured  for  various  railroads  and 
other  corporations  throughout  the  United 
States.  The  company's  products  are  found 
in  every  civilized  country. 

For  a  number  of  the  permanent  govern- 
ment shop  and  other  buildings  on  the  Canal 
Zone,  as  well  as  for  several  of  the  tempor- 
ary buildings,  rolling  shutter  doors,  manu- 
factured by  the  Jas.  G.  Wilson  Company 
of  New  York  were  furnished  from  the  com- 
pany's factories  at  Norfolk,  Va. 

These  doors  were  of  the  interlocking  slat 
type,  made  of  No.  20  gauge  steel,  galvan- 
ized and  operated  by  electric  motors.  They 
were  equipped  with  the  Wilson  Company's 
patent  anchor  device  to  prevent  their  being 
blown  out  of  the  grooves  in  high  winds. 

Thirty-nine  of  the  Wilson  shutters  were 
installed  in  the  permanent  shop  buildings 
at  Balboa,  and  at  Panama  thirty-nine 
doors  were  furnished  for  the  Panama  Rail- 


THE  OLDEST  HOUSE  IN  AMERICA 


417 


road  freight  house.  In  addition,  the  Wilson 
doors  were  used  in  the  temporary  forge, 
boiler,  and  erecting  shops  at  Balboa  during 
the  canal  construction  period. 

John  Lucas  &  Company,  of  Philadelphia, 
with  factories  at  Gibbsboro,  N.  J.,  and 
Chicago,  and  branch  offices  in  all  the  large 
cities  of  the  United  States,  furnished  great 
quantities  of  paint  and  varnishes  for  the 
buildings  and  machinery  at  the  canal. 
Under  the  trying  climatic  conditions  on 
the  Isthmus,  this  paint  and  varnish  was 
found  completely  up  to  standard. 

The  oldest  mercantile  house  in  America 
is  that  of  F.  W.  Devoe  &  C.  T.  Raynolds 
Company,  manufacturer  of  paints,  var- 
nishes and  painters'  supplies,  of  New  York. 
This  house  was  founded  in  1754,  when 
George  II  reigned  over  England,  and  ruled 
America.  Not  only  is  it  the  oldest  mer- 
cantile house  in  the  United  States,  but  it  is 
the  largest  concern  in  the  world  devoted 
to  the  manufacture  of  paints,  varnishes, 
brushes,  and  artist's  materials. 

It  was  originally  founded  by  William 
Post,  and  has  continued  in  an  unbroken 
line  of  succession  for  160  years.  The 
watchword  with  which  William  Post  began 
business  in  a  little  way  in  1754,  was  "high 
quality  of  product,"  and  that  has  continued 
to  be  the  watchword  of  his  various  suc- 
cessors, and  is  still  on  their  banner.  The 
name  "Devoe"  on  a  package,  can,  or  brush, 
is  its  guarantee  as  to  quality  of  material  used, 
and  of  the  workmanship  in  producing  it. 

The  trade  of  this  firm  reaches  every  part 
of  the  continent.  It  operates  offices  and 
salesrooms  in  every  large  city  of  the  coun- 
try, and  has  factories  in  New  York, 
Chicago,  Brooklyn,  and  Newark,  N.  J. 
The  firm  was  an  important  factor  in  fur- 
nishing supplies  for  the  construction  for 
the  great  waterway  connecting  the  two 
oceans.  The  climate  of  the  Isthmus  ren- 
ders almost  everything  subject  to  rapid  de- 
cay, especially  iron  and  steel,  and  the  best 
protection  is  afforded  by  paints  and  var- 
nishes. These  necessary  articles  were  sup- 
plied in  large  quantities  and  from  one  end  of 
the  canal  to  the  other  Devoe's  paint  is  seen. 


The  word  "hammock"  is  derived  from 
the  hamack  tree  of  Brazil,  the  fibrous  rind 
of  which  has  been  used  by  the  natives  for 
centuries  for  the  manufacture  of  hamacas 
or  nets  in  which  they  sleep. 

The  German  word  "  Hang-matte,"  mean- 
ing hanging  mat,  fc  has  been  supposed  by 
some  persons  to  be  the  origin  of  the  word, 
but  it  seems  certain  that  the  hammock  itself 
is  of  American  origin. 

Columbus,  in  his  account  of  the  earliest 
voyage  to  America,  speaks  of  the  Indians 
coming  down  to  the  sea  to  barter  their 
cotton  and  hamacas,  or  sleeping  nets,  for 
the  baubles  the  mariners  offered. 

In  tropic  climes,  with  the  long  rainy 
season,  the  necessity  becomes  apparent 
for  some  cool,  elevated  sleeping  arrange- 
ment which  places  the  sleeper  out  of  reach 
of  pests  and  reptiles.  The  natives  of 
"  Brasill,"  as  it  was  then  termed,  must  have 
led  in  the  early  manufacture  of  hammocks, 
and  the  name  "Brasill  beds"  has  been 
given  to  the  hammocks  of  their  making. 

Down  through  the  years  since  the  dis- 
covery of  America  we  find  the  hammock, 
with  its  "soothing  seductiveness,"  referred 
to  in  song  and  story,  until  today  the  hamaca 
or  sleeping  net  of  the  aborigine  has,  by 
various  stages,  been  developed  to  the  perfec- 
tion found  in  the  product  used  by  the  canal 
army,  which  was  furnished  by  the  Hohlfeld 
Manufacturing  Company,  of  Philadelphia. 

It  is  the  natural  sequence  of  the  develop- 
ment of  American  lines  of  industry  from 
ideas  furnished  by  the  aborigines  to  find 
that  surprising  numbers  of  Hohlfeld  ham- 
mocks were  used  on  the  Isthmus.  The 
hammocks  furnished  by  this  company,  if 
placed  end  to  end,  would  reach  a  distance 
of  about  four  miles.  In  the  varied  assort- 
ment of  this  company  can  be  found  ham- 
mocks for  the  poorest  native  of  even  the 
countries  in  which  the  hammock  originated, 
as  well  as  couch  hammocks  or  hanging 
divans  fit  to  grace  the  arbor  of  a  prince. 
Hammocks  for  the  dweller  in  the  country 
where  out-door  space  is  abundant,  folding 
hammocks  for  the  city  dweller,  where  space 
is  limited,  collapsible  couch  hammocks  for 


4i8 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


the  camping  or  prospecting  party,  or  for  the 
sailor,  are  all  manufactured  by  this  com- 
pany. 

The  Ludowici-Celadon  Company,  of 
Chicago,  manufacturers  of  terra-cotta  roof- 
ing tiles,  entered  into  several  contracts 
with  the  Canal  Commission  for  promenade 
tile,  cove-base,  and  angles  for  the  floors  of 
the  Colon  hotel.  The  material  included 
in  three  contracts  shipped  in  1912  com- 
prised 101,000  square  feet  of  six  by  nine 
promenade  tile,  10,650  feet  of  cove-base 
tile,  and  3,900  feet  of  cove  angles.  These 
were  a  vitreous  shale  tile  adaptable  to 
any  climate,  and  could  be  used  either  for 
floors,  or  flat  roofing.  This  particular 
shipment  of  tiles  was  manufactured  at  New 
Lexington.  This  is  one  of  the  Ludowici- 
Celadon  Company's  factories,  three  others 
being  located  at  Coffeyville,  Kan.,  Chicago 
Heights,  111.,  and  Ludowici,  Ga.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  floor  tile  supplied  to  the  hotel 
at  Colon,  the  company  shipped  large 
quantities  of  roofing  tiles  for  use  on  the 
Isthmus.  These  were  found  well  adapted 
to  the  tropical  climatic  conditions  of 
Panama,  and  gave  general  satisfaction. 

In  keeping  with  the  rest  of  the  canal's 
equipment,  the  glass  which  entered  into 
the  construction  of  the  buildings  at  the 
canal  was  manufactured  in  the  United 
States.  Swindell  Brothers,  of  Baltimore, 
manufacturers  of  druggists',  chemists'  and 
perfumers'  glassware  and  window  glass 
of  all  kinds,  were  heavy  shippers  of  win- 
dow glass  to  the  canal,  their  shipments  in 
the  period  between  April,  1910,  and  July, 
1912,  running  to  40,000  square  feet  of 
the  best  quality,  double  thickness  window 
glass  and  700  square  feet  of  rolled  glass. 
Superior  quality,  reasonable  price,  and 
prompt  delivery  secured  the  business  for 
this  company. 

Practically  all  the  fire  brick  for  the  power 
plants  on  the  Isthmus  was  furnished  by 
the  Chas.  Taylor  Sons  Company,  of  Cin- 
cinnati. The  commission  specifications  for 
this  article  were  the  severest  ever  exacted, 
and  the  company  maintained  a  continuous 
laboratory  check  on  the  product  as  it  came 


from  the  factory,  thus  fully  keeping  up 
with  the  specifications. 

The  Hydrex  Felt  and  Engine  Company, 
of  New  York,  specialists  in  structural 
water-proofing,  and  manufacturers  of  Hy- 
drex waterproof  felt,  Pluvinox  reinforced 
roofings,  Saniflor  deadening  felt,  Novento 
building  paper,  waterproofed  papers  and 
burlaps,  compounds,  asphalts,  paints,  etc., 
furnished  large  quantities  of  their  product 
for  the  buildings  on  the  Canal  Zone. 

In  all  the  administrative  buildings  and 
homes  on  the  Isthmus,  special  attention 
was  given  to  lounge  and  chair  equipment 
as  an  offset  to  the  enervating  climate. 
In  supplying  chairs  and  lounges,  which 
added  greatly  to  the  comfort  of  the  canal 
workers  and  their  families,  the  firm  of 
Thonet  Bros.,  of  New  York,  was  prominent. 

The  Panama  Canal  was  above  all  a 
utilitarian  project,  but  one  American  firm 
is  distinguished  by  having  furnished  ma- 
terial for  the  beautification  of  the  Canal 
Zone.  This  was  Peter  Henderson  &  Co., 
of  New  York,  who  over  a  series  of  several 
years  furnished  the  canal  authorities  with 
quantities  of  flower  seeds.  The  firm  also 
supplied  vegetable  seeds,  and  many  vari- 
.  eties  of  flowers  and  vegetables  from  these 
flourished  on  the  Isthmus,  giving  an  add- 
ed interest  to  the  homes  of  the  canal 
workers. 

MARINE  EQUIPMENT 

During  the  construction  period  a  number 
of  vessels  needed  for  the  Pacific  side  of  the 
work  gave  a  practical  demonstration  of 
the  need  of  the  completed  canal  by  having 
to  travel  around  South  America  in  order 
to  reach  their  place  of  work.  One  of  these 
was  the  tug  Cocol-i,  formerly  the  tug  Cath- 
erine Moran,  built  for  the  Moran  Towing 
and  Transportation  Company,  of  New 
York,  in  1904,  and  sold  by  that  company 
to  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  in 
1907. 

The  Cocoli  is  constructed  of  steel,  with 
steel  deck  house,  and  has  a  length  of  105 
feet,  and  beam  of  twenty-three  feet.  She 
was  fitted  out  for  the  trip  to  La  Boca,  on 


i,  2,  3  and  4.  Canal  living  equipment  supplied  by  the  Gold  Medal  Camp  Furniture  Manufacturing  Company,  Racine,  Wis. 

5.  Portable  wireless  station  building  at  Colon. 

6.  Portable  cottages  for  the  canal  engineers. 

(Portable  buildings  supplied  by  the  Ducker  Company,  New  York.) 


THE  OMNIPRESENT   KODAK 


419 


the  Pacific  side  of  the  Isthmus,  at  the  pier 
of  the  Panama  Steamship  Company  in 
New  York,  and  on  October  25th,  1907,  left 
New  York  in  charge  of  Captain  Phillips, 
and  Chief  Engineer  John  Sperr,  both  of 
whom  were  employed  by  the  Moran  Com- 
pany on  the  tug  before  she  was  sold  to  the 
commission.  Passing  through  the  Straits 
of  Magellan  during  the  middle  of  Decem- 
ber, the  Cocoli  reached  La  Boca  on  Janu- 
ary 9th,  1908.  Her  trip  was  very  success- 
ful, as  she  made  no  stops  other  than  those 
necessary  to  secure  supplies,  and  arrived 
ready  for  duty. 

The  manufacturing  center  of  Buffalo, 
N.  Y.,  which  had  such  a  large  part  in  sup- 
plying equipment  for  the  canal  work,  scored 
again  through  the  Buffalo  Gasoline  Motor 
Company,  which  supplied  gasoline  marine 
engines  for  the  canal  motor  boats  Manzan- 
illo,  San  Bias,  Toro  Point,  and  others. 
The  company  also  supplied  a  number  of 
seven  and  one-half,  ten,  and  fifteen  horse- 
power gasoline  engines  for  use  at  various 
points  on  the  canal. 

Two  floating  hoists,  the  largest  ever 
constructed,  were  built  for  the  Canal  Com- 
mission by  Neumeyer  &  Dimond,  of  New 
York,  manufacturers  of  all  kinds  of  cranes, 
loading  and  conveying  plants,  and  ship- 
yard, mining,  milling  and  other  equip- 
ment. 

THE  CANAL  AND  THE  CAMERA 

There  are  interesting  features  about  the 
canal  other  than  the  great  work  of  con- 
struction. Among  these  may  be  classed 
the  story  of  the  building  of  the  canal  as  told 
by  photography.  The  canal  is  the  first 
great  engineering  enterprise  occurring  in 
the  history  of  the  kodak,  or,  it  might  be 
said,  in  the  history  of  amateur  photography. 
The  complete  photographic  records  of  the 
canal  construction  suggest  the  part  the 
kodak  is  destined  to  play  in  the  future  in 
recording  historical  events. 

The  story  of  the  building  of  the  great 
Egyptian  pyramids  is  buried  deep  in  the 
sands  of  the  desert,  and  the  world  has  not 
even  a  tradition  as  to  when,  how,  and  under 


what  sacrifices  they  were  erected.  The 
story  of  the  building  of  the  Panama  Canal  is 
pictured  in  millions  of  permanent  films, 
and  will  be  carried  to  succeeding  genera- 
tions. 

From  the  moment  it  was  announced  to 
the  world  that  the  United  States  had 
acquired  sovereignty  over  a  strip  of  terri- 
tory running  from  ocean  to  ocean,  and 
through  that  narrow  strip  would  dig  a 
canal  connecting  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific,  the  Canal  Zone  became  a 
favorite  field  for  amateur  photographers. 
Kodaks  were  to  be  seen  every w here.  Cam- 
era-armed tourists  went  to  the  Isthmus  in 
troops,  snapping  every  foot  of  the  great 
ditch  from  Panama  to  Colon.  Officially 
and  unofficially  they  covered  every  de- 
tail of  the  work,  from  the  steam  shovels 
which  scooped  up  earth  and  stone  by  the 
ton,  to  the  little  donkey  engines  that  hauled 
the  dirt  to  the  dumping  grounds.  Every 
incident  connected  with  the  work  is  some- 
where on  photographic  records. 

Through  the  work  of  the  kodakers  the 
public  in  this  country  and  in  Europe  was 
able  to  trace  from  day  to  day  every  step 
in  the  work  of  building  the  canal.  Through 
them  the  Gatun  dam  and  Culebra  Cut  are 
as  familiar  to  the  public  as  are  the  Capitol 
at  Washington  or  Niagara  Falls.  These 
pictures  have  also  brought  to  the  com- 
prehension of  the  public  the  difficult  and 
complex  engineering  problems  connected 
with  the  work.  In  addition  to  their  im- 
mediate educational  value  they  have  fur- 
nished a  valuable  historical  record. 

Picture  taking  on  the  scale  followed  at 
Panama,  and  under  the  conditions  existing 
in  the  tropics,  would  have  been  impossible 
but  for  the  kodak  system.  The  combi- 
nation of  heat  and  moisture  incidental 
to  tropical  climates  tends  to  melt  the 
photographic  emulsion,  and,  consequently, 
is  fatal  to  the  photographic  image.  This 
difficulty  is  only  avoided  by  developing 
the  films  as  soon  as  exposed.  The  means 
of  doing  this  in  a  simple,  practical  way  is 
supplied  by  the  kodak  system. 

The  kodak  system  enables  the  amateur 


420 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


to  go  forth  on  a  picture-taking  tour  with 
no  other  equipment  than  a  handful  of 
film  cartridges,  a  kodak,  and  a  daylight 
developing  outfit,  which  he  can  tuck  under 
his  arm.  With  this  system  he  can  take 
and  develop  his  pictures  anywhere.  He 
is  independent  alike  of  climate  or  dark 
room.  It  is  the  freedom  from  the  ordinary 
impedimenta  of  the  photographer  that 
makes  the  system  so  necessary  in  these 
fast-moving  modern  days. 

CANAL  ARMY'S  RECREATIONS 

If  it  be  true  that  those  who  originate 
and  devise  the  pastimes  of  a  people  are 
counted  among  the  benefactors  of  mankind, 
then  those  who  devoted  themselves  to  the 
task  of  providing  the  means  for  rational 
relaxation  and  amusement  for  the  army 
of  men  engaged  in  the  construction  work 
of  the  Isthmian  Canal  deserve  recognition 
as  having,  in  no  small  degree,  contributed 
to  the  final  successful  completion  of  that 
undertaking. 

Among  the  various  forms  of  amusement 
provided  by  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commis- 
sion for  recreation  and  the  promotion  of 
the  moral  and  mental  well  being  of  the 
workers  were  the  two  most  popular  indoor 
pastimes,  billiards  and  bowling. 

During  the  work  there  were  introduced 
into  the  canal  territory  in  the  various 
Y.  M.  C.  A.  club  houses,  gymnasiums  and 
amusement  places,  under  the  supervision 
of  A.  B.  Dickson,  forty- two  carom  and 
six  pocket  billiard  tables  and  eighteen 
bowling  alleys. 

From  time  to  time  all-Isthmian  carom 
and  six  pocket  billiard  tournaments,  as 
well  as  many  local  tournaments,  were  held, 
participated  in  by  from  30  to  100  members. 
Bowling  tournaments  were  held  contin- 
ually, and  often  as  many  as  150  men 
entered  in  these  contests,  from  20  to  30 
in  each  town  where  alleys  were  located. 

Bowling,  especially,  was  very  popular 
on  the  zone,  helping  to  keep  the  men  con- 
tented and  furnishing  a  light  form  of  exer- 
cise greatly  appreciated  by  them. 

This  line  of  amusement  equipment  was 


furnished  from  the  factories  of  the  Bruns- 
wick-Balke-Collender  Company,  the  prod- 
ucts of  whose  shops  are  well  known  and 
whose  business  activities  are  world-wide. 

In  spite  of  the  tropical  climate,  all  forms 
of  athletic  recreation  were  in  vogue,  exactly 
as  in  the  States.  The  base  ball  nine, 
picked  from  the  best  players  among  the 
young  Americans,  played  some  remarkably 
sharp  games,  and  the  tennis  courts  were 
often  thronged.  Bathing  was,  of  course,  a 
favorite  amusement,  and  prizes  for  fancy 
swimming,  diving,  etc.,  were  offered.  With 
uniforms  and  outfits  furnished  by  A.  G. 
Spalding  &  Bros.,  the  athletes  of  the  Isth- 
mus were  as  well  equipped  and  up-to-date 
as  those  in  the  United  States,  and  the 
scenes  at  the  base  ball,  handball,  tennis, 
and  other  contests  were  exactly  like  those 
at  home. 

Featured  prominently  among  the  pro- 
visions made  for  the  amusement  and  en- 
tertainment of  the  canal  officials  and 
employees  was  the  continuous  presenta- 
tion under  government  auspices  of  the 
magnificent  spectacles  known  for  many 
years  in  the  States  in  connection  with  the 
name  of  "  Pain."  For  more  than  a  quarter 
of  a  century,  the  Pain  Fireworks  Display 
Company  has  given  its  exhibitions  of  pyro- 
technics in  every  part  of  this  country,  as 
well  as  abroad,  while  in  Mexico  it  is  even 
in  greater  favor  among  the  pleasure-loving 
people  whose  counterpart  is  to  be  found  in 
the  native  population  of  the  Isthmus. 

The  president  and  principal  owner  of 
the  Pain  Fireworks  Display  Company, 
Harry  Bishop  Thearle,  was  for  twenty-five 
years  manager  of  the  old  company,  while 
its  destinies  were  in  the  hands  of  the 
founder.  When  the  old  company  failed 
and  Mr.  Pain  returned  to  England,  Mr. 
Thearle  bought  out  the  business  and  pro- 
ceeded to  build  it  up  into  a  strong  and  dur- 
able institution.  Under  his  control  its 
reproductions  of  historical  events  have  be- 
come famous  the  world  over.  Among  the 
more  notable  are,  "The  Battle  in  the 
Clouds,"  "The  Last  Days  of  Pompeii," 
"Mount  Vesuvius,"  and  "Pioneer  Days," 


1.  Beginning  of  concrete  construction,  Gatun  Locks,  showing  cableways  for  handling  concrete. 

2.  Master  wheel  and  arm  for  opening  and  closing  gate. 

3.  Gate  beyond  vessel  is  closed,  water  has  reached  level  of  lock  in  foreground,  and  vessel  is  passing  through. 


HOW  THE   MEN  WERE   PAID 


421 


as  well  as  at  least  ten  others  equally 
well-known,  and  as  popular  today  as  when 
they  were  first  produced. 

The  Pain  Fireworks  Display  Company 
has  factories  in  New  York,  Chicago,  and 
San  Francisco.  During  the  past  few  years 
its  expansion  has  been  such  that  scarcely 
a  celebration  of  any  importance  in  the 
United  States  or  Canada  is  without  one  of 
its  exhibits. 

A  firm  which  contributed  to  the  peace  of 
mind  and  comfort  of  the  men  on  the  Canal 
Zone  was  the  Theobald  &  Oppenheimer 
Company,  of  Philadelphia.  This  firm  was 
the  pioneer,  and  now  stands  at  the  head  of 
the  field  as  manufacturers  of  fine  domestic 
cigars  of  national  reputation. 

The  success  of  this  company  is  due  to 
John  J.  Kolb,  a  native  of  the  quaint  old 
village  of  Sandhausen,  Baden,  Germany, 
where  he  made  a  special  study  of  tobacco 
and  its  attributes.  On  coming  to  this 
country  he  began  his  career  as  a  cigar 
maker,  becoming  identified  with  his  pres- 
ent firm  as  superintendent  in  1896.  The 
firm  at  that  time  was  a  small  concern  em- 
ploying some  forty  or  fifty  hands. 

From  the  inception  of  this  connection, 
Mr.  Kolb  introduced  methods  in  manipu- 
lation and  handling  of  tobacco  thereto 
unknown  in  this  country,  thereby  revolu- 
tionizing the  cigar  industry,  increasing  the 
character  and  style  of  manufacture,  and 
bringing  to  the  fore  the  finest  product  to 
that  time  seen  on  this  country's  market. 

As  manager  and  president  of  the  concern, 
the  guidance  of  which  has  been  his  care 
and  study,  he  has  seen  one  factory  of  a 
few  hands  grow  by  leaps  and  bounds,  until 
he  wields  the  reins  over  a  vast  enterprise 
of  his  own  building,  operating  numerous 
factories  and  employing  twenty-five  hun- 
dred hands. 

Philip  Morris  cigarettes,  the  world's 
oldest  high  grade  of  Turkish  cigarettes, 
made  by  Philip  Morris  &  Company,  Ltd., 
of  New  York  City,  were  used  in  enormous 
quantities  by  the  canal  army,  natives  of  all 
the  countries  represented  on  the  Canal 
Zone  using  them  constantly.  The  "  Brown 


Box"  in  which  this  tobacco  was  packed 
was  a  familiar  object  along  the  route  of  the 
canal. 

PAY  ROLL  EQUIPMENT 

For  use  as  advance  payment  of  wages, 
payable  in  merchandise  from  the  com- 
missaries or  in  board  at  the  hotels,  com- 
missary coupons  were  issued  to  Isthmian 
Canal  and  Panama  Railroad  employees, 
and  meal  slips,  good  for  one  day's  board,  to 
silver  employees.  All  coupon  books  were 
charged  to  the  employee  receiving  them, 
the  charge  being  made  directly  in  the  pay- 
roll book  for  deduction  from  his  wages  on 
the  next  pay  day. 

Orders  for  books  and  meal  slips  were 
placed  by  the  commission  from  time  to 
time  from  1907  onward  with  the  Allison 
Coupon  Company,  of  Indianapolis,  Ind., 
which  furnished  5,000,000  books  for  com- 
missary use  in  denominations  ranging  from 
$2.50  to  $15.00,  with  the  separate  coupons 
ranging  from  one  cent  to  fifty  cents.  This 
firm  also  furnished  500,000  Isthmian  Canal 
Commission  hotel  books,  each  containing 
fifty  coupons  separately  valued  at  thirty 
cents.  In  addition,  it  furnished  8,000,000 
daily  meal  tickets  for  silver  employees. 

These  coupons  and  slips  not  only  simpli- 
fied bookkeeping  and  merchandise  charges, 
but  actually  served  as  a  circulating  medium 
for  citizens  of  all  the  countries  employed 
at  the  Canal  Zone.  The  coupons  were 
manufactured  at  the  company's  plant  at 
Indianapolis,  on  special  water-marked 
paper  to  guard  against  imitation  or  counter- 
feiting, and  on  special  machinery  that  pro- 
vided for  accuracy  in  counting  and  assem- 
bling, rapid  printing,  and  prompt  shipments. 

In  1909,  the  officials  in  charge  of  the 
sanitary  and  commissary  supply  depart- 
ments, that  their  transactions  might  be 
more  accurately  and  quickly  recorded,  or- 
dered from  the  National  Cash  Register 
Company,  of  Dayton,  O.,  sixty-one  of  its 
machines. 

The  machines  were  built  to  order  on 
special  construction  specifications.  They 
were  used  in  the  stores  for  the  employees 


422 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


of  the  commission  and  were  beautifully 
nickel-plated  to  withstand  the  climate  of 
the  Isthmus.  Cash  registers  have  long 
been  considered  an  absolute  necessity  in 
stores,  even  in  those  doing  a  small  business, 
for  they  keep  a  correct  record  of  all  trans- 
actions, give  a  correct  total  for  each  of 
the  various  classifications,  and  save  a 
great  deal  of  time  in  balancing  books. 
The  appearance  of  numerous  cash  regis- 
ters on  the  Isthmus  was  certain  to  follow 
the  policy  of  speed,  accuracy  and  complete- 
ness that  characterized  the  canal  work, 
and  these  machines  had  no  small  part  in 
the  sum  total  of  equipment  that  carried 
the  work  to  an  early  completion. 

In  the  selection  of  safes  for  use  in  the 
various  offices  throughout  the  Canal  Zone, 
the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission  used 
the  same  care  that  prevailed  throughout 
their  administration  of  the  entire  work, 
and  the  purchase  of  the  celebrated  York 
safe,  manufactured  by  the  York  Safe  & 
Lock  Company,  of  York,  Pa.,  may  be 
regarded  as  a  strong  endorsement  of  their 
high  quality  and  efficiency. 

This  company  has  been  a  prominent 
factor  in  safeguarding  the  riches  of  the 
government  in  every  department.  Not 
only  has  it  provided  safes  for  use  along 
the  Panama  Canal,  but  hundreds  of  them 
are  in  use  on  the  battleships  of  the  United 
States  navy  and  by  army  paymasters, 
wherever  Uncle  Sam's  domains  extend. 
It  installed  the  great  bond  vaults  in 
the  United  States  Treasury  Department 
at  Washington,  where  hundreds  of  mil- 
lions in  money  are  stored;  also  the  treas- 
urers' vaults,  cash  vaults,  stamp  vaults, 
and  plate  vaults  in  the  new  bureau  of  en- 
graving and  printing,  where  ponderous 
fifty-ton  doors  protect  more  riches  than 
the  average  mind  can  conceive.  It  recently 
constructed  similar  vaults  for  the  United 
States  Sub-Treasury  at  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

NATIVES  DISCOVER  THE  SEWING 
MACHINE 

The  sales  of  machines  for  domestic  or 
household  use  from  the  beginning  of  the 


active  construction  work  are  hints  as  to 
what  the  opening  of  the  canal  will  mean 
to  American  manufacturers.  Before  the 
advent  of  the  American  builder  probably 
not  a  family  on  what  is  now  the  Canal 
Zone  owned  a  modern  American-made 
sewing  machine.  The  statistics  gathered 
and  compiled  for  the  information  of  the 
American  business  public  disclose  that 
since  the  beginning  of  the  active  construc- 
tion work  more  than  1,500  sewing  machines 
manufactured  by  the  New  Home  Sewing 
Machine  Company,  of  New  York,  have 
been  sold  by  one  representative  of  the  com- 
pany in  Panama  City.  These  were  used 
by  natives  as  well  as  white  residents,  and 
from  the  Isthmus  knowledge  of  the  useful- 
ness of  the  sewing  machine  has  spread 
through  Central  America. 

The  manufacture  of  the  New  Home  sew- 
ing machine  dates  back  to  1862,  in  a  little 
factory  employing  about  forty  persons. 
Now  the  works  of  the  company  cover  about 
eleven  acres  of  floor  space,  and  about  1,000 
persons  are  in  its  employ.  It  manu- 
factures annually  about  150,000  sewing 
machines,  and  12,000,000  sewing  machine 
needles. 

SANITATION  AND  HEALTH  APPLIANCES 

When  the  United  States  started  on  the 
work  of  building  the  canal  it  was  confronted 
with  its  greatest  problem — the  saving  of  hu- 
man life — for  the  experience  of  the  French 
Company  had  shown  that  unless  new  and 
more  effective  methods  were  introduced 
to  safeguard  the  lives  of  those  connected 
with  the  construction  work,  thousands  of 
persons  would  be  sacrificed.  So  strong  was 
the  feeling  in  the  United  States  that  to  go 
to  the  Isthmus  was  only  to  encounter 
disease,  if  not  death,  that  it  was  difficult 
to  secure  the  services  of  those  fitted  to  make 
the  canal  a  success. 

Investigation  developed  that  two  species 
of  mosquito  infected  the  Isthmus,  one 
carrying  malarial  germs  and  the  other 
the  bacillus  of  yellow  fever.  In  addition 
to  the  question  of  health  the  government 
was  also  desirous  to  secure  the  personal 


SANITARY  APPLIANCES 


423 


comfort  of  those  it  sent  to  the  Isthmus. 
So  it  was  that  when  the  Secretary  of  War 
sent  Gen.  George  W.  Davis  to  investigate 
the  possibility  of  constructing  the  Isth- 
mian Canal,  to  protect  him  from  the  dan- 
ger of  yellow  fever  germs  carried  by  the 
mosquito,  he  contracted  with  Wickwire 
Bros.,  of  Cortland,  N.  Y.,  to  screen  the 
cottage  intended  for  the  use  of  Gen.  Davis 
with  their  wire  cloth  made  of  copper  and 
spelter  wire.  This  was  the  introduction  of 
wire  screens  in  the  canal  work.  This  wire 
cloth  was  later  adopted  by  the  engineers 
and  government  officers  for  screening  all 
buildings. 

The  wire  cloth  used  on  the  Isthmus  was 
especially  designed  by  Wickwire  Bros,  for 
use  where  the  ordinary  wire  cloth  would 
deteriorate  because  of  climatic  conditions. 
The  government  has  used  the  cloth  very 
extensively  in  screening  lighthouses.  The 
enforced  screening  of  houses  on  the  Canal 
Zone  was  one  of  the  effective  elements  in 
stamping  out  yellow  fever,  thereby  saving 
thousands  of  lives. 

As  a  part  of  the  warfare  against  disease 
on  the  Canal  Zone,  the  spraying  pumps 
manufactured  by  F.  E.  Myers  &  Bro.,  of 
Ashland,  O.,  were  early  brought  into 
requisition.  Following  inquiries  made  by 
Major  Boggs,  of  the  purchasing  depart- 
ment, for  a  pump  easily  transported  and 
capable  of  developing  a  good  pressure  for 
applying  oils  and  disinfectants,  for  use  by 
the  sanitary  department,  this  firm  sub- 
mitted its  catalogue  of  pumps,  and  recom- 
mended the  use  of  the  Myers  Knapsack 
Pump.  Shortly  after  submitting  the  pro- 
posal, notification  was  received  from  Major 
Boggs  that  the  equipment  recommended 
had  been  adopted  by  the  commission  as 
being  better  suited  to  the  needs  at  the  Canal 
Zone  than  any  other  of  the  various  kinds 
that  were  offered. 

That  those  pumps  gave  complete  satis- 
faction is  fully  evidenced  by  the  orders  that 
followed.  The  first  shipment  was  made 
in  June,  1905,  and  consisted  of  six  pumps. 
This  was  followed  at  more  or  less  regular 
intervals  and  in  increasing  numbers,  up  to 


July,  1911,  by  which  date  a  total  shipment 
of  474  pumps  had  been  made. 

These  knapsacks  pumps  were  used  at  the 
canal  for  spraying  low  marshy  places, 
swamps,  small  streams,  creeks,  and  other 
similar  places  where  the  mosquitoes  have 
their  breeding  places.  The  pumps  are 
made  of  galvanized  iron  and  copper,  the 
"knapsack"  being  carried  on  the  back  of 
the  operator  in  such  manner  that  he  can 
pump  and  direct  the  spray  at  the  same 
time.  The  copper  can  or  receptacle  does 
not  rust  or  corrode,  making  it  particularly 
adapted  for  use  in  tropical  climates.  With 
each  pump  was  supplied  an  extra  length  of 
hose,  and  additional  nozzles  and  other 
parts.  The  commission  was  careful  to 
specify  a  pump  that  was  characterized  by 
more  than  ordinary  strength  and  durability, 
since  those  furnished  were  to  be  used  largely 
by  the  natives.  The  numerous  repeated 
orders  indicate  that  the  goods  furnished  by 
this  firm  were  especially  adapted  for  the 
work. 

In  the  battle  against  the  canal  mosquito, 
to  prove  the  efficiency  of  Phinotas  Oil  as  a 
destroyer  of  the  mosquito  pests,  the  Phin- 
otas Chemical  Company,  of  New  York, 
sent  one  barrel  of  its  oil  to  the  Department 
of  Sanitation  on  the  Isthmus,  during 
August,  1907.  In  September  a  trial  order 
for  500  gallons  was  given  the  company, 
and  in  December  another  order  was  given, 
this  time  for  1,000  barrels.  This  order  so 
quickly  following  the  test  of  ten  barrels 
amply  testified  to  the  value  of  the  oil. 
That  yellow  fever  has  not  been  epidemic 
in  the  Canal  Zone  is  largely  attributed 
to  the  efficiency  of  Phinotas  Oil  in  destroy- 
ing mosquitoes. 

One  of  the  potent  agents  used  by  those 
in  charge  of  the  sanitation  of  the  Canal 
Zone  was  Chloro-Naptholeum,  from  the 
laboratories  of  the  West  Disinfecting  Com- 
pany, of  New  York.  It  is  in  fact  a  germ 
killer,  from  five  to  six  times  as  strong  as  pure 
carbolic  acid.  Used  in  the  hospitals  and 
quarters  of  the  canal  workmen,  as  a  cleansing 
solution  it  was  unexcelled.  It  cleared  away 
dirt  and  filth,  dissolved  grease  and  fat,  and 


424 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


got  to  the  bottom  of  cracks  and  crevices 
in  the  floors  and  walls  where  germs  thrive. 
Cleanliness  was  the  order  of  the  day  on  the 
Isthmus,  and  to  secure  this  Chloro-Nap- 
tholeum  was  freely  used. 

The  Canal  Commission  not  only  drained 
off  all  stagnant  pools  of  water,  but  it  put 
into  operation  a  system  by  which  all  ob- 
jectionable refuse  of  the  different  camps, 
towns,  and  colonies  along  the  canal  reser- 
vation was  collected  and  burned  in  suit- 
able garbage  destructor  furnaces,  of  a  type 
furnished  by  the  Morse-Boulger  Destruc- 
tor Company  of  New  York. 

Nine  furnaces  of  this  kind  were  located 
at  different  points  along  the  canal  route. 
Each  destructor  consumed  ten  tons  of 
miscellaneous  garbage  and  refuse  every 
twenty-four  hours. 

The  United  States  within  recent  years 
has  had  a  large  part  in  spreading  the 
lesson  of  sanitation  to  tropical  countries. 
Its  example  at  Panama  led  to  emulation 
in  nearly  every  port  city  in  South  America 
where  disease  had  not  already  been  con- 
quered by  modern  methods.  At  Manila, 
shortly  after  the  American  occupation,  the 
United  States  issued  specifications  and 
called  for  bids  for  a  130-ton  daily  capacity 
destructor  for  the  city  of  Manila,  and  here 
the  Morse-Boulger  Destructor  Company 
was  again  successful. 

The  city  of  Guatemala  was  one  of  the  first 
to  take  advantage  of  the  lesson  taught  at 
Panama.  It  completed  in  1908  a  large 
garbage  and  waste  destructor,  and  cele- 
brated the  event  with  parades,  decora- 
tions, and  a  general  three-day  holiday,  the 
people  rejoicing  in  the  knowledge  that 
from  that  time  on  disease  and  deaths  in  the 
city  would  never  rise  above  the  normal 
rate. 

Keeping  pace  with  the  development 
of  medical  hygiene,  the  evolution  of  sani- 
tation and  household  hygiene  in  the  United 
States  as  well  as  throughout  the  world 
during  the  last  thirty  years  presents  a 
most  interesting  study.  Just  as  at  Pan- 
ama was  developed  the  last  word  in  medi- 
cal science  in  successfully  fighting  the 


dreaded  yellow  fever,  so  in  the  buildings 
of  the  canal  may  be  seen  the  last  word  in 
modern  sanitary  equipment. 

It  is  not  many  years  ago  that  bath  tubs 
and  other  household  sanitation  equipment 
were  made  chiefly  of  wood,  lined  with  zinc 
or  copper  sheeting,  or  other  material.  As 
late  as  the  '705,  bathroom  and  lavatory 
fixtures,  however  expensive,  were  entirely 
encased  in  wood,  and  open  plumbing  was 
unknown. 

For  the  rapid  development  of  better 
household  sanitation  in  the  United  States, 
the  Standard  Sanitary  Manufacturing 
Company,  of  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  is  largely 
responsible.  The  first  "Standard"  porce- 
lain enameled  bath  was  made  in  1875,  at 
the  plant  of  the  Standard  Manufacturing 
Company,  at  Alleghany,  Pa.,  now  a  part 
of  Pittsburgh.  At  that  time  the  com- 
pany's capacity  and  capital  was  small. 
It  could  turn  out  two  baths  a  day,  and 
the  manufacture  and  sale  of  baths  at  this 
rate  was  considered  remarkable. 

From  this  small  organization,  with  the 
awakening  of  public  appreciation  of  sani- 
tation, the  company  has  grown  to  be  the 
largest  in  the  world  in  the  line  in  which 
it  is  engaged,  with  its  product  reaching 
into  every  corner  of  the  earth.  The  present 
company  was  incorporated  in  1900,  with  a 
capital  of  $5,000,000,  which  was  later 
doubled.  The  number  of  employees  is 
now  5,500,  and  the  combined  daily  capacity 
of  its  factories  is  2,000  bath  tubs,  2,000 
sinks,  and  2,000  lavatories,  in  addition 
to  a  large  output  of  miscellaneous  fixtures, 
plumber's  brass,  and  woodwork.  Twenty 
branch  stores,  showrooms,  warehouses  and 
offices  are  maintained  by  the  company. 
During  its  existence  it  has  manufactured 
and  sold  over  3,000,000  of  its  standard 
bath  tubs,  3,000,000  standard  lavatories, 
and  more  than  10,000,000  miscellaneous 
fixtures,  and  while  the  quality  of  output 
has  constantly  improved,  the  cost  has  stead- 
ily decreased,  so  that  proper  household 
and  building  sanitation  is  now  within  the 
reach  of  all. 

The  Washington  Hotel  at  Colon,  and  all 


THE  HUMAN    INTEREST  SIDE 


425 


the  buildings  at  Panama  which  required 
sanitary  equipment  are  fitted  up  with 
Standard  supplies,  and  from  the  Canal 
Zone  as  a  starting  point,  the  lesson  of  house- 
hold sanitation  is  spreading  throughout  the 
Latin-American  countries  as  part  of  the 
result  of  the  battle  against  sickness  and 
disease  won  by  the  Americans  on  the 
Isthmus. 

Among  the  other  things  introduced  in 
the  zone  for  the  comfort  and  convenience 
of  those  engaged  in  the  construction  work, 
and  of  their  families,  were  soap  and  toilet 
articles.  This  may  sound  like  a  little 
thing,  but  when  the  human-interest  side 
of  it  is  considered  it  was  one  of  the  im- 
portant things. 

In  all  probability  there  is  not  a  house- 
hold in  the  United  States  where  the  name 
of  Colgate  is  not  known.  The  firm  of 
Colgate  &  Company  had  been  in  existence 
a  little  more  than  one  hundred  years  when 
the  Commissary  Department  connected 
with  the  canal  work  purchased  for  the  use 
of  the  department  its  first  supply  of  soaps 
and  toilet  articles.  In  this  connection  it 
may  not  be  out  of  place  to  say  something 
of  the  magnitude  to  which  the  business 
of  this  firm  has  grown.  It  was  originally 
established  by  William  Colgate,  and  his 
largest  soap  pan  (and  it  was  the  largest 
then  in  this  country)  contained  but  43,000 
pounds.  Now  the  company  has  twelve 
kettles,  each  containing  nearly  a  million 
pounds,  and  more  than  a  score  of  others 
with  a  capacity  of  half  a  million  pounds 
each. 

For  the  comfort  of  those  on  the  zone 
the  Commissary  Department  purchased 
from  the  Colgate  Company  many  thousand 
dollars'  worth  of  their  toilet  preparations, 
and  many  thousands'  worth  additional 
were  purchased  by  individual  consumers. 
More  than  this,  the  canal  has  already 
opened  up  a  large  section  of  the  commercial 
world  to  this  great  American  industry,  and 
its  completion  brings  all  the  Pacific  States 
of  South  America  and  Mexico  into  the 
immediate  range  of  future  possibilities. 

Mutilations  or  death  appear  to  be  an 


unavoidable  penalty  for  progressive  opera- 
tions of  any  great  magnitude.  It  can 
safely  be  said  that  not  an  ocean  steamer, 
locomotive,  or  great  structure,  either  build- 
ing, bridge,  or  railway,  has  ever  been  carried 
to  its  completion  without  one  or  more  of 
those  employed  in  the  work  being  mangled 
or  otherwise  injured.  It  was  so  with  the 
Panama  Canal.  The  great  steam  shovels, 
derricks,  drills,  and  trains  used  in  con- 
structive work  brought  about  accidents  to 
many  of  their  operators,  and  amputations 
resulted  in  several  cases. 

It  was  the  purpose  of  the  Isthmian  Canal 
Commission  to  supply  their  dismembered 
employees,  irrespective  of  color,  nation- 
ality, or  character  of  work  engaged  in, 
with  the  best  substitutes  procurable,  and 
for  this  A.  A.  Marks,  701  Broadway,  New 
York  City,  probably  the  largest  and  best- 
known  artificial  limb-maker  in  the  world, 
was  given  requisitions  by  the  commission 
for  artificial  limbs  for  the  canal  employees, 
beginning  January,  1908.  Over  200  requi- 
sitions were  issued  up  to  1912,  and  more 
were  needed  before  the  completion  of  the 
work. 

Most  of  the  legs  and  arms  were  built 
from  measurements  furnished  by  the  canal 
hospital  surgeons,  the  patients  remaining 
on  the  Isthmus.  As  the  limbs  arrived 
from  New  York  they  were  applied,  and  the 
patients  were  permitted  to  either  go  to  their 
homes  in  retirement,  or  to  return  to  the 
work  on  the  canal.  A  large  number  of 
them  were  able  to  return  to  work. 

COMMISSARY  EQUIPMENT 

In  view  of  the  climatic  conditions  on 
the  zone,  and  the  general  policy  of  using 
high-class  equipment  in  all  cases,  special 
attention  was  given  the  bins  and  shelving 
for  the  stores  in  the  commissary  depart- 
ment. 

A  very  extensive  equipment  for  steel 
bins  and  shelving  was  furnished  by  the 
Berger  Manufacturing  Company,  of  Can- 
ton, O.  The  equipment  from  this  company 
for  the  stores  at  Colon  and  Balboa  alone 
filled  four  carloads.  An  equal  amount  of 


426 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


similar  equipment  was  supplied  by  the 
company  to  other  parts  of  the  Canal  Zone. 

The  type  of  construction  used  was  the 
company's  standard  closed  type  of  bins 
and  shelving,  consisting  of  solid  uprights, 
backs,  and  shelves.  It  is  a  ledge  construc- 
tion, in  which  the  units  which  hold  the 
ledge  are  thirty  inches  deep,  twenty-four 
and  thirty  inches  wide,  and  thirty-six 
inches  high.  Above  the  ledge  are  units 
of  the  same  width,  and  fifty-four  inches 
high,  making  the  total  height  of  the  com- 
plete assembly  seven  feet  and  six  inches. 
The  load  carried  on  this  shelving  is  approx- 
imately 200  pounds  per  square  foot.  These 
bins,  as  well  as  being  used  in  the  tempo- 
rary store  houses,  were  installed  in  the 
general  store  house  of  the  permanent 
building  at  Balboa.  Here  there  are  108 
assemblies  of  the  bins,  each  approximately 
sixteen  feet  long,  or  about  a  quarter  of  a 
mile  of  bins  seven  and  one-half  feet  high. 
The  uprights  and  backs  of  these  bins  are 
punched  for  a  three-inch  vertical  adjust- 
ment of  the  shelves,  and  the  shelves  are 
all  punched  for  an  approximate  horizon- 
tal adjustment  of  dividers.  This  con- 
struction gives  the  greatest  possible  flexi- 
bility, so  that  practically  any  arrange- 
ment desired  can  readily  be  made.  In 
addition  the  construction  is  arranged  so 
that  the  bin  fronts  can  be  added  at  any 
time  in  the  future,  and  thus  the  shelving 
construction  can  at  any  time  be  trans- 
formed into  bins  of  any  depth. 

For  refrigerating  the  cold  storage  de- 
partment of  the  canal  commissary  making 
ice  and  ice  cream,  and  for  all  uses  required 
for  ice  and  refrigeration,  refrigerating 
machinery  was  supplied  by  the  Ice  and 
Cold  Machine  Company,  of  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
In  one  shipment  in  May,  1910,  this  com- 
pany sent  six  carloads  of  refrigerating 
machinery,  weighing  24,000  pounds  to  a 
car.  The  refrigerating  machines  were  the 
Cross  compound  duplex,  with  engine  of 
the  Corliss  type,  and  compressors  of  the 
horizontal  double-acting  type.  They  had 
a  capacity  of  300  tons  of  refrigeration  daily. 
These  refrigerating  machines  were  of  the 


type  used  by  the  large  packers  of  this  and 
foreign  countries,  and  were  especially 
adapted  to  continuous  operation  during 
the  entire  year,  and  particularly  adaptable 
to  any  climate  where  continuous  opera- 
tion is  necessary.  The  machines  fur- 
nished the  canal  commissary  were  of  an 
especially  high  grade,  designed  for  the 
trying  climatic  conditions  of  the  Isthmus, 
and  using  a  minimum  of  steam.  The 
refrigerators  were  manufactured  by  Ameri- 
can labor  in  the  company's  machine  shops. 
In  insulating  the  cold  storage  plant  at 
Cristobal,  against  the  exterior  walls  of 
concrete  eight  inches  of  Nonpareil  cork 
board  was  laid  up  in  Portland  cement,  and 
the  exposed  surface  finished  off  with  marble 
cement.  The  interior  partitions  consisted 
of  two  layers  of  two-inch  Nonpareil  cork 
board  erected  in  Portland  cement  and 
finished  on  each  side  with  marble  cement. 
The  bottom  of  the  ice  freezing  tanks  was 
insulated  with  six  inches  of  Nonpareil 
cork  board  laid  down  in  asphalt;  the  sides 
and  ends  with  four  inches  of  granulated 
cork  and  four  inches  of  Nonpareil  cork 
board.  The  exposed  surfaces  of  the  cork 
board  around  the  tank  were  finished  off 
with  marble  cement.  This  insulating  ma- 
terial was  furnished  by  the  Armstrong 
Cork  Company,  of  Pittsburgh,  Pa.  In 
addition,  the  company  furnished  for  the 
Canal  Commission  large  numbers  of  cork 
life-preservers  and  ring  buoys,  and  other 
cork  material.  Nonpareil  cork  board 
has  been  for  a  number  of  years  the  stand- 
ard type  of  cold  storage  insulation  employed 
by  the  United  States  government.  It 
consists  of  pure  granulated  cork  compressed 
in  board  form  and  baked  at  a  moderate 
temperature.  The  natural  gum  or  resin 
in  the  cork  itself  joins  the  whole  mass 
firmly  together.  This  is  the  distinctive 
feature  of  this  material.  The  advantages 
that  led  to  its  selection  for  Panama  were 
its  remarkable  low  heat  conductivity;  the 
fact  that  it  will  not  absorb  moisture,  and 
hence  excludes  offensive  odors;  the  ease 
with  which  it  may  be  installed;  the  fact 
that  it  occupies  a  very  small  space  as  com- 


COMMISSARY  SUPPLIES 


427 


pared  with  insulating  materials  of  lower 
efficiency ;  and  that  it  is  slow  burning  and 
fire-retarding. 

W.  M.  Duncan,  of  New  York,  whose 
specialty  is  the  building  of  high  class 
refrigerators,  had  a  large  part  in  fitting 
the  government's  line  of  ships  to  Panama 
with  the  refrigerators  for  storing  perishable 
supplies  for  use  on  the  Canal  Zone.  He 
also  furnished  refrigeration  equipment  for 
some  of  the  commissary  department  build- 
ings on  the  zone. 

Immediately  on  the  beginning  of  the 
American  regime  at  the  Isthmus,  Hutchin- 
son  Bros.,  of  Baltimore,  manufacturers  of 
furnaces,  ranges,  and  hotel  kitchen  appar- 
atus, filled  an  order  for  ten  large  ranges. 
Their  construction  and  wearing  qualities 
secured  many  duplicate  orders  as  the  army 
on  the  Canal  Zone  increased.  The  ship- 
ments continued  for  more  than  six  years, 
the  equipment  growing  as  the  size  of  the 
working  army  grew.  The  ranges  were  of 
steel,  varying  from  four  and  one-half  to 
twelve  foot  sizes,  and  were  used  at  the 
Isthmus  camps,  hotels,  and  hospitals.  All 
were  turned  out  at  the  Hutchinson  fac- 
tory. 

Flour  in  great  quantities  was  supplied  the 
canal  workers  by  Holt  &  Company  of  New 
York,  an  old  firm  which  has  been  a  pioneer 
in  American  and  South  American  fields 
of  trade,  and  which  therefore  naturally 
had  a  great  share  in  the  business  at  the 
canal. 

Enormous  quantities  of  coffee  were 
shipped  for  the  use  of  the  men  on  the  Isth- 
mus. In  the  period  between  1908  and 
1912  the  William  B.  Harris  Company,  of 
New  York,  dealer  in  coffees,  teas,  spices, 
and  cocoa,  shipped  827,903  pounds  of  green 
coffee,  99,295  pounds  of  roasted  coffee, 
99,295  pounds  of  cocoa,  1,315  pounds  of 
tea,  and  31,891  pounds  of  spices.  This 
firm  continued  its  shipments  until  the 
completion  of  the  canal.  These  supplies 
were  selected  for  their  quality  under  com- 
petitive bids,  and  were  afterward  demanded 
on  account  of  their  popularity  with  the 
canal  army.  To  meet  the  climatic  con- 


ditions on  the  Zone  the  tea,  spices,  and 
cocoa  were  supplied  in  tins,  with  each  tin 
wrapped  in  parchment  paper  and  sealed. 

In  supplying  the  cooking  equipment  for 
the  canal  army,  the  city  of  Baltimore 
appears  to  have  been  the  chief  resource 
of  the  commissary  officials.  The  S.  B. 
Sexton  Stove  and  Manufacturing  Company, 
of  Baltimore,  furnished  for  the  Canal  Zone 
about  600  cast  iron  ranges  of  various  sizes, 
which  were  used  not  only  in  the  construc- 
tion camps,  but  in  the  "bachelor"  quarters 
and  family  housekeeping  quarters  as  well. 
Many  of  this  company's  ranges  were 
shipped  through  other  concerns  under 
separate  contracts,  all  being  manufactured 
in  the  company's  Baltimore  shops. 

Among  the  commissary  supplies  fur- 
nished for  the  canal  were  the  wares  manu- 
factured by  the  Gorham  Manufacturing 
Company,  of  Providence,  R.  I.  The  rise 
of  this  company  from  insignificant  be- 
ginnings is  typical  of  the  American  thrift 
and  inventive  genius  which  have  helped  so 
greatly  to  place  this  country  in  the  front 
rank  of  commercial  and  manufacturing 
nations. 

Its  founder  was  Jabez  Gorham,  whose 
itinerant  tradings  for  eighteen  years  from 
his  small  shop  in  Providence  ended  in  1831 
in  a  partnership  then  formed  for  the  manu- 
facture of  silver  spoons  and  other  small 
ware.  From  this  partnership  Jabez  with- 
drew in  1847  to  interest  himself  in  the 
Eagle  Screw  Company,  which  he  lived  to 
see  built  up  into  a  large  establishment. 
His  son,  John  Gorham,  who  succeeded  him, 
immediately  enlarged  his  father's  plant, 
and  in  1850  conceived  the  idea  of  entering 
into  the  general  manufacture  of  silver- 
ware. The  process  of  spoon  making  had 
already  advanced  from  crude  hand  work 
at  a  common  blacksmith's  forge,  but,  in 
order  to  look  into  its  further  development, 
John  Gorham  made  a  trip  to  Europe  to  in- 
vestigate methods  in  England  and  on  the 
continent.  The  shops  of  Sheffield  and 
Birmingham  were  visited,  where  his  de- 
clared intent  to  make  American  goods  equal 
to  any  of  England  was  greeted  as  a  char- 


428 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


acteristic  Yankee  boast.  John  paved  the 
way  to  the  fulfilment  of  his  boast,  however, 
by  beginning  as  a  workman  in  a  London 
establishment,  and  when  he  had  mastered 
the  details  he  returned  to  this  country, 
bringing  other  skilled  workmen  with  him. 

From  that  time  to  the  present,  the  prog- 
ress of  the  company  has  been  one  of  unin- 
terrupted success.  In  addition  to  its  line 
of  silverware,  the  company  has  been  en- 
gaged in  the  production  of  plated  ware  of 
the  highest  grade.  In  1889  its  plant  was 
greatly  enlarged  through  the  purchase  of 
thirty  acres  of  land,  where  buildings  were 
erected  for  existing  needs  and  with  plenty 
of  room  for  expansion.  The  present  presi- 
dent of  the  company,  Edward  Holbrook, 
has  advanced  through  all  its  branches  from 
the  minor  position  which  he  occupied  when 
he  came  into  its  employment  in  1870,  to 
complete  control. 

The  wares  made  by  the  Gorham  Com- 
pany are  not  confined  to  silver  and  electro- 
plate. It  has  a  special  department  for  the 
designing  and  manufacturing  of  metal 
work  of  all  descriptions,  including  stat- 
uary work,  bas-reliefs,  tablets,  etc.  A 
notable  example  of  this  work  was  the  life 
size  statue  of  Columbus,  modeled  by  the 
noted  French  sculptor,  Bartholdi,  and  cast 
by  the  Gorham  Company  and  exhibited  at 
the  Columbian  Exposition  at  Chicago. 

Not  the  least  interesting  feature  of  the 
history  of.  this  company  is  the  considera- 
tion that  it  has  paid  to  the  welfare  of  its 
employees.  In  its  "Casino,"  so  called, 
erected  at  a  cost  of  $40,000,  are  lunch 
rooms,  sitting  rooms,  and  a  library,  the 
administration  of  which  is  controlled  by 
committees  composed  partly  of  employees 
and  partly  of  members  of  the  company. 
The  privileges  of  these  quarters  are  avail- 
able to  the  employees  at  a  nominal  cost, 
whatever  deficit  that  may  ensue  being 
borne  by  the  company.  A  "Workman's 
Loan  Association"  has  also  been  formed 
for  the  benefit  of  the  employees  in  tempo- 
rary emergencies,  and  a  pension  system 
having  favorable  features  is  carried  on  by 
the  company,  at  its  own  expense,  in  the 


interest  of  the  several  thousand  men  and 
women  in  its  employ. 

The  Paris  Exposition  of  1900  awarded 
the  Grand  Prix  to  the  Gorham  Mfg.  Com- 
pany, and  gave  the  president  of  the  com- 
pany (Edward  Holbrook)  the  decoration 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor.  Awards  have 
also  been  received  by  the  company  as  fol- 
lows: Centennial  Exposition  at  Philadel- 
phia, 1876;  International  Exposition,  Paris, 
1889;  Columbian  Exposition,  Chicago, 
1893;  International  Exposition,  Buffalo, 
1901 ;  International  Exposition,  St.  Louis, 
1904. 

FOOD  FOR  THE  ARMY 

Visitors  to  the  canal  who  were  privileged 
to  get  a  glimpse  of  the  routine  inner  life 
will  recall  a  familiar  picture  of  workmen 
going  to  their  places  of  labor  carrying 
round  yellow  tins.  Often,  as  they  went, 
they  munched  a  food  poured  from  the  tin 
into  the  hand.  This  food,  which  played 
no  inconsiderable  part  in  "building"  the 
canal,  was  the  well-known  article  of  diet 
"Grape-Nuts." 

The  mention  of  Grape-Nuts  in  this  con- 
nection is  peculiarly  pertinent.  Not 
merely  because  Grape-Nuts  is  a  food — for 
of  course  proper  food  was  an  integral  part 
of  the  big  enterprise — but  because  it  is  a 
cereal  food  which  successfully  withstood 
the  effects  of  a  tropical  climate.  This 
characteristic  of  Grape-Nuts  was  pretty 
well  known,  and  constituted  a  cogent  reason 
for  its  selection  for  use  in  the  Canal  Zone. 

An  intimate  history  of  the  food  problem 
in  the  early  operations  at  Panama  would 
make  fascinating  reading.  One  of  the  very 
first  considerations  in  any  such  project 
is  the  commissary.  Indeed,  in  an  enter- 
prise like  this,  involving  the  transporta- 
tion of  supplies  thousands  of  miles  from 
the  home  base,  and  the  feeding  of  a  host, 
the  problem  assumes  the  magnitude  of 
provisioning  an  invading  army. 

The  purely  technical  side  of  the  build- 
ing of  the  canal  was  one  of  the  most  com- 
plex of  undertakings.  The  strenuous  ef- 
forts of  America's  foremost  engineers  were 


1.  Disrupting  effects  of  the  slides  in  Culebra  Cut. 

2.  Wreck  caused  by  slides. 


Jo- 


1.  Electric  towing  locomotives  passing  from  one  level  to  the  next  one  above  on  the  lock  walls. 

2.  View  showing  size  of  the  wall  culverts  through  which  the  water  is  let  into  or  out  of  a  lock  chamber  to  lift  a  ship  up  or  drop 

it  down. 


A  FOOD   FOR  THE  TROPICS 


429 


applied  to  the  gigantic  task  of  overcoming 
almost  insuperable  obstacles.  But  inter- 
mixed with  the  main  problem  was  the 
seemingly  never-ending  and  quite  as  im- 
portant problem  of  sanitation  and  diet  in 
their  manifold  aspects. 

The  subject  of  food  is  intimately  related 
to  that  of  sanitation.  It  is  virtually  a 
part  of  it,  for  naturally  the  problem  of  sup- 
ply hinges  in  great  degree  on  what  to 
supply.  As  to  the  deteriorating  effects  of 
tropical  climates  upon  foodstuffs,  every 
traveler — especially  one  who  finds  it  de- 
sirable or  necessary  to  remain  for  a  time  in 
such  climates — knows  well  the  peculiar 
obstacles  encountered  in  obtaining  foods 
to  which  he  has  been  accustomed.  Very 
few  of  the  "home"  foods  can  be  had  in 
fresh  condition,  because  of  the  extreme 
rapidity  with  which  fresh  or  exposed  food 
spoils  in  the  tropics. 

Particularly  is  this  true  of  flour  and  ordi- 
nary breadstuffs.  The  rule,  however,  finds 
an  exception  in  Grape-Nuts.  This  food  is 
so  thoroughly  baked  that  it  keeps  almost 
indefinitely  in  any  climate,  as  has  been 
demonstrated  again  and  again.  Polar  ex- 
plorers have  taken  Grape-Nuts  with  them 
in  their  dashes  into  the  Arctic,  and  travel- 
ers have  carried  the  food  with  them  in  slow 
caravan  journeys  across  deserts.  One  finds 
Grape-Nuts  on  transoceanic  steamships, 
in  the  islands  of  the  seas,  in  Alaska,  South 
America,  Japan,  along  the  China  Coast, 
in  Manila,  Australia,  South  Africa,  and 
on  highways  of  travel  and  the  byways  of 
the  jungle — in  short,  wherever  minimum 
of  bulk  and  maximum  of  nourishment  are 
requisite  in  food  which  has  to  be  trans- 
ported long  distances,  and  often  under 
extreme  difficulties.  The  very  enviable 
reputation  which  Grape-Nuts  has  attained 
in  these  respects  caused  it  to  be  chosen  as 
one  of  the  foods  for  the  Canal  Zone. 

A  word  as  to  the  nature  and  processing 
of  this  food:  Grape-Nuts  is  made  from 
prime  wheat  and  malted  barley,  with  a  bit 
of  yeast  and  salt.  The  barley  is  first 
malted  in  order  to  develop  the  diastase 
ferment — a  ferment  which  converts  starch 


into  sugar.  The  malted  barley  is  ground 
and  combined  in  proper  proportions  with 
flour  made  from  whole  wheat.  A  dough 
is  then  made,  formed  into  large  loaves  and 
baked  in  highly  heated  ovens. 

These  loaves  are  cooled  and  afterward 
baked  a  second  time  in  slow  heat  for  some 
twenty  hours.  From  this  second  baking 
the  loaves  come  almost  rock  hard.  They 
are  then  crushed  into  the  toothsome  gran- 
ules so  familiar  in  the  commercial  package. 

The  long,  slow  baking  produces  a  par- 
tially predigested  food,  for  a  large  per- 
centage of  the  starch  of  the  grain  is  thus 
mechanically  converted  into  grape-sugar 
(dextrose),  in  a  manner  very  similar  to 
the  change  which  such  food  undergoes  dur- 
ing natural  digestion.  The  balance  of  the 
starchy  portions  of  the  grain  is  thus  also 
thoroughly  broken  down  or  dextrinized. 
Grape-Nuts  digests  very  quickly,  usually  in 
about  one  hour. 

This  thorough  processing  prepares  Grape- 
Nuts  for  long  keeping,  even  under  unfa- 
vorable conditions,  and  it  has  been  particu- 
larly noted  that  it  is  practically  never 
contaminated  by  proximity  to  other  food 
products,  even  if  such  products  should  be 
in  a  decaying  condition.  This  is  in  marked 
contrast  to  most  cereal  package  goods. 
For  foreign  shipment  Grape-Nuts  is  packed 
in  air-tight  sanitary  tin  packages  that 
keep  the  food  fresh  and  crisp. 

Grape-Nuts  is  ready  to  eat  from  the 
package,  and  represents  probably  more 
concentrated  and  perfect  nourishment  than 
any  other  prepared  cereal.  All  the  valua- 
ble phosphates  and  other  minerals  of  the 
grain  are  retained  in  this  food.  This  can- 
not be  said  of  most  cereal  preparations. 
And  yet  these  minerals,  such  as  phosphorus, 
sulphur,  iron,  etc.,  are  regarded  by  modern 
science  as  all-essential  for  health  and  for 
proper  building  and  rebuilding  of  body, 
brain,  and  nerves. 

It  goes  without  argument  that  better 
and  more  work  can  be  done  on  a  food  of 
this  nature  than  on  foods  lacking  the  vital 
phosphates.  It  is  also  obvious  that  a  food 
as  easily  digested  as  Grape-Nuts  is  ideal 


430 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


for  hot  weather  and  tropical  needs,  by 
reason  of  the  slight  expenditure  of  energy 
required  in  digestion  and  assimilation — 
producing  less  body  heat  in  the  digestion 
than  with  less  thoroughly  processed  or 
ordinary  foods.  In  addition  to  its  nutri- 
tional worth,  Grape-Nuts  possesses  a  very 
pleasing  sweetness  and  delightful  flavor. 
It  is  not  surprising  that  Canal  Zone  labor- 
ers frequently  ate  the  food  dry,  and  en- 
joyed it. 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  as  early  as 
January,  1906,  when  the  Government 
Board,  in  its  report  on  the  finish  of  the 
accepted  type  of  lock  canal,  had  named 
January  I,  1915,  as  the  final  date,  there 
had  already  been  shipped  into  the  Canal 
Zone,  on  order  of  the  Panama  Railroad, 
large  quantities  of  Grape-Nuts,  anticipa- 
tory of  the  huge  orders  that  were  to  follow. 

Reverting,  as  a  parting  reminiscence  of  a 
trip  through  the  Canal  Zone,  to  the  details 
of  that  complex  picture,  it  is  recalled  that 
at  certain  stages  in  the  progress  of  the 
work,  one  of  the  suggestive  features  was 
the  empty  yellow  Grape-Nuts  tins,  bear- 
ing testimony  to  the  general  distribution 
of  a  product  that  has  become  in  a  compara- 
tively brief  period  of  time,  not  only  a 
national,  but  a  world  food. 

How  the  cost  of  living  was  kept  down 
by  the  canal  authorities  has  been  told  in 
another  chapter  of  this  work.  A  firm 
that  more  than  did  its  share  in  holding 
down  the  cost  of  living  for  the  canal  au- 
thorities was  Sulzberger  &  Sons  Company, 
of  Chicago.  From  three  to  seven  cars 
of  meat  were  shipped  weekly  to  the  com- 
missary department  by  the  Sulzberger 
Company.  The  cars  were  loaded  with 
hindquarters  and  straight  carcasses  of  the 
best  corn-fed  native  steers;  hams  and 
bacon,  prepared  from  the  finest  young  pork- 
ers, cured  by  hickory  smoke;  all  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  sausages;  barreled  pork, 
and  pure  lard  and  compound.  The  com- 
pany also  shipped  to  the  commissary  de- 
partment large  quantities  of  canned  meats. 

The  Cudahy  Packing  Company,  of 
Chicago,  supplied  the  Canal  Commission 


with  large  quantities  of  canned  meats, 
beef  extract,  and  barreled  beef.  The 
goods  were  packed  under  government  in- 
spection, requiring  the  highest  quality  of 
products. 

The  Canal  Commission  contracted  with 
L.  F.  Frank  &  Company,  of  New  Orleans, 
for  a  supply  of  fresh  eggs,  the  demand 
being  for  between  25,000  and  30,000  cases 
annually.  The  shipments  were  made 
weekly,  and  were  packed  especially  for 
the  voyage  to  the  Isthmus. 

Fruit  was  an  important  article  of  diet 
for  the  canal  army,  and  enormous  quanti- 
ties of  both  fresh  and  canned  fruits  were 
consumed  during  construction.  Of  the 
firms  which  supplied  the  workers  with 
fresh  fruits,  probably  the  one  handling  the 
greatest  quantity  and  variety  was  S. 
Segari  &  Company,  of  New  Orleans.  With 
a  port  accessible  to  Panama,  and  with  facil- 
ities for  quick  delivery  of  fruit  in  good 
condition,  this  company  had  an  active 
share  in  keeping  the  canal  army  plentifully 
supplied  with  all  kinds  of  fruit  and  market 
produce.  Their  shipments  ran  through- 
out the  period  of  construction,  and  con- 
tinued after  the  canal  was  completed. 

Until  the  advent  of  the  Americans  on 
the  Panama  Canal,  American  butter  was 
little  known  in  Central  America. 
It  is  a  curious  fact  that  nearly  all  the  but- 
ter consumed,  even  on  the  west  coast  of 
Mexico  and  Central  America,  was  shipped 
from  Europe.  Panama  received  its  first 
American  butter  from  the  wholesale  and 
commission  firm  of  Nollman  &  Company, 
of  New  York,  which  made  heavy  ship- 
ments for  the  canal  army.  In  the  period 
between  Jan.  30,  1909,  and  Feb.  20, 
1913,  14,765  packages  of  butter  in  tubs 
and  prints,  valued  at  $288,246,  were 
shipped  to  the  Canal  Zone  by, this  firm. 

With  the  establishment  of  homes  along 
the  canal,  a  new  generation  of  Americans 
began  to  appear.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
construction  period  facilities  for  fresh  milk 
were  not  good,  but  the  little  new-comers 
found  in  Mellen's  food  a  timely  and  satis- 
fying nourishment.  Large  quantities  of 


THE  AMERICAN  SHOE 


431 


this  well-known  American  product  were 
used  on  the  Canal  Zone  during  its  occupa- 
tion by  the  construction  army. 

The  export  department  of  the  Corn 
Products  Refining  Company,  of  New  York, 
of  which  George  S.  Mahana  is  manager, 
shipped  large  quantities  of  "Karo,"  to- 
gether with  supplies  of  modified  Erken- 
brecher's  starch.  "Karo"  was  used  by  the 
hotels  and  restaurants  on  the  Canal  Zone, 
and  the  starch  by  the  steam  laundry  at 
Cristobal.  With  its  introduction  on  the 
Canal  Zone,  and  in  anticipation  of  open- 
ing the  canal,  this  company  increased  its 
facilities  for  handling  business  in  South 
and  Central  America,  and  its  products 
are  expected  before  long  to  become  as  well 
known  in  the  southern  continent  as  they 
are  in  the  United  States. 

FOOTWEAR  AND  CLOTHING 

High  quality  shoes  were  supplied  the 
canal  workers  by  the  Dugan  &  Hudson 
Company,  of  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  a  firm 
which  made  many  shipments  of  shoes 
that  were  used  by  the  canal  officers  and 
heads  of  departments,  and  their  families. 
The  laborers'  heavier  shoes  were  furnished 
by  other  concerns.  The  Dugan  &  Hudson 
contracts,  which  ran  over  a  number  of 
years,  were  based  on  the  quality  of  their 
product  as  shown  by  their  submitted  sam- 
ples. The  quality  of  the  leather  was  such 
that  it  easily  withstood  the  rigor  of  the 
Isthmian  climate. 

In  the  three  years  following  the  spring 
of  1910,  the  Stetson  Shoe  Company,  of 
South  Weymouth,  Mass.,  filled  sixteen 
contracts  for  fine  shoes  for  the  canal  army. 
These  shoes  were  made  in  one  of  the  best 
equipped  of  modern  factories,  by  master 
workmen  in  their  craft,  supervised  by 
shoe  experts,  and  the  satisfaction  given  was 
evidenced  by  the  long  line  of  contracts. 

Another  company  which  furnished  shoes 
in  large  quantities  was  the  Keiffer  Bros. 
Company,  of  New  Orleans. 

The  use  of  the  Panama  Canal  will  not 
only  stimulate  reciprocal  commercial  deal- 
ings between  the  United  States  and  the 


countries  to  the  south,  but  will  also  stimu- 
late and  broaden  the  industrial  life  of  every 
Latin-American  country.  Not  only  in  ex- 
ports from  and  imports  to  the  United 
States,  but  in  domestic  manufactures  will 
there  be  growth,  and  there  is  ample  oppor- 
tunity and  room  for  development  there 
along  both  these  lines. 

The  imports  of  boots  and  shoes,  for 
example,  into  South  America  are  consid- 
erable— and  will  increase,  naturally,  under 
the  new  conditions — but  the  nations  in  the 
southern  hemisphere  are  so  extensive  that 
there  is  an  enormous  field  undeveloped  for 
the  importation  from  the  United  States 
of  the  manufactured  product,  and  at  the 
same  time  for  the  establishment  of  shoe 
factories  for  local  manufacture.  Particu- 
larly in  supplying  medium  grades  of  foot- 
wear is  there  great  opportunity  for  this 
branch  of  domestic  industry.  Both  im- 
ported American-made  shoes  and  shoes 
manufactured  on  American-made  machines 
in  local  factories  will  be  a  greater  feature 
of  commerce  and  industry  than  ever  before 
in  the  twenty  Latin-American  countries, 
with  an  area  three  times  that  of  the  United 
States  and  a  population  seven-tenths  as 
large. 

The  future  development  of  the  Latin- 
American  countries,  with  their  70,000,000 
inhabitants,  should  follow  the  history  of 
the  United  States  in  many  ways.  This 
can  be  predicted  especially  in  the  line  of 
such  industries  as  the  manufacture  of 
boots  and  shoes.  This  is  the  eighth  largest 
industry  in  the  United  States,  and  the 
fourth  among  manufacturing  industries. 
Over  $225,000,000  is  invested  therein; 
there  are  over  200,000  wage  earners,  and 
the  annual  manufactured  product  is  valued 
at  over  half  a  billion  dollars.  The  manu- 
facture of  shoes  on  American  standards 
will  be  a  splendid  field  for  the  enterprise 
of  South  American  business  men. 

The  chief  reason  why  American-made 
shoes  are  better,  more  stylish,  and  of  greater 
value  than  any  others  in  the  world  is  be- 
cause there  are  now  machines  to  perform 
the  many  processes  in  shoemaking.  Prior 


432 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


to  1850  practically  every  part  of  shoemak- 
ing  was  a  hand  process,  while  to-day  a 
machine  performs  each  of  the  early  proc- 
esses with  greater  accuracy,  rapidity,  and 
economy,  and  many  new  processes.  In  a 
large  and  up-to-date  factory  as  many  as 
sixty  different  machines  are  used  to  make 
the  best  shoes  for  men  and  women  by  the 
Goodyear  welt  process,  and  300  different 
machines  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
the  many  kinds  of  footwear. 

That  this  is  an  age  of  machinery,  speed, 
service  and  system,  for  the  saving  of  time 
and  expense  and  the  multiplying  of  prod- 
uct, is  shown  in  no  direction  more  em- 
phatically than  in  shoe  manufacture.  The 
wonderful  growth  of  this  industry  in  the 
United  States,  and  especially  the  success 
and  prosperity  of  the  small  manufacturer, 
has  been  made  possible  very  largely  through 
the  machinery  and  service  to  be  obtained 
from  the  United  Shoe  Machinery  Com- 
pany. And  there  is  a  very  interesting  and 
valuable  example  here  for  all  South  and 
Central  American  countries. 

Manufacturers,  large  or  small,  obtain 
machinery  on  equal  and  equitable  terms. 
Through  its  products  and  expert  service 
the  United  Shoe  Machinery  Company 
lowers  the  cost  of  manufacture,  simplifies 
the  problems,  and  facilitates  the  business 
of  every  shoe  manufacturer  and  retailer  and 
helps  to  bring  the  best  shoes  within  the 
reach  of  all  the  people. 

The  United  Shoe  Machinery  Company 
equips  factories  with  the  best  shoe  ma- 
chinery in  the  world,  both  by  direct  sale 
and  by  leasing  or  rental.  The  leasing  sys- 
tem in  connection  with  shoe  machinery 
was  inaugurated  by  Gordon  McKay  in 
1 86 1,  at  the  time  of  the  Civil  War,  when 
great  difficulty  was  encountered  in  getting 
manufacturers  to  purchase  outright  ma- 
chines for  sewing  the  uppers  to  the  soles. 
This  practice  of  paying  for  the  use  of 
machines,  by  which  the  manufacturer  was 
enabled  to  use  his  capital  in  other  direc- 
tions, because  of  its  value  and  advantages, 
quickly  became  an  established  and  per- 
manent feature  of  the  shoe  manufacturing 


industry,  and  has  been  so  recognized  by 
the  1,200  or  more  American  shoe  manufac- 
turers ever  since.  The  application  of  this 
system  by  the  United  Shoe  Machinery 
Company  in  Latin-America  will  prove  of 
similar  value  to  all  concerned,  and  will  be 
the  means  of  stimulating  the  small  shoe 
manufacturer  throughout  Central  America 
along  the  Canal  Zone,  and  in  South  America. 
The  varying  climatic  and  topographical 
conditions  existing  in  the  different  coun- 
tries of  Central  and  South  America  make 
the  shoe  problem  to  a  considerable  extent  a 
special  one  for  each  country,  but  American 
invention  and  mechanical  skill  have  already 
provided  machines  adapted  to  the  manu- 
facture of  every  kind  of  footwear.  The 
shoe  industry  is  more  advanced  in  some  of 
these  countries  than  in  others.  To-day, 
here  and  there  are  factories  which  manu- 
facture light  Goodyear  welt  shoes,  turn 
shoes,  and  McKays.  Under  the  stimulus  of 
the  new  conditions  it  is  inevitable  that  the 
future  will  bring  a  demand  for  the  improved 
machines  and  expert  attention  which  have 
assisted  so  much  in  giving  American-made 
footwear  its  world-wide  superiority.  The 
countries  which  have  shoe  factories  already 
started  will  progress  further,  and  those 
where  the  industry  has  not  started  will 
take  it  up.  This  is  as  inevitable  in  Latin 
America  as  in  those  other  parts  of  the 
world,  where  a  few  years  ago  the  making 
of  shoes  was  limited  to  native  hand  proc- 
esses and  methods.  The  American  shoe 
is  growing  in  favor  because  of  its  style, 
fit,  and  finish,  and  American-made  ma- 
chinery will  be  called  into  use  for  local  pro- 
duction in  order  to  make  a  good  shoe  at  a 
low  cost.  The  native  and  small  manufac- 
turer producing  handmade  footwear  will 
gradually  give  way  before  the  factory 
equipped  with  American  machinery  and 
with  American  methods  of  manufacture. 
The  situation  is  much  the  same  as  it  was 
in  the  United  States  forty  years  ago. 
Since  then,  and  especially  in  the  last  twenty 
years,  the  growth  of  the  shoe  manufactur- 
ing industry  has  been  an  industrial  marvel, 
impelled  by  improved  machinery  and 


WEARING  APPAREL  AT   PANAMA 


433 


efficient  service.  What  has  been  done  in 
the  United  States  is  not  impossible  of 
repetition  in  Latin-America. 

The  commission  bought  a  sample  case  of 
boots  of  the  Rubberhide  Company,  Bos- 
ton, Mass.,  in  1908.  Then  bids  were 
regularly  issued  for  similar  merchandise 
"equal  to  Rubberhide." 

In  merchandise  of  this  nature  for  long, 
hard,  tearing  wear  in  water,  the  quality 
of  material,  workmanship,  and  peculiarity 
of  construction  are  the  standards  of  com- 
parison. The  judgment  of  the  commis- 
sion, based  upon  careful,  thorough  tests, 
was  given  in  accordance  with  the  facts. 

The  Rubberhide  Company  received  all 
orders  on  which  it  submitted  prices  for 
the  special  make  of  boots  demanded  by  the 
commission,  the  specifications  being  that 
they  should  be  of  "long  wear,  absolutely 
watertight,  and  easy  to  resole." 

The  boots  furnished  by  the  Rubberhide 
Company  were  used  by  the  men  employed 
in  concrete  construction  and  other  work 
of  a  like  nature,  in  which  they  had  to  stand 
in  water.  The  unique  feature  of  the 
Rubberhide  boot  consisted  in  the  manner 
of  fastening  the  leather  sole  to  the  upper, 
by  sewing,  thus  producing  a  water-tight 
leather-soled  rubber  boot  that  was  im- 
pervious to  water,  and  which  could  be 
resoled  without  losing  its  watertight 
qualities. 

The  shipping  of  hats  to  Panama — sup- 
posedly the  birthplace  and  home  of  the 
Panama  hat — would  seem  at  first  thought 
as  unlikely  and  unprofitable  as  carrying 
coals  to  Newcastle,  or  exporting  Toledo 
blades  to  sunny  Spain.  Nevertheless,  there 
was  a  demand  for  hats  that  all  Panama 
could  not  supply,  and  in  meeting  it  Ameri- 
can goods  scored  another,  even  though 
unexpected,  triumph  at  the  canal. 

The  succcessful  firm  in  entering  and  hold- 
ing the  hat  market  at  the  Isthmus  was  Blum 
&  Koch,  of  New  York,  hat  manufacturer 
and  maker  of  the  only  straw  hats  sold  in 
this  country  under  a  recognized  trade- 
mark. The  Panama  orders  came  to  the 
firm  entirely  unsolicited.  There  arose  a 


demand  at  the  Zone  for  Blum  &  Koch 
straw  hats,  which  the  commissary  met  at 
once,  and  for  the  last  four  years  of  con- 
struction the  firm  made  large  shipments 
repeatedly  to  supply  the  workers  in  the 
tropics  with  the  particular  kind  of  head- 
gear they  required. 

The  John  B.  Stetson  Company,  of  Phila- 
delphia, received  orders  for  nearly  $100,000 
worth  of  fine  fur  felt  hats  for  workers  at 
Panama. 

Felt  hats  of  the  high  grade  produced  by 
this  company  are  recognized  as  being 
better  adapted  for  white  men  who  work  in 
the  tropics  than  any  other  kind  of  head 
covering.  This  is  evidenced  not  only  by 
the  heavy  orders  received  from  Panama, 
but  by  the  continual  orders  from  South 
and  Central  America  generally,  Australia, 
and  the  Hawaiian  and  Philippine  Islands. 
Stetson  hats  have  established  a  reputation 
the  world  over  as  the  finest  quality  that 
can  be  made,  giving  the  best  service  under 
severe  climatic  conditions  and  hard  usage. 

The  Eagle  shirts,  manufactured  by 
Jacob  Miller,  Sons  &  Company,  of  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.,  were  already  well  known  to 
the  army  officers  at  the  canal,  and  the  first 
order  for  that  necessary  article  of  wearing 
apparel  came  to  the  company  from  the 
Isthmus  without  solicitation.  The  busi- 
ness carried  on  by  Jacob  Miller,  Sons  & 
Company  is  unique  in  its  particular  line,  as 
it  is  the  only  firm  engaged  in  the  shirt 
industry  that  both  weaves  and  manufac- 
tures its  own  materials,  in  verification  of 
its  favorite  phrase,  "From  Loom  to 
Wearer."  Every  shirt  sent  by  the  firm  to 
the  Isthmus  contained  a  guarantee  slip  for 
satisfactory  workmanship  and  durability. 

As  an  indication  of  the  size  and  needs 
of  the  canal  army,  it  is  interesting  to  note 
that  in  a  single  year  Isaac  Lehmann, 
export  broker  and  manufacturers'  agent, 
of  New  York,  shipped  to  the  Canal  Zone 
wearing  material  totaling  a  quarter  million 
dollars  in  value.  These  shipments  in- 
cluded overalls,  working  shirts,  and  other 
material  for  the  men,  and  under  the  re- 
quirements were  what  is  known  as  the 


434 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


standard  make  in  the  United  States. 
Under  this  requirement  the  canal  workers 
received  the  very  best  material  at  manu- 
facturers' prices. 

The  question  of  underwear  might  be 
thought  insignificant  as  a  factor  in  the 
canal  building,  yet  taking  into  considera- 
tion that  the  bodily  comfort  of  a  man  to  a 
great  degree  controls  his  efficiency  as  a 
workman,  it  can  readily  be  seen  it  is  an  im- 
portant factor.  The  B.  V.  D.  Company, 
of  New  York,  furnished  thousands  of  suits 
for  the  workmen  in  the  Canal  Zone,  and 
its  product  was  found  especially  adapted 
to  the  climatic  conditions'  on  the  Isthmus. 

Among  the  American  firms  that  con- 
tributed their  part  to  the  comfort  of  the 
thousands  of  workers  on  the  Panama  Canal 
there  is  one  which  congratulates  itself 
upon  the  fact  that  its  most  important 
manufactured  product  is  trodden  under 
foot  all  over  the  world.  Nor  is  it  at  all 
strange  that  it  should  take  pride  in  this 
unusual  condition,  since  its  main  article 
of  manufacture  is  hosiery — an  article  which, 
whether  considered  from  the  standpoint  of 
style,  attractiveness,  durability,  or  com- 
fort, properly  engrosses  no  little  thought  on 
the  part  of  its  wearers. 

This  firm  is  that  of  Lord  &  Taylor,  whose 
"Onyx"  hosiery  is  known  in  every  city 
and  hamlet  of  the  land.  Its  center  of 
manufacture  and  wholesale  distribution 
is  in  New  York  City,  but  it  also  has  offices  in 
Boston,  Chicago,  Philadelphia,  and  San 
Francisco,  as  well  as  old-world  branches  in 
Manchester,  Paris,  and  Chemnitz. 

The  firm  of  Lord  &  Taylor  was  estab- 
lished in  1826.  Lord  &  Taylor  occupy  the 
largest  building  in  America  or  the  world 
devoted  to  hosiery,  and  house  the  largest 
supply  kept  on  hand  by  any  firm  engaged 
in  a  similar  business.  There  is  no  class 
of  hosiery  that  is  not  manufactured  by  this 
firm,  and  the  style  and  make  are  suited  to 
every  climate,  adapted  to  meet  every  taste, 
and  equal  to  every  occasion,  at  all  prices. 
This  variety  in  make  and  cost,  together 
with  its  unchallenged  record  for  comfort 
and  durability,  accounts  for  its  wide  use 


in  the  Canal  Zone,  where  thousands  of 
pairs  were  sold  to  the  busy  laborers  as  well 
as  to  the  clerical  and  executive  forces. 
Lord  &  Taylor  are  also  manufacturers  of 
hand  made  underwear,  which  line  of  sup- 
plies was  likewise  largely  sold  in  the  Isth- 
mus. Their  goods  are  in  demand  through- 
out all  of  South  America — throughout  all 
the  world,  for  that  matter,  seeing  that 
the  inhabitants  of  England,  France,  Ger- 
many, Russia,  Italy,  Canada,  Africa,  and 
India  are  numbered  among  its  patrons — 
its  entire  output  reaching  the  enormous 
figure  of  $10,000,000  a  year. 

Every  device  that  promised  utility  was 
used  to  make  comfortable  the  condition 
of  the  employees  engaged  in  the  work  of 
construction.  The  rays  of  the  tropical 
sun  and  the  torrential  rains  were  things 
to  be  provided  against.  As  an  instance 
of  this  care  and  foresight,  hundreds  of 
dozens  of  small  and  large  umbrellas  were 
purchased  from  the  Hulse  Bros.  &  Daniel 
Company,  of  New  York.  This  firm  sup- 
plied from  loo  to  300  dozens  of  these  um- 
brellas each  year  during  the  continuance  of 
the  construction  work.  The  umbrellas 
were  specially  constructed  for  the  Canal 
Zone,  with  a  view  to  the  best  service  in 
tropical  countries.  Copper  wire  was  used 
instead  of  steel,  and  the  handles  were  riv- 
eted on,  because  in  the  climate  of  the  Isth- 
mus, the  ordinary  method  of  gluing  would 
not  have  been  efficient.  Large  quantities 
of  umbrellas  were  of  an  extra  large  size, 
especially  desirable  during  the  rainy  sea- 
sons. In  the  construction  of  these  um- 
brellas natural  wood  rods  and  bamboo 
handles  were  used,  owing  to  their  light 
construction  and  large  spread.  Supplying 
these  umbrellas  for  the  comfort  of  the  em- 
ployees was  but  a  part  of  the  great  sani- 
tary measures  adopted  for  the  comfort 
and  health  of  those  engaged  in  the  active 
work,  and  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the 
measures  which  aided  to  cut  down  the  rate 
of  mortality  to  a  very  low  figure  for  a  tropi- 
cal country. 

Other  American  firms  which  had  part 
in  the  canal  work  were  the  American  Brass 


AMERICAN   FIRMS  PARTICIPATING 


435 


Company,  of  Waterbury,  Conn.,  sup- 
plying brass  and  other  metal  appliances; 
American  Railway  Supply  Company,  of 
New  York  City,  railway  equipment;  Ameri- 
can Metal  Company,  New  York  City, 
metals;  American  Hay  Company,  New 
York  City,  forage;  American  Negligee 
Company,  New  York  City,  clothing;  At- 
lantic, Gulf  and  Pacific  Company,  New 
York  City,  mechanical  equipment;  the 
C.  H.  Alden  Company,  Abington,  Mass., 
footwear;  the  R.  P.  Andrews  Paper  Com- 
pany, Washington,  D.  C.,  stationery;  the  G. 
S.  Baxter  Company,  of  New  York  City,  rail- 
road ties;  F.  A.  Branda  &  Company,  New 
York  City,  general  supplies;  A.  F.  Brom- 
bacher  &  Company,  New  York  City,  hard- 
ware; Best  &  Company,  Chicago,  111.,  white 
duck  material ;  the  Baltimore  Hub,  Wheel 
and  Manufacturing  Company,  Baltimore, 
Md.,hubs;  Bruce  and  Cook,  New  York  City, 
iron  pipe;  the  Buda  Company,  Chicago, 
motor  engines;  the  Cleveland  Pneumatic 
Tool  Company,  pneumatic  and  other  tools ; 
Columbian  Facing  Mills  Company,  foun- 
dry supplies ;  Herbert  Crapster,  New  York 
City,  general  manufacturers'  supplies;  Cal- 
lahan  &  Meyers,  Allentown,  Pa.;  the  H.  B. 
Claflin  Company,  New  York  City,  dry 
goods;  George  B.  Carpenter  &  Company, 
of  Chicago,  cordage;  the  Carter  Iron  Com- 
pany, of  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  iron  and  steel; 
W.  M.  Duncan,  New  York  City,  refrigera- 
tion; the  Detroit  Hoist  &  Machine  Com- 
pany, Detroit,  Mich.,  hoisting  machinery; 
John  H.  Dialogue  &  Sons,  Camden,  N.  J., 
propellers;  Eimer  &  Amend,  New  York 
City,  chemical  apparatus;  the  Electric 
Controller  &  Manufacturing  Company, 
Cleveland,  O.,  electrical  apparatus;  the 
Barrett  Manufacturing  Company  of  Phila- 
delphia, chemicals;  the  Interstate  Iron  & 
Steel  Company,  Chicago,  iron  and  steel; 
the  Jacobs  Candy  Company,  New  Orleans, 
La.,  candies;  the  Kay  &  Ess  Company, 
Dayton,  O.,  ochre;  the  Lead  Products 
Company,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  lead  chemicals; 
J.  H.  Leonard  &  Company,  New  York 
City;  the  Manicure  Novelty  Manu- 
facturing Company,  New  York  City, 


manicure  supplies;  Edgar  A.  Murray 
&  Company,  Detroit,  Mich.,  chemicals; 
the  Magor  Car  Company,  New  York  City, 
cars;  the  W.  J.  Oliver  Manufacturing 
Company,  Knoxville,  Tenn.,  machinery; 
the  Phoenix  Knitting  Works,  Milwaukee, 
Wis.,  knit  goods;  the  Ransome  Concrete 
Machine  Company,  Dunellen,  N.  J.,  con- 
crete mixing  and  other  machinery;  Ste- 
venson Brothers  &  Company,  Philadelphia, 
oils;  the  Monarch  Steel  Castings  Com- 
pany, Detroit,  Mich.,  steel  castings;  the 
Stonega  Coke  &  Coal  Company,  Phila- 
delphia, coke;  Sudeman  &  Dolson,  Galves- 
ton,  Tex.,  construction  supplies;  the  United 
States  Metal  Products  Company,  College 
Point,  L.  L,  metal  materials;  R.  C. 
Williams  &  Company,  New  York  City, 
groceries;  the  Whelock  Reinforced  Cork 
Boat  Company,  New  York  City,  boats; 
the  Western  Railway  Equipment  Com- 
pany, St.  Louis,  Mo.,  railway  supplies; 
J.  H.  Weil  &  Company,  Philadelphia, 
lifting  jacks;  Union  Tool  Company,  Tor- 
ranee,  Cal.,  tools. 

The  foregoing  chapter  gives  a  general 
outline  of  the  character  and  quality  of  the 
manufacturing  products  and  industrial 
efforts  which  entered  into  canal  construc- 
tion. More  than  3,000  American  firms,  a 
comprehensive  list  of  which  follows,  had 
the  privilege  of  participating  to  some  degree 
in  the  crowning  feat  of  human  enterprise. 
All  of  them  may  be  justly  proud  of  their 
share  and  ready  cooperation  in  contribut- 
ing to  prompt  construction,  and  to  the 
comfort  of  the  canal  army  of  employees; 
and  of  them  the  American  business  world 
may  also  be  proud,  as  exemplifying  in  high 
degree  the  best  that  American  industry  and 
commercial  ability  affords.  Many  monu- 
ments will  arise  in  honor  of  the  men  who 
dug  the  canal;  and  there  might  appropri- 
ately be  one  to  the  American  business  men, 
who,  often  to  their  heavy  financial  loss, 
stood  shoulder  to  shoulder  with  the  workers 
at  Panama  in  assisting  the  United  States 
speedily  and  successfully  to  complete 
America's  great  donation  to  the  commerce 
of  the  world. 


CHAPTER  LI  1 1 
INDUSTRIAL  ROLL  OF  HONOR,   PANAMA  CANAL 

LIST  OF  AMERICAN  PERSONS,  FIRMS,  AND  CORPORATIONS  WHO  SUPPLIED  EQUIPMENT 
FROM  THE  UNITED  STATES  FOR  THE  BUILDING  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL. 


Abbey  Effervescent  Salt  Co.,  Medicines,Montreal. 
Abendroth  &  Root  Mfg.  Co.,  Piping  Boilers,  N.  Y.  C. 
Abercrombie  &  Fitch,  Sporting  Goods,  N.  Y.  C. 
Abraham  Friedman,  Shoes,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Acme  Evans  Co.,  Flour,  Indianapolis,  Ind. 
Acme  Lumber  Co.,  Doors,  New  Orleans,  La. 
The  Acme  Road  Machinery  Co.,  Rock  Crusher, 

Frankfort,  N.  Y. 

Acorn  Lumber  Co.,  Lumber,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
J.  J.  Adams  &  Co.,  Brushes,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
Adams  &  Grace  Co.,  Stationery,  New  York  City. 
The  Adams  &  Westlake  Co.,   Railway  Supplies, 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Byron  S.  Adams,  Certificates,  Washington,  D.  C. 
R.  H.  Adams,  Linseed  Oil,  New  York  City. 
The  Addressograph  Co.,  Addressing  Machines,  N.  Y. 

A.  Adler  &  Co.,  Canned  Goods,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Karl  Adlers,  Creamery  Supplies,  New  York  City. 
Adriance,  Platt  &  Co.,  Mowers,  Poughkeepsie,  N.Y. 
The  Aetna  Powder  Co.,  Electric  Fuses,  Aetna,  Ind. 
The  Ahrens  &  Otto  Mfg.  Co.,  Kitchen  Sinks,  Louis- 
ville, Ky. 

Ajax  Forge  Co.,  Switches,  Chicago,  111. 

The  Ajax  Metal  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Akron  Metallic  Gasket  Co.,  Gaskets,  Akron,  Ohio. 

Alberger  Pump  &  Condenser  Co.,  Parts  for  Pumps, 

New  York  City. 

Albert  Mackie  Grocery  Co.,  Groceries,  New  Orleans. 
Chester    B.    Albree    Iron    Works,    Iron  and   Steel 

Goods  Allegheny,  Pa. 

Alcohol  Utilities  Co.,  Chemicals,  New  York  City. 
The  Aldon  Co.,  Car  Replacers,  Chicago,  111. 

C.  H.  Alden  Co.,  Shoes,  Abington,  Mass. 
Andrew  Alexander,  Shoes,  New  York  City. 
Alexander  Lumber  Co.,  Ltd.,  Lumber,  Alexandria, 

La. 

Edgar  Allen  Am.  Manganese  Steel  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 
Alsens  Am.  Portland  Cement  Co.,  Cement,  N.  Y.  C. 
Allen's  Anti-Rust  Co.,  Paints,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 
Allis-Chalmers  Co.,  Crushers,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 
The  Allison  Coupon  Co.,Coupon  Books.Indianapolis. 

D.  S.  Alpaugh  &  Co.,  Commission  Merchants,  N.  Y. 
Alpha  Portland  Cement  Co.,  Cement,  Easton,  Pa. 

B.  Altman  &  Co.,  Dry  Goods,  New  York  City. 
Aluminum-Rawhide  Artificial  Limb  Co.,  Limbs,N.Y. 
A.  S.  Alve  Instrument  Co.,  Scientific  Instruments, 

St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Amalgamated  Paint  Co.,  Paint,  New  York  City. 


Amberg  File  &  Index  Co.,  Files,  Chicago,  111. 

Am.  Agricultural  Chemical  Co.,  Fertilizers,  N.  Y.  C. 

Am.  Arc.  Lamp  Co.,  Arc  Lamps,  Kalamazoo,  Mich. 

Am.  Bank  Note  Co.,  Bank  Notes,  etc.,  N.  Y.  C. 

The  Am.  Bitumastic  Enamels  Co.,  Enamel,  Phila- 
delphia, Pa. 

American  Blower  Co.,  Blowers  &  Heaters,  N.  Y.  C. 

Am.  Brass  Co.,  Brass  Appliances,  Waterbury,  Conn. 

Am.  Bridge  Co.,  Structural  Steel  Goods,  N.  Y.  City. 

Am.  Butter  Cutting  Mach.  Co.,  Butter  Cutting 
Machines,  New  York  City. 

American  Calorific  Co.,  Chemicals,  New  York  City. 

American  Circular  Loom  Co.,  Chelsea,  Mass. 

American  Company,  New  York  City. 

Am.  Cotton  Oil  Co.,  Cotton  Oil,  New  York  City. 

American  Crayon  Co.,  Crayons,  Sandusky,  Ohio. 

Am.  Creosote  Wks.,  Ltd.,  Creosote,  New  Orleans. 

The  Am.  Distributing  Co.,  Wood  Alcohol,  N.  Y.  C. 

Am.  Duplicator  Co.,  Duplicator  Compound,  N.  Y.C. 

Am.  Elec.  Works,  Copper  Wire,  Phillipsdale,  R.  I. 

American  Emery  Wheel  Works,  Providence,  R.  I. 

Am.  Fire  Apparatus  Co.,  Fire  Apparatus,  N.  Y.  C. 

American  Frog  &  Switch  Co.,  Railway  Appliances, 
Hamilton,  Ohio. 

American  Fruit  Produce  Co.,  Apple  Products,  N.  Y. 

Am.Gasaccumulator  Co., Range  Lights.Philadelphia. 

American  Glue  Co.,  Glue,  New  York  City. 

American  Hay  Company,  Oats  and  Hay,  N.  Y.  C. 

American  Hoist  &  Derrick  Co.,  Rope  &  Cranes,  St. 
Paul,  Minn. 

American  Iron  &  Steel  Mfg.  Co.,  Iron  and  Steel, 
Lebanon,  Pa. 

Am.  Iron  &  Steel  Milling  Co.,  Steel  &  Iron,  N.Y.  C. 

American  Knife  Co.,  Cutlery,  New  York  City. 

American  La  France  Engine  Co.,  Steam  Fire  Engine, 
Elmira,  N.  Y. 

Am.  Laundry  Mach.  Co.,  Laundry  Mach.,  N.  Y.  C. 

American  Lead  Pencil  Co.,  Pencils,  New  York  City. 

American  Linseed  Co.,  Oils,  New  York  City. 

Am.  Locomotive  Sander  Co.,  Locomotives,  Phila- 
delphia, Pa. 

Am.  Malleables  Co.,  Malleable  Iron  Castings.N.Y.C. 

American  Manganese  Bronze  Co.,  Material  for  Spill- 
way  Gates,  New  York  City. 

American  Mfg.  Co.,  Rope,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

American  Mercantile  Co.,  Piles,  Tacoma,  Wash. 

The  Am.  Metal  Co.,  Ltd.,  Copper,  Ingot,  N.  Y.  C. 

The  American  Metal  Hose  Co.,  Metal  Hose,  N.  Y.  C. 

American  Milling  Co.,  Dairy  Feed,  Chicago,  111. 

Am.  Negligee  Co.,  Dry  Goods,  New  York  City. 


436 


1.  Side  view  of  dirt  spreaders  at  work  on  the  dumps. 

2.  Front  view  of  same. 


\ 


INDUSTRIAL  ROLL  OF  HONOR 


437 


Am.  Powder  Mills.,  Fuse  &  Triple  Tape,  Chicago.Ill. 

Am.  Preserving  Co.,  Food  Products,  Philadelphia. 

Am.  Ry.  Device  Co.,  Ry.  Appliances,  Chicago,  111. 

American  Railway  Supply  Co.,  Laborer's  Identifica- 
tion Checks,  Police  Caps,  Coats,  etc.,  N.  Y.  C. 

American  Road  Machine  Co.,  Spreaders,  N.  Y.  C. 

American  Rolling  Mill  Co.,  Pipe,  Middletown,  Ohio. 

American  Rotary  Valve  Co.,  Vacuum  Cleaning 
System,  New  York  City. 

Am.  Rubber  Mfg.  Co.,  Rubber  Goods,  Emeryville, 
Cal. 

American  Safety  Lamp  &  Mine  Supply  Co.,  Cylin- 
der Plugs,  Scranton,  Pa. 

Am.  Sales  Book  Co.,  Sales  Books,  New  York  City. 

American  Screw  Co.,  Providence,  R.  I. 

Am.  Sewer  Pipe  Co.,  Vitrified  Sewer  Pipe,  Akron,  O. 

Am.  Ship  Windlass  Co.,  Ship  Equip.,  Providence. 

American  Specialty  Mfg.  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Am.  Spiral  Pipe  Works,  Riveted  Pipe,  Chicago,  111. 

Am.  Stamp  Mfg.  Co.,  Dating  Stamps,  N.  Y.  C. 

American  Steam  Gauge  &  Valve  Manufacturing  Co., 
Safety  Valves,  Boston,  Mass. 

American  Steam  Gauge  &  Valve  Manufacturing 
Co.,  Safety  Valves,  New  York  City. 

Am.  Steel  &  Wire  Co.,  Steel  &  Wire,  Chicago,  111. 

Am.  Steel  Foundries,  Iron  &  Steel  Goods,  Chester,  Pa. 

Am.  Steel  Foundries,  Steel  Castings,  Chicago,  111. 

American  Sugar  Refining  Co.,  Sugar,  New  York  City. 

American  Tag  Co.,  Tags,  New  York  City. 

Am.  Tie  &  Timber  Co.,  Lumber,  New  York  City. 

American  Tin  Can  Co.,  Tin  Cans,  New  York  City. 

American  Tobacco  Co.,  Tobacco,  New  York  City. 

Am.Tool  Wks.  Co.,  Lathes,  Planes,  Drills, Cincinnati. 

The  American  Towing  &  Lighting  Co.,  Tug  Boat, 
Baltimore,  Md. 

American  Track  Barrow  Co.,  Lowell,  Mass. 

American  Trading  Co.,  Cement,  New  York  City. 

American  Type  Founders  Co.,  Fixtures,  Job  Fold- 
ers, Philadelphia,  Pa. 

American  Typewriter's  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

American  Watchmen's  Time  Detector  Co.,  Electri- 
cal Watchmen's  Clocks,  New  York  City. 

Am.  Water  Softener  Co.,  Chemicals,  Philadelphia. 

Ames  Iron  Works,  Iron  and  Steel,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Anchor  Packing  Co.,  Packers,  New  York  City. 

R.  P.Andrews  Paper  Co.,  Paper  Supplies,  Wash.,  D.C. 

Annin  &  Co.,  Flags,  New  York  City. 

Anniston  Cordage  Co.,  Braided  Cotton  Sash  Cord, 
Boston,  Mass. 

H.  M.  Anthony,  New  York  City. 

Apollinaris  Agency  Co.,  Mineral  Water,  N.  Y.  C. 

Appel  &  Ujffy,  Com.  Merch.,  New  Orleans,  La. 

J.  Applegate  &  Co.,  Oysters  and  fish,  New  York  City. 

The  Aqualite  Fireproof  Paint  Co.,  Paint,  N.  Y.  C. 

Aqudneck  Manufacturing  Co.,  Newport,  R.  I. 

Arbuckle  Bros.,  Coffee,  New  York  City. 

R.  S.  Arcia,  Supplies  at  Isthmian  Hospital,  Colon, 
Panama. 

Arkay  Rubber  Co.,  Rubber  Bands,  New  York  City. 

Arlington  Manufacturing  Co.,  Paints,  N.  Y.  C. 


The  Armitage  Mfg.  Co.,  Coal  Tar,  Richmond,  Va. 

Armour  &  Co.,  Tallow  and  Glue,  Chicago,  111. 

Armspear  Manufacturing  Co.,  Lanterns,  N.  Y.  C. 

Armstrong  Box  &  Cork  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Armstrong  Bros.  Tool  Co.,  Tool  Holders,  Chicago. 

Armstrong  Cork  Co.,  Life  Preservers,  Cork  Board, 
Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Armstrong  Iron  Works,  Washers,  Vineland,  N.  J. 

Armstrong,  Walls  &  Co.,  New  York  City. 

L.  C.  Arney,  Cider,  New  Orleans,  La. 

J.  H.  Arnold,  Stencils,  New  York  City. 

Art  Metal  Construction  Co.,  Steel  Office  Fixtures, 
Jamestown,  N.  Y. 

Henry  Aschenbach  Harness  Co.,  Harness,  N.  Y.  C. 

Ashcroft  Mfg.  Co.,  Steam  Gauges  &  Indicators,  N.Y. 

Ashland  Fire  Brick  Co.,  Fire  Clay,  Ashland,  Ky. 

The  Ashton  Valve  Co.,  Valves,  New  York  City. 

Atha  Steel  Castings  Co.,  Steel  Castings,  Newark,N.J. 

E.  C.  Atkins  &  Co.,  Saws,  New  York  City. 

Atlantic  &  Southwestern  Broom  Co.,  Brooms,  Bal- 
timore, Md. 

Atlantic  Creosoting  &  Wood  Preserving  Co.,  Creo- 
soted  Piles,  Norfolk,  Va. 

Atlantic  Equipment  Co.,  Rock  Buckets,  N.  Y.  C. 

Atlantic  Grindstone  Co.,  Grindstones,  Providence. 

Atlantic  Gulf  &  Pacific  Co.,  Dredge  Equipment, N.Y. 

Atlantic  Hotel  &  Supply  Co.,  Packers,  N.  Y.  C. 

Atlantic  Insulated  Wire  &  Cable  Co.,  Copper  Wire, 
New  York  City. 

Atlas  Car  &  Manufacturing  Co.,  Locomotives,  Elec- 
tric Road  Cars,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Atlas  Coal  &  Coke  Co.,  Coke,  Baltimore,  Md. 

The  Atlas  Export  &  Trading  Co.,  Boiler  Tubes,  N.  Y. 

Atlas  Portland  Cement  Co.,  N.  Y. 

William  C.  Atwater  &  Co.,  Coal,  New  York  City. 

D.  Auerbach  &  Son,  Candy,  New  York  City. 

The  August  Maag  Co.,  Baltimore,  Md. 

Austin  Mfg.  Co.,  Well  Drilling  Machines,  Steel 
Sprinklers,  etc.,  Chicago,  111. 

The  Automatic  Time  &  Stamp  Co.,  Time  Stamps, 
Boston,  Mass. 

Auto  Coil  Co.,  Motor  Equipment,  Jersey  City,  N.  J. 

Auto  Engine  Stop  Co.,  Motor  Equipment,  Sheboy- 
gan,  Mich. 


B 


B.  V.  D.  Co.,  Dry  Goods,  New  York  City. 
Babbitt's  Mfg.  Co.,  Cleaning  Powder,  N.  Y.  C. 
The  Babcock  &  Wilcox  Co.,  Boilers,  Water  Tubes, 

New  York  City. 

Simon  Bache  &  Co.,  Glass,  New  York  City. 
A.  Backuss,  Woodware,  Detroit,  Mich. 
A.  S.  Bacon  &  Sons,  Block  &  Sills,  Savannah,  Ga. 
Vajen  Bader  Co.,  Richmond,  Va. 
E.  B.  Badger  &  Sons  Co.,  Fire  Extinguishers,  Boston. 
Baer  Bros.,  Bronze  Powders,  New  York  City. 
Baird  Machinery  Co.,  Steam  Hammers,  etc.,  Pitts- 
burgh, Pa. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


Baker,  Carver  &  Morrell,  Machinery  Supplies,  N.  Y. 
The  William   C.   Baker  Co.,  Handles,   New  York 
City. 

A.  Baldwin  &  Co.,  Hardware,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Frank  Baldwin  &  Son,  Freight  Trucks,  N.  Y.  C. 
Baldt  Anchor  Co.,  Anchors,  Chester,  Pa. 
Balfour,  Guthrie  &  Co.,  Tacoma,  Wash. 
Ballard  &  Ballard,  Louisville,  Ky. 

Ball  Engine  Co.,  Engines,  Erie,  Pa. 
William  Ballentyne,  Books,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Baltic  Electric  Supply  Co.,  Elec.  Material,  N.  Y.  C. 
Baltimore    Bridge   Co.,    Girders,    Running    Crane, 

Plate  Girders,  Baltimore,  Md. 

Baltimore  Hub  Wheel  &  Mfg.  Co.,  Bows,  Baltimore. 
The  Baltimore  Steel  Co.,  Base  Plates,  New  Castle, 

Del. 
Bernard  Bandler  &  Son,  Carbons,  New  York  City. 

F.  S.  Banks  &  Co.,  Wrenches,  New  York  City. 
Barber  &  Ross,  Hardware,  Washington,  D.  C. 

B.  S.  Barnard  &  Co.,  Conduits,  New  York  City. 
Barnhart  Bros.  &  Spindler,  Type  Foundry  Supplies, 

Washington,  D.  C. 

Albert  J.  Barnes,  Wrenches,  Engines,  N.  Y.  C. 

W.  F.  &  J.  Barnes,  Rockford,  111. 

Barnett  &  Brown,  Hose  Supplies,  New  York  City. 

Barrett  Mfg.  Co.,  Coal  Tar  Liquid,  Philadelphia.Pa. 

J.  Barre  &  Co.,  Electrical  Supplies,  New  York  City. 

James  S.  Barren  &  Co.,  Trucks,  Wheelbarrows,  N.  Y. 

L.  Barth  &  Son,  Hotel  Supplies,  New  York  City. 

Bassett -Presley  Co.,  Angles,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Bates  Mfg.  Co.,  Numbering  Machines,  N.  Y.  C. 

A.  J.  Bates,  Shoes,  New  York  City. 

Battleship  Mfg.  Co.,  Wearing  Apparel,  New  Orleans. 

Alber  E.  Bauer,  New  York  City. 

Ludwig  Baumann  &  Co.,  Desks,  New  York  City. 

J.  Baumgarten  &  Sons,  Rubber  Stamps,  Brass 
Checks,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Bausch  &  Lomb  Optical  Co.,  Optical  Goods,  Roches- 
ter, N.  Y. 

G.  S.  Baxter  &  Co.,  Ties,  New  York  City. 
Bay  Shore  Lumber  Co.,  Lumber,  Mobile,  Ala. 
Beall  Bros.,  Tools,  Chicago. 

J.  W.  Beardsley  Sons  Co.,  Shredded  Codfish,  N.  Y. 

The  Becker  Mill  Co.,  Door  and  Window  Casings, 
Marietta,  Ohio. 

Becker-Brainard  Milling  Machinery  Co.,  Machines, 
Hyde  Park,  Mass. 

Beedleston  &  Woerz,  Liquors,  N.  Y.  C. 

J.  L.  Beers  &  Co.,  Com.  Merchant,  New  Orleans,  La. 

H.  Behr  &  Co.,  Abrasive  Paper  and  Cloth,  N.  Y.  C. 

Belber  Trunk  &  Bag  Co.,  Trunks,  N.  Y.  C. 

Belding  &  Franklin  Machine  Co.,  Potato  Peeling 
Machines,  New  York  City. 

Bell  &  Bogart  Soap  Co.,  Soap,  New  York  City. 

Bellaire  Bottle  Co.,  Bottles,  Bellaire,  Ohio. 

Belknap  Hardware  &  Mfg.  Co.,  Hardware,  Louis- 
ville, Ky. 

The  Belknap  Wagon  Co.,  Trunks,  Grand  Rapids, 
Mich. 

Belle  Meade  Sweet  Makers,  Candy,  Trenton,  N.  J. 


Bellingham  Bay  Improvement  Co.,  San  Francisco. 
Benedict  Commission  Co.,  Ltd.,  Commission  Mer- 
chants, New  Orleans,  La. 

E.  M.  Benford,  Spark  Plugs,  Mt.  Vernon,  N.  Y. 
Bentell  &  Margedant  Co.,  Car  Bearings  Machine, 

Hamilton,  Ohio. 

Bergen,  Crittenden  Milling  Co.,  Flour,  Milwaukee. 
Berger  Mfg.  Co.,  Sheet  Metal  Products,  Canton,  O. 
C.  L.  Berger  &  Sons,  Scientific  Instruments,  Boston. 
Berlin  Constn.  Co.,  Structural  Steel  Bridges,  New 

York  City. 

Berlin  &  Jones  Envelope  Co.,  Stationery,  N.  Y.  C. 
Berlin  Machine  Works,  New  York  City. 
Berlin  Machine  Works,  Timber,  Planer,  Beloit,  Wis. 
Jacob  Bernheimer  &  Bros.,  Dry  Goods,  N.  Y.  C. 
Bernstein    Mfg.    Co.,    Canvas    Bunks,    Bedsteads, 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Otto  Bernz,  Newark,  N.  J. 
Berry  &  Aikens,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Berry  Bros.,  Varnish  &  Shellac,  New  York  City. 
Berwind-White  Coal  Mining  Co.,  Coal,  New  York  C. 
W.  N.  Best  American  Calorific  Co.,  Ovens  and  Fur- 

naces,  New  York  City. 
W.  N.  Best,  Oil  Burners,  New  York  City. 
Best  &  Company,  White  Duck  Cloth,  Chicago,  111. 
Bethlehem  Foundry  &  Machine  Co.,  Steel  Supplies, 

S.  Bethlehem,  Pa. 

F.  S.  Betz  Co.,  Dental  Supplies,  Hammond,  Ind. 
J.  S.  Biesecker,  Dairy  Supplies,  New  York  City. 
Bigelow  &  Dowse  Co.,  Hardware,  Boston,  Mass. 
Billings,  King  &  Co.,  New  York  City. 

The  W.  Bingham  Co.,  Tacks,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 
The  Bird-Archer  Co.,  Boiler  Chemicals,  N.  Y.  C. 
J.  A.  &  W.  Bird  Co.,  Felt,  Boston,  Mass. 
F.  W.  Bird  &  Son,  Insulating  Sheathing  Paper,  East 

Walpole,  Mass. 

Fred  Bischoff  Co.,  General  Supplies,  N.  Y.  C. 
Bischoff  &  Co.,  Cocoa  &  Chocolate,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
Bishop  Furniture  Co.,  Furniture,  Grand   Rapids, 

Mich. 

The  Robert  Bishop  Mfg.  Co.,  Waste  Cotton,  Boston. 
The  F.  Bissell  Co.,  Insulators,  Toledo,  Ohio. 
Eugene  G.  Blackford,  Fish,  New  York  City. 
Blackstone's  Sons,  Books,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Blackall  &  Baldwin  Co.,  Centrifugal  Pumps,  N.  Y. 
George  F.   Blake  Manufacturing  Co.,  Water  and 

Steam  Pumps,  New  York  City.  • 
The     Blake     &    Knowles     Steam   Pump    Works, 

Pumps,  N.  Y.  C. 

John  Blakeley  &  Son,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Blaw  Steel  Constn.  Co.,  Steel  Frames,  Pittsburgh, Pa. 
Blaisdell  Mach.  Co.,  Air  Compressors,  Bradford.Pa. 
Bleecker  &  Simons,  Tea,  New  York  City. 
Block  Bros.,  Tobacco,  New  York  City. 
Bliss  &  Perry  Co.,  Shoes,  Newburyport,  Mass. 
The  Blog  Shoe  Finding  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Bloomingdale  Bros.,  Department  Store,  N.  Y.  C. 
Blum  Bros.,  Clothing,  New  York  City. 
Blum  &  Koch,  Hats,  New  York  City. 
Bobbie  Foundry  &  Machine  Co.,  New  York  City. 


INDUSTRIAL  ROLL  OF  HONOR 


439 


Bodley  Wagon  Co.,   Dump  Carts     and  Wagons, 

Memphis,  Tenn. 

Henry  A.  Bogardus  &  Co.,  Gauges,  Chicago,  111. 
Jacob  Bokenjohn,  Com.  Merchant,  New  Orleans.La. 
Bond  Scale  Co.,  Los  Angeles,  Cal. 
Charles  Bond  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
B.  F.  Bond  Paper  Co.,  Paper,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Borden's  Condensed  Milk  Co.,  Condensed  Milk,  N.Y. 
Borsum  Bros.,  Metal  Polish,  New  York  City. 
Borum  Hat  Co.,  Hats,  New  York  City. 
Louis  Bossert  &  Son,  Doors,  Sashes,  etc.,  N.  Y.  C. 
Boston  Belting  Co.,  Belting,  Boston,  Mass. 
Boston  &  Lockport  Block  Co.,  East  Boston,  Mass. 
Boston  Steamship  Co.,  Steamers,  Boston,  Mass. 
Boston  Woven  Hose  &  Rubber  Co.,  Steam  Hose, 

Cambridge,  Mass. 
Boston  &  Lockport  Block  Co.,  Blocks,  E.  Boston, 

Mass. 

H.  E.  Boucher  Manufacturing  Co.,  Handles,  Copy- 
ing Pencils,  Black  Paint,  New  York  City. 
Maurice  Bouvier,  New  York  City. 
Bowman-Edson,  General  Supplies,  N.  Y.  C. 
Bowers    Rubber   Works,    Rubber    Goods,    Contra 

Costa,  Cal. 

S.  F.  Bowser  &  Co.,  Oil  Pumps,  Ft.  Wayne,  Ind. 
George  P.  Boyce,  Dry  Goods,  New  York  City. 
James  Boyd  &  Bro.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
John  Boyle,  Drugs,  New  York  City. 
Bradley,  Currier  Co.,  Doors,  Sashes,  New  York  City. 
Bradley  &  Hubbard,  New  York  City. 
C.C.Bradley  &  Son,Power  Hammers.Syracuse,  N.Y. 
The  Brady  Brass  Co.,  Brass  Castings,  N.  Y.  C. 
Bramhall  Deane  Co.,  Ranges,  New  York  City. 
F.  A.  Branda&  Co.,  Pipe,  Government  Contractors, 

New  York  City. 

F.  A.  Brander  &  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Isaac  Brandon  &  Bros.,  Wholesale  Groceries,  N.  Y. 
Brandt  Casher  Co.,  Automatic  Cashiers,  Chicago. 
Brennan  Motor  Mfg.  Co.,  Motors,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 
Bretch,  B.  S.,  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Gus  V.  Bretch,  New  York  City. 
Briarcliff  Farms,  Dairy  Products,  New  York  City. 
Bridgeport  Brass  Co.,  Copper  Tubing,  N.  Y.  C. 
Bridgman  Bros.  Co.,  Valves,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
J.  G.  Brill  Co.,  Car  and  Truck  Builders,  Philadelphia. 
Brinsdown  Lead  Co.,  Ltd.,  New  York  City. 
Bristol  Co.,  Voltmeters,  Waterbury,  Conn. 
Briscoe  Mfg.  Co.,  Garbage  Cans,  Detroit,  Mich. 
British  Am.  Tobacco  Co.,  Tobacco,  New  York  City. 
Broderick  &  Bascom  Rope  Co.,  Rope  Cables,  St. 

Louis,  Mo. 

A.  F.  Brombacher  &  Co.,  Hardware,  N.  Y.  C. 
The  Bronze  Metal  Co.,  Brass,  New  York  City. 
Brooklyn  Specialty  Manufacturing  Co.,  Laundry 

Machinery,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Brooklyn  Varnish  Mfg.  Co.,Oils  &  Van,  B'kl'n.N.Y. 
E.  J.  Brooks  &  Co.,  Railway  Supplies,  N.  Y.  C. 
W.  B.  Brouard,  New  York  City. 
The  Brown  Shoe  Co.,  Shoes,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Brown  &  Bailey,  Boxes,  New  York  City. 


Buster  Brown  Hosiery  Mills,  Hosiery,  N.  Y.  C. 
Brown  &  Co.,  Inc.,  Iron,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
W.  B.  Brown  Co.,  Stationery,  New  York  City. 
Brown  &  Sharp  Mfg.  Co.,  Machines,  Providence. 
The    Brown    Hoisting    Machinery    Co.,    Hoisting 

Equipment,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 
F.  A.  Brownell  Motor  Co.,  Motor  Parts,  Rochester. 
The    Browning    Engineering    Co.,    Wrecking    and 

Coaling  Cranes,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 
Browning,  King  &  Co.,  Men  &  Boys'  Clothing,  N.  Y. 
Brownrigg  &  Stevenson,  Rubber  Goods,  N.  Y.  C- 
Bruce  &  Cook,  Boiler  Plate,  New  York  City. 
Bruen  Ritchey  Co.,  Drugs,  New  York  City. 
Brunswick  Balke-Collander  Co.,  Amusement  De- 
vices, New  York  City. 
Bryan  &  Company,  Detroit,  Mich. 
Bryant  Zinc  Co.,  Zinc  Material,  New  York  City. 
John  Bryne  &  Co.,  Books,  Washington,  D.  C. 
T.  S.  Buck  Mfg.  Co.,  Flexible  Stamps,  N.  Y.  C. 
Buckeye  Engine  Co.,  Engines,  Salem,  Ohio. 
Buckeye   Paint   &   Varnish   Co.,   Lampblack   and 

Putty,  Toledo,  Ohio. 
The  Buckeye  Steel  Casting  Co.,   Steel   Castings, 

Columbus,  Ohio. 

Bucyrus  Co.,  Steam  Shovels,  S.  Milwaukee,  Wis. 
Buda  Foundry  &  Manufacturing  Co.,  N.  Y.  C. 
The  Buda  Co.,  Switches,  etc.,  Chicago. 
Buff  &  Buff  Manufacturing  Co.,  Rivets,  Boston. 
Buffalo  Foundry  Supply  Co.,  Sea  Coal,  Buffalo,  N.Y. 
Buffalo  Forge  Co.,  Engine,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Buffalo  Gasolene  Motor  Co.,  Motors,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Buffalo  Milling  Co.,  Flour,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Buffalo  Steam  Pump  Co.,  Pumps,  New  York  City. 
Buffalo  Steam  Roller  Co.,  Steam  Rollers,  Buffalo. 
Buhl  Malleable  Co.,  Iron  Castings,  Detroit,  Mich. 
Edward  E.  Buhler  Co.,  Bldg.  Supplies,  N.  Y.  C. 
Builders   Iron  Foundry,    Pipe   and    Meter   Tube, 

Providence,  R.  I. 

J.  H.  Bunnell  &  Co.,  Electric  Supplies,  N.  Y.  C. 
Burke  &  James,  Chicago,  111. 

Burnham  &  Morrell,  Canned  Goods,  Portland,  Me. 
E.  Reed  Burns,  Elec.  Plating  Outfit,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
Jabez  Burns  Sons,  Machinery,  New  York  City. 
E.  W.  Burr,  Provisions,  New  York  City. 
Burroughs  Adding  Machine  Co.,  Adding  Machines, 

Detroit,  Mich. 
Burroughs  Adding  Machine  Co.,  Adding  Machines, 

Washington,  D.  C. 

E.  T.  Burrowes  Co.,  Billiard  &  Card  Tables,  N.  Y.  C. 
E.  T.  Burrowes  Co.,  Wire  Cloth,  Portland,  Me. 
Burton  Bros.  &  Co.,  Dry  Goods,  New  York  City. 
Burton  &  Davis,  Chemicals,  Grocery,  Cannery,  N.Y. 
Charles  W.  Butler,  Desks,  Washington,  D.  C. 


C.  &  C.  Elec.  &  Mfg.  Co.,  Elec.  Machines,  N.  Y.  C. 
The  C.  &  C.  Fire  Hose  Co.,  Fire  Hose,  Canton 
Junction,  Mass. 


440 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


Glen  Cairn  Mfg.  Co.,  Shoestrings,  Pawtucket,  R.  I. 
The  California  Asphaltum  Co.,  Asphalt,  N.  Y.  C. 
California  Fruit  Canners  Association,  Fruits,  San 

Francisco,  Cal. 

Callahan  &  Meyers,  Shoes,  Allentown,  Pa. 
Emil  Caiman  &  Co.,  Varnishes,  New  York  City. 
Camclen  Iron  Works,  Hydrants,  Camden,  N.  J. 
Camel  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

A.  S.  Cameron  Steam  Pump  Works,  Pumps,  N.Y.C. 
Alfred  J.  Cammeyer,  Shoes,  New  York  City. 
Camp  &  Heaton  Co.,  Lumber,  Lumberton,  Miss. 
Camp  &  Hinton  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La. 
William  G.  Campbell,  Stationery,  New  York  City. 
Braxton  W.  Campbell,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 
J.  Campbell  Soup  Co.,  Soups,  Camden,  N.  J. 
Campbell  Electric  Co.,  Lynn,  Mass. 
Canadian   Milling   &   Evaporator   Co.,    Flour,    El 

Reno,  Okla. 
Candee,  Smith  &  Rowland  Co.,  Masons'  Materials, 

New  York  City. 

A.  L.  Canfield,  Cooking  Ranges,  New  York  City. 
H.  Cannon  &  Co.,  R.  R.  &  Contr.  Sup.,  Chicago,  111. 
Cape  Fear  Chemical  Co.,  Oil,  New  York  City. 
Caplan,  Frand  &  Denner,  Clothing,  N.  Y.  C. 
The  Carborundum  Co.,  Wheels,  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y. 
Carbolineum  Wood  Preserving  Co.,  Carbolineum, 

New  York  City. 

Carbondale  Calcium  Co.,  Chemicals,  N.  Y.  C. 
Carbondale  Mfg.  Co.,  Machinery,  New  York  City. 
The  Philip  Carey  Mfg.  Co.,  Cement,  Cincinnati,  O. 
Carlisle  Commission  Co.,  Hay,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 
Carpenter  Steel  Co.,  Steel,  Reading,  Pa. 
George  B.  Carpenter  &  Co.,  Sash  Cords  and  Manila 

Rope,  Chicago,  111. 

L.  H.  Carr  &  Co.,  Bedding,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
William  Carroll  &  Co.,  Inc.,  Hats,  New  York  City. 
Carter  Iron  Co.,  Iron,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
The  Carton    Belting   Co.,  Dressing  Belt,  Boston, 

Mass. 
Casco  Bay  Packing  Co.,  Fish  &  Oysters,  Freeport, 

Me. 

John  A.  Casey  Co.,  Naval  Supplies,  New  York  City. 
The  Casey -Hedges  Co.,  Pipe,  Chattanooga,  Tenn. 
John  Cassidy,  New  York  City. 
T.  P.  Castle,  Ranges,  Quincy,  111. 
Castner,  Curran &  Bullitt,  Inc.,  Smokeless  Coal,  N.  Y. 
Cataract  City  Milling  Co.,  Flour,  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y. 
Cataract  Refining  &  Mfg.  Co.,  Cutting  Compound, 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

C.  J.  Caughey,  Groceries,  New  York  City. 
J.  H.  Cautier  &  Co.,  Jersey  City,  N.  J. 
Cavanaugh  Bros.  &  Co.,  Wholesale  Druggists,  N.  Y. 
Cella  Bros.,  Inc.,  Macaroni  and  Spaghetti,  groceries, 

New  York  City. 

Central  American   Construction   Co.,    Ltd.,    Con- 
struction Work,  Colon,  Panama. 
Central  Elec.  Co.,  Electrical  Supplies,  Chicago,  111. 
Central  Metal  &  Supply  Co.,  Valves,  Baltimore,  Md. 
Cereal  Food  Company,  Peoria,  111. 
William  H.  Chafe,  Emery  Cloth,  Cambridge,  Mass. 


Champman  Valve  Manufacturing  Co.,  Gate  Valves, 
Indian  Orchard,  Mass. 

Chandler  Bros.  &  Co.,  Bankers  and  Brokers,  Phila- 
delphia, Pa. 

The  Charles  Nelson  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Charlotte  Leather  Belting  Co.,  Leather  Belting, 
Charlotte,  N.  C. 

John  Chatillon  &  Sons,  Scales,  New  York  City. 

Chatland  &  Lenhart,  Cracker  Mfrs.,  Brownsville,  Pa. 

Chattanooga  Car  &  Foundry  Co.,  Castings,  Chat- 
tanooga, Tenn. 

The  Chattanooga  Pipe  &  Foundry  Co.,  Pipe,  Chat- 
tanooga, Tenn. 

The  Chemical  Importing  &  Mfg.  Co.,  Prussiate 
Potash,  New  York  City. 

Chesapeake  &  Ohio  Coal  &  Coke  Co.,  Coal,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 

Chicago  Bearing  Metal  Co.,  Car  Journal  Bearings, 
Chicago,  111. 

Chicago  Bridge  &  Iron  Works,  Tanks,  Chicago,  111. 

Chicago  Belting  Co.,  Belting,  Chicago,  111. 

Chicago  House  Wrecking  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

Chicago  Lumber  &  Coal  Co.,  Lumber,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Chicago  Pneumatic  Tool  Co.,  Pneumatic  Tools, 
Chicago,  111. 

Chicago  Steel  Tape  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

Children's  Vehicle  Corporation,  Baby  Carriages, 
East  Templeton,  Mass. 

Chilton  Paint  Co.,  Varnish,  Long  Island,  N.  Y. 

Chisholm  &  Moore  Mfg.  Co.,  Traveling  Cranes, 
New  York  City. 

Chloride  of  Silver  Dry  Cell  Battery  Co.,  Baltimore. 

Christy  Fire  Clay  Co.,  Fire  Clay,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

H.  B.  Claflin  Co.,  Dry  Goods,  New  York  City. 

Waldo  M.  Claflin,  Shoes,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

H.  A.  Clarke  &  Co.,  New  York  City. 

R.  P.  Clark  &  Co.,  Furniture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Clark-Hutchinson  Co.,  Shoes,  New  York  City. 

Charles  H.  Clayton,  Publishers,  New  York  City. 

Clement  &  Stockwell,  Paper,  New  York  City. 

James  Clendenin,  Zinc,  Baltimore,  Md. 

The  Cleveland  Crane  Engineering  Co.,  Repair 
Parts,  Wickliffe,  Ohio. 

Harry  D.  B.  Clapp  &  Co.,  Wool  Waste,  Philadelphia. 

Cleveland  Faucet  Co.,  Machinery,  New  York  City. 

Cleveland  Pneumatic  Tool  Co.,  Pneumatic  Tools, 
Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Cleveland  Provision  Co.,  Commissary  Supplies, 
Cleveland,  Ohio. 

The  Cleveland  Punch  &  Shears  Works,  Punches, 
Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Cleveland  Stamping  &  Tool  Co.,  Tools,  Cleveland.O. 

The  Cleveland  Tool  &  Supply  Co.,  Tools  and  Sup- 
plies, Cleveland,  Ohio. 

The  Cleveland  Twist  Drill  Co.,  Drills,  Cleveland,  O. 

The  Cleveland  Varnish  Co.,  Varnish,  Cleveland  Ohio 

Cliff  &  Guibert  Co.,  Hose  Reels,  New  York  City. 

Cliff  &  Co.,  Oakum,  New  York  City. 

Climax  Bearing  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich. 

Climax  Fuse  Co.,  Fuse,  New  York  City. 


INDUSTRIAL  ROLL  OF  HONOR 


441 


E.  Clinton  &  Co.,  Brushes,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Clinton  Wire   Cloth   Co.,  Wire    Netting,   Clinton, 

Mass. 

Clinton  Wire  Cloth  Co.,  Wire  Screens,  N.  Y.  C. 
Cliquot  Club  Co.,  Ginger  Ale,  Millus,  Mass. 
John  Clochessy,  Paper,  New  York  City. 
Clowes  Shear  Co.,  New  York  City. 
James  B.  Clow  &  Sons,  Plumbing,  Chicago,  111. 
Cluett,  Peabody  Co.,  Collars,  Cuffs  &  Shirts,  N.  Y. 
Thomas  E.Coale  Lumber  Co.,  Lumber,  Philadelphia. 
Coates  Clipper  Mfg.  Co.,  Worcester,  Mass. 
Cobb  Engrg.  Co.,  Mach.  Supplies,  Boston,  Mass. 
Cockburn  Barrow  &  Machine  Co.,  Automatic  Buck- 
ets, Jersey  City,  N.  J. 

Code,  Porterwood  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
E.  P.  K.  Coffin,  Stationery,  New  York  City. 
Coffin  Valve  Co.,  Valves,  Neponset,  Boston,  Mass. 
Cohen,  Goldman  Co.,  Clothing,  New  York  City. 
Colgate  &  Co.,  Talc.  Powder  &  Soap,  Jersey  City, 

N.J. 

Collins  &  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Colombo     Macaroni     Factory,     Macaroni,     New 

Orleans. 

Colonial  Steel  Co.,  Iron,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
Columbia  Chemical  Co.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
Columbia    Incandescent   Lamp   Co.,    Incandescent 

Lamps,  Carbon,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Columbia    Facing    Mills    Co.,    Foundry    Facings, 

Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

Columbia  Incandescent  Lamp  Co.,  N.  Y.  C. 
Columbia  School  &  Supply  Co.,  Desks  and  Seats, 

Indianapolis,  Ind. 
Columbia  Smelting  &  Refining  Works,  Zinc  and 

Lead,  New  York  City. 

Columbian  Rope  Co.,  Manila  Rope,  Auburn,  N.  Y. 
Columbus  Chain  Co.,  Hoisting  Chains,  Columbus,O. 
Columbus  Dist.  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Colwell  Lead  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Combination  Ladder  Co.,  Hose  Wagons,  N.  Y.  C. 
Combination   Rubber   Manufacturing   Co.,    Hand 

Rubber  Valves,  Bloomfield,  N.  J. 
Combination  Rubber  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Commercial  Acetylene  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Commonwealth  Shoe  &  Leather  Co.,  Shoes,  Boston. 
Compressed  Air  Machinery  Co.,  Compressed  Air 

Equipment,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Comyn,  Mackall  &  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Concrete    Spade    Manufacturing    Co.,    Perforated 

Spades,  Valparaiso,  Ind. 
C.  B.  Cones  Co.,  Clothing,  New  York  City. 
Concrete  Steel  Co.,  Steel  Reinforcement  Bars,  N.  Y. 
Geo.  E.  Conley,  Commission  Merchant,  N.  Y.  C. 
Conley  Tin  Foil  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Conron  Bros.,  Packers,  New  York  City. 
Consolidated  Eng.  Strap  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Consolidated  Safety  Valve  Co.,  Valves,  N.  Y.  C. 
Consolidated  Sales  Co.,  Steel  Plates,  Wash.,  D.  C. 
Consolidated  Stamp  Mfg.  Co.,  Stamps,  N.  Y.  C. 
Consolidated  Wafer  Co.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
Peter  J.  Constant,  Brooms,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 


Consumers  Flavoring  Extract  Co.,  Christmas  Tree 

Ornaments,  New  York  City. 
Consumers  Supply  Co.,  Stationery,  N.  Y.  C. 
Continental  Rubber  Works,  Suction  Hose,  N.  Y.  C. 
Contractors  Supply  &  Equipment  Co.,   Concrete 

Mixers,  New  York  City. 

Adam  Cook's  Sons,  Yellow  Lubricating  Grease,  N.Y. 
William  P.  Cook  &  Co.,  Cross  Ties,  N.  Y.  C. 
Cook  &  Cokefair  Co.,  Peerless  Oil,  New  York  City. 
Peter  Cooper's  Glue  Factory,  Glue,  etc.,  N.  Y.  C. 
Raymond  Copeland,  Flour,  New  York  City. 
M.  G.  Copeland,  Bunting,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Cooper-Hewitt  Elec.  Co.,  Tubes,  New  York  City. 
Corliss,  Coon  Co.,  Collars,  New  York  City. 
Corn  Products  Refining  Co.,  Karo  and  Syrups,  N.  Y. 
J.  D.  Cornell  Co.,  Packers,  New  York  City. 
Cornelius  Furniture  Co.,  Furniture,  Cornelius,  N.  C. 
Cornell  &  Underbill,  Wrought  Iron  Pipe,  N.  Y.  C. 
Corona  Supply  Co.,  Typewriter  Supplies,  Rochester, 

N.Y. 

Corrugated  Bar  Co.,  Corrugated  Steel  Bars,  Buffalo. 
Cortland  Skirt  Co.,  Dry  Goods,  New  York  City. 
Coston  Signal  Co.,  New  York  City. 
H.  T.  Cottan  &  Co.,  Rice  &  Molasses,  New  Orleans. 
Cowdrey  &  Co.,  Engine  and  Valve  Oil,  N.  Y.  C. 
E.  D.  Cowell,  New  York  City. 
George  Cowen,  Window  Glass,  New  York  City. 
L.  D.  Cramer,  Stock  Feed,  New  York  City. 
William  Cramp  &  Sons  Ship  &  Engine  Building  Co., 

Ships  and  Engines,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
The  Crandall  Packing  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Crandall  Pettee  Co.,  Baker's  Supplies,  N.  Y.  C. 
Crane  Co.,  Flanged  Fittings,   Plumbers  Supplies, 

Chicago,  111. 

Crane  Cooperage  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Herbert  Crapster,  Plumber's  Supplies,  N.  Y.  C. 
William  J.  Crawford,  Oils  &  Greases,Pittsburgh,Pa. 
W.  G.  Creamer  &  Co.,  New  York  City. 
J.  W.  Cregar  Agency,  Machines,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Crerar,  Adams  Co.,  Trucks,  Chicago,  111. 
Crescent  Bed  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Crescent  Cigar  &  Tobacco  Co.,  Tob.,  New  Orleans. 
Cresca  Co.,  Fruits,  New  York  City. 
George  V.  Cresson  Co.,  Clutch  Pulley,  Philadelphia. 
Crew  Levick  Co.,  Dynamos,  Oil,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Cronell  &  Matthews,  Manhole  Rings  and  Covers, 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Crosby  Steam  Gauge  &  Valve  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 
Crouse-Hinds  Co.,  Lighting  Appar.,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 
Grouse-Hinds,  Electrical  Appliances,  Syracuse,  N.Y. 
John  A.  Crowley  &  Co.,  Steel  Material,  N.  Y.  C. 
Crown  Suspender  Co.,  Dry  Goods,  New  York  City. 
Crown  Oil  &  Wax  Co.,  Engine  Oil,  Baltimore,  Md. 
Crown  Ribbon  Co.,  New  York  City. 
The  Crucible  Steel  Co.  of  America,  New  York  City. 
Crucible  Steel  Co.  of  America,  Steel  and  Sheet  Cop- 
per, Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
Crupples  Adjustable  Tooth    Co.,    Steel    Castings, 

Dipper  Teeth,  Tryon,  Pa. 
Crystal  Lumber  Co.,  Lumber,  New  Orleans,  La. 


442 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


Curtain  Supply  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Curtice  Bros.,  Groceries,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

Curtiss  &  Blasdell,  Coal,  New  York  City. 

The   Cutler-Hammer   Mfg.    Co.,    Limit   Switches, 

Milwaukee,  Wis. 

Cutlet  Electric  &  Motor  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Cuyler  &  Mohler,  Galvanized  Iron  Pipe,  Baltimore. 
The  Cyclone  Drill  Co.,  Drilling  Machs.,  Orrville,  O. 
Cypress  Incubator  Co.,  New  York  City. 


D 


Dailey  &  Ivins,  Sea-going  Tugs,  New  York  City. 

Dairy  Farm  &  Produce  Co.,  Comsy.  Sup.,  N.  Y.  C. 

Dairy  Mach.  &  Cont.  Co.,  Machinery,  Derby,  Conn. 

Dake  Engine  Co.,  Motor  Hoists,  Grand  Haven, Mich. 

H.  T.  Dakin,  Paper  Manufacturers,  New  York  City. 

F.  E.  Dailey  &  Co.,  Shoe  Polish,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

James  Dalzell  Co.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

John  Damm  &  Sons  Brush  Mfg.  Co.,  Brushes,  St. 
Louis,  Mo. 

Danville  Stove  &  Mfg.  Co.,  Ranges,  Danville,  Pa. 

Damon  &  Peet,  Ptg.  Presses  and  Sup.,  N.  Y.  C. 

George  Damon  &  Son,  Ptg.  Machinery,  N.  Y.  C. 

George  F.  Daniels  &  Co.,  Shoes,  Boston,  Mass. 

Dann  &  Peckner,  Wearing  Apparel,  New  York  City. 

F.  F.  Dans  &  Co.,  Duplicating  Machines,  N.  Y.  C. 

C.  A.  Danzenbaker,  Asbestos  Packing,  Washington, 
D.  C. 

Ed  Darby  &  Sons  Co.,  Ltd.,  Lockers,  Phila.,  Pa. 

Darrah  &  Small,  Door  Mats,  New  York  City. 

John  B.  Dauchy,  Linseed  Oil,  New  York  City. 

Davenport  Locomotive  Works,  Locomotives,  Dav- 
enport, la. 

George  W.  Davidson  &  Co.,  Unions,  New  Orleans. 

Davis  &  Brandon,  Piling,  Jacksonville,  Fla. 

Davis-Bournonville  Co.,  Machinery  Welding  and 
Cutting  Apparatus,  New  York  City. 

The  Davis  Coke  &  Coal  Co.,  Coke,  Coal,  N.  Y.  C. 

H.  B.  Davis  Co.,  Metallic  Brown,  Baltimore,  Md. 

J.  H.  Day,  Hardware,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

The  Deane  Steam  Pump  Co.,  Steam  Pumps,  N.  Y.  C. 

Decker  &  Son,  Inc.,  Piano  Mfrs.,  New  York  City. 

Defiance   Lumber   Co.,   Lumber,   Tacoma,    Wash. 

De  Gram,  Aymar  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Lewis  De  Groff  &  Sons,  Commissary  Sup.,  N.  Y.  C. 

P.  Delany  &  Co.,  Mooring  Buoys,  Newburgh,  N.  Y. 

Howard  S.  Delany,  Reams,  Cloth,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

De  Laval  Steam  Turbine  Co.,  Motor  Pumps,  Tren- 
ton, N.  J. 

The  Delaware  Marine  Supply  Co.,  Butts,  Hinges, 
Wilmington,  Del. 

Del  Monte  Milling  Co.,  Flour,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Edmond  E.  Delp  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Delpark  Production  Co.,  Ties,  New  York  City. 

Delphi  Wagon  Works,  School  Wagons,  Delphi,  Ind. 

W.  B.  Deming,  Railway  Material,  New  York  City. 

Denman  &  Davis,  Iron  and  Steel,  New  York  City. 

Dennison  Manufacturing  Co.,  Paper  Goods,  N.  Y.  C. 


Densmore  Typewriting  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Denzer,  Goodhart  &  Schener,  Wearing  Ap.,  N.  Y.  C. 

William  Dermuth  &  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Detroit  Graphite  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Detroit  Hoist  &  Machine  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich. 

Detroit  Leather  Specialty  Co.,  Inc.,  Leather , Detroit. 

Detroit  Lubricator  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich. 

Detroit  Steel  Casting  Co.,  New  York  City. 

De  Vane  Mfg.  Co.,  Hammer  Handles,  Brevard,  N.C. 

Deven  Telephone  Mfg.  Co.,  New  York  City. 

F.  W.  Devoe  &  C.  T.  Raynolds  Co.,  Paints  and 

Varnish,  New  York  City. 

Dexter  Folding  Co.,  Folding  Machines,  N.  Y.  C. 
John  A.  Dialogue  &  Son,  Propellers,  Camden,  N.  J. 
Diamond  Ink  Co.,  Paste,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 
Diamond  Rubber  Co.,  New  York  City. 
A.  B.  Dick  &  Co.,  Edison  Mimeographs,  Chicagojll. 
Dickerson  Vandusen  &  Co.,  Zinc  Plates  &  Sheets, 

New  York  City. 
Walter  S.  Dickey,  Drain  Tile,  Fire  Brick,  Pipe,  etc., 

Kansas  City,  Mo. 

Walter  S.  Dickey,  Vitrified  Clay  Duct,  Kansas  City. 
Stewart  Dickson  &  Co.,  Packing  Asbestos,  N.  Y.  C. 
Diebold  Safe  &  Lock  Co.,  Vault  Doors,  N.  Y.  C. 
Dietrich  Bros.,  Steel,  Baltimore,  Md. 
R.  E.  Dietz  Co.,  Lanterns,  New  York  City. 
Dietz  Engineering  Co.,  Valves,  New  York  City. 
Eugene  Dietzen  Co.,  Blue  Print  Paper,  N.  Y.  C. 
L.  L.  Diggs  &  Co.,  Hatchets,  Adzes,  Scythes,  N.  Y.C. 
Diggs  Fire  Extinguisher  Co.,  New  York  City. 
J.  B.  Dill  &  Co.,  Tobacco,  Richmond,  Va. 
Dillworth,  Gilbert  &  Towne  &  Co.,  N.  Y.  C. 
Dillworth,  Porter  &  Co.,  Track  Spikes,  Pittsburgh. 
Dimmick  Pipe  Co.,  Pipe,  Birmingham,  Ala. 
Hy  Disston  &  Sons,  New  York  City. 
Joseph  Dixon  Crucible  Co.,  Crucibles,  Phila.,  Pa. 
Dobler  &  Mudge,  Canvas,  Paper,  Baltimore,  Md. 
Dodge  &  Alcott,  Chemicals,  New  York  City. 
Dodge  &  Sweeney,  Commissary  Sup.,  San  Francisco. 
Dodge,  Bliss  Co.,  Lumber,  Jersey  City,  N.  J. 

E.  Doherty  Rubber  Works,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
Jacob  Dold  Packing  Co.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

J.  F.  W.  Dorman  &  Co.,  Stationery,  Baltimore,  Md. 
Double  Service  Packing  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
The  John  Douglas  Co.,  Plumbing  Sup.,  Wash.,  D.  C. 
J.  Maury  Dove  Co.,  Coal,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Dover  Boiler  Works,  Boilers,  Dover,  N.  J. 
Drake  Standard  Machine  Works,  Concrete  Mixers, 

Chicago,  111. 

S.  R.  Dresher,  Razors,  New  York  City. 
The  Dressel  Railway  Lamp  Works,  Oil  Cans,  N.  Y. 
Drew     Machinery     Co.,     Carborundum     Wheels, 

Manchester,  N.  H. 

Dreyfous  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  Mosquito  Bars,  New  Orleans. 
Dreyer  Hat  Co.,  Hats,  New  York  City. 
Drouve  &  Co.,  Bridgeport,  Conn. 
'  M.  J.  Drummond  &  Co.,  Iron  Pipe,  N.  Y.  C. 
Dry  Milk  Co.,  New  York  City. 
James  B.  Drysdale,  Chairs,  New  York  City. 

F.  N.  Du  Bois  &  Co.,  Pipe  Elbows,  New  York  City. 


INDUSTRIAL  ROLL  OF  HONOR 


443 


B.  P.  Ducas  Co.,  Chemicals,  New  York  City. 
Ducker  Co.,  Sectional  Building,  New  York  City. 
Richard  Dudgeon,  Jacks,  New  York  City. 
Duetsche   Maschinenfabrik  Actiengeselleschaft,   of 

Duisburg,  Germany,  Two  Floating  Cranes. 
P.  Duff  &  Sons,  Commissary  Supplies,  N.  Y.  C. 
The  Duff  Mfg.  Co.,  Loco.  Jacks,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
J.  P.  Duffy  Co.,  Mason  Supplies,  New  York  City. 
Dugan  &  Hudson,  Shoes,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 
Duhrkop  Oven  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Duluth  Superior  Milling  Co.,  Duluth,  Minn. 
A.  Dumser  &  Co.,  Cheese,  New  Orleans,  La. 
G.  W.  Dunbar  Sons,  Commission  Merchant,  New 

Orleans,  La. 

W.  M.  Duncan,  Refrigerators,  New  York  City. 
J.  H.  Dunham  &  Co.,  Wearing  Apparel,  N.  Y.  C. 
Dunlap  Printing  Co.,  Money  Order  Pads,  Phila.,  Pa. 
Duparquet   Huot  &   Moneuse   Co.,   Ranges,   etc., 

Washington,  D.  C. 

M.  Du  Perow,  Copper  Cable,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Duplex  Roller  Bushing  Co.,  Blocks,  Belfast,  Maine. 
E.  I.  Du  Pont  Powder  Co.,  Wilmington,  Del. 
Duque  &  Co.,  Molasses,  New  Orleans,  La. 
N.  C.  Durie  Co.,  Rubber  Goods,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

C.  D.  Durkee  &  Co.,  Marine  Goods,  New  York  City. 
Durkee's  Salad  Dressing  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Dutchess  Tool  Co.,  Fishkill-on-Hudson,  N.  Y. 
Duryea  &  Barwise,  Coffee,  New  York  City. 
Charles  W.  Dwenger,  New  York  City. 

Dwyer  Bros.,  Wearing  Apparel,  New  Orleans,  La. 


Eagle  Lock  Co.,  Locks,  New  York  City. 
Eagle  Pencil  Co.,  Pencils,  etc.,  New  York  City. 
Eagle  Rolling  Mill  Co.,  Flour,  New  Ulm,  Minn. 
Earle  Brush  Co.,  Columbia,  Pa. 
Earle  &  Wilson,  Shirts,  New  York  City. 
Earle  Gear  &  Machine  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
John  Earlies  Sons,  Brooms,  New  York  City. 
Early  &  Daniel  Co.,  Forage,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 
James  N.  Early,  Kitchen  Utensils,  New  York  City. 
Eastern  Granite  Roofing  Co.,  Roofing,  N.  Y.  C. 
Eastman  Kodak  Co.,  Kodaks,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 
Perley  R.  Eaton,  Lumber,  Fitchburg,  Mass. 
Eckhart  Milling  Co.,  Flour,  Chicago,  111. 
Eclipse  Wood  Pulley  Co.,  Berlin,  Pa. 
Edison  Mfg.  Co.,  Electrical  Supplies,  N.  Y.  C. 
E.  J.  Edmond  Co.,  Auto  Supplies,  New  York  City. 
Edna  Brass  Mfg.  Co.,  Loco.  Injectors,  Cincinnati,©. 
Eichold  &  Miller,  New  York  City. 
Einers  &  Amend,  Testing  Apparatus,  N.  Y.  C. 
Anthony  Eisler  &  Co.,  Tape,  New  York  City. 
Ekenberg  Milk  Producing  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Electric  Appliance  Co.,  Molding,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Electric  Controller  &  Manufacturing  Co.,  Lifting 

Magnet,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Electric  Hose  &  Rubber  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Eldredge  Baker  &  Co.,  Groceries,  Boston,  Mass. 


Electro-Silicon  Co.,  New  York  City. 

G.  Elias  &  Bros.,  Lumber,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

John  Ellice  &  Co.,  Cotton  Waste,  New  York  City. 

Ellicott  Machine  Corporation,  Dredge,  Baltimore. 

Elliot  Fisher  Co.,  Machine  Head  and  Repair  Tools, 
Harrisburg,  Pa. 

Elliott  Addressing  Machine  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Elmer  De  Pue,  Wines,  New  York  City. 

El  Reno  M.  &  E.  Co.,  Flour,  El  Reno,  Okla. 

Ely  &  Williams,  Iron  &  Steel,  New  York  City. 

Emerson  Steam  Pump  Co.,  Pumps,  Alexandria,  Va. 

Emmelmann  Bros,  Mfg.  Co.,  Blow  Torch,  Indian- 
apolis, Ind. 

G.  C.  Engel,  Meats,  New  York  City. 

Engleberg  &  Waidman  Co.,  Box  Mfrs.,  New  York 

The  Ensign  Lumber  Co.,  Lumber,  Jacksonville,  Fla. 

Epping-Carpenter  Co.,  Water  Cylinders,  Pittsburgh. 

Equitable  Supply  Co.,  Machinery,  N.  Y.  C. 

Erlanger  Bros,  Wearing  Apparel,  New  York  City. 

Escola  Supply  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Esterbrook  Steel  Pen  Co.,  Pens,  Stationery,  N.  Y.  C. 

Eureka  Fire  Hose  Co.,  Cotton  Hose,  Pipe,  N.  Y.  C. 

Eureka  Rubbing  Stone  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

Eureka  Vibrator  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Evans  &  Howard  Fire  Brick  Co.,  Fire  Clay  &  Brick 
and  Pipe,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Richard  Evans,  New  York  City. 

S.  F.  Everett,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Everett  Mfg.  Co.,  Dump  Wagons,  Newark,  N.  J. 

Excello  Arc  Lamp  Co.,  Arc  Lamps,  New  York  City. 

Excelsior  Equipment  Co.,  Pneumatic  Equipment, 
Coil  Chain,  Dippers,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Excelsior  Tool  &  Machine  Co.,  Iron  and  Steel,  E.  St. 
Louis,  Mo. 

Excelsior  Varnish  Co.,  Paints  and  Varnish,  N.  Y.  C. 

Export  Electric  Supply  Co.,  Electrical  Sup.  N.Y.C. 

Export  Lumber  Co.,  Lumber,  New  York  City. 


Eberhard  Faber  Co.,  Pencils,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

J.  Faessler  Manufacturing  Co.,  Moberly,  Mo. 

N.K.Fairbanks,  Gold  Dust  Washing  Pow., Chicago. 

N.  K.  Fairbanks  Co.,  Gold  Dust  Washing  Pow.,N.  Y. 

The  Fairbanks  Co.,  Steel  Shafting,  Couplings,  etc., 
New  York  City. 

Fairbanks,  Morse  &  Co.,  Hand  and  Push  Cars,  In- 
spection Motor  Cars,  Chicago,  111. 

Fairbanks  Scales  Co.,  Hardware,  New  York  City. 

The  Fairest  Steel  Co.,  Springs,  Bridgeport,  Conn. 

Fairmont  Coal  Co.,  Coal,  New  York  City. 

Joseph  Faltermayer,  Washers,  Wrought  Cut,  Phila- 
delphia, Pa. 

James  H.  Fanchoner,  Dairy  Supplies,  N.  Y.  C. 

A.  D.  Farmer  &  Son  Type  Founding  Co.,Type,  N.  Y. 

J.  A.  Fay  &  Eagan  Co.,  Boring  Machs.,  Cincinnati.O. 

J.  A.  Fay  &  Egan  Co.,  Woodworking  Machy.  N.Y.C. 

Fred  Fear  &  Co.,  Fish  &  Oysters,  New  York  City. 

Fearless  Dishwasher  Co.,  Fearless  Dishwashers,  N.  Y. 


444 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


Federal  Clay  Products,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Federal  Co.,  Hospital  Sinks  and  Plumbing,  Chicago. 

M.  Feigel  &  Bro.,  Chemicals,  Paints  and  Oils,  New 

York  City. 

Felt  &  Tarrant  Mfg.  Co.,  Comptometers,  Chicago. 
August  Ferger  &  Co.,  Feed,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 
F.  Ferguson  &  Son,  Transfer  Agentr,  N.  Y.  C. 
Joseph  V.  Ferguson,  Straw,  New  Orleans,  La. 
F.  A.  Ferris  &  Co.,  Meat,  New  York  City. 
The  Fibre  Conduit  Co.,  Socket  Joints,  Orangeburg, 

N.  Y. 

W.  R.  Ficke  Co.,  Stationery,  New  York  City. 
Fidaque  &  Co.,  Shoes,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
Marshall  Field  &  Co.,  Dry  Goods,  Chicago,  111. 

E.  Fincken  &  Co.,  Coal,  New  York  City. 
Findlay,  Dicks  &  Co.,  Drug  Sup.,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Fireproof  Furniture  &  Construction  Co.,  N.  Y.  C. 
Fischer  Bros.,  Show  Cases,  New  York  City. 
J.&C.  Fischer,  Piano  Manufactuers,  New  York  City. 
Fiske  Bros.,  Refrigerating  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Fiske    Bros.    Refining    Co.,    Oil    and    Lubricating 

Grease,  New  York  City. 

Flaccus  E.  C.  &  Co.,  Spices,  Wheeling,  West  Va 
The  Flash  Chemical  Co.,  Cleanser,  Boston,  Mass. 
Flecke  Bros.  &  Co.,  Bends,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
D.  B.  Fleming  &  Co.,  Leather  Supplies,  New  York. 
George  C.  Flint  Co.,  Mattresses,  New  York  City. 
Flint  &  Chester,  Ry.  and  Cont.  Supplies,  N.  Y.  C. 
Florence  Brush  Mfg.  Co.,  Brushes,  New  York  City. 
Florsheim  Shoe  Co.,  Shoes,  Chicago,  111. 
J.  H.  Flynn,  Jr.,  New  York  City. 
Focht  Iron  Works,  Iron  and  Steel,  Hoboken,  N.  J. 
George  Fochten  Sons,  Hoboken,  N.  J. 
R.  R.  Fogel  &  Co.,  Novelties  and  Jewelry,  N.  Y.  C. 
Follmer  Clogg  Co.,  Umbrellas,  New  York  City. 
H.  &  D.  Folson  Arms  Co.,  Clay  Pigeons,  New  York. 
Foote  Burt  Co.,  Machinery  Designs,  Cleveland,  O. 
The  Forbes  Co.,  Sterilizers,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
John  Forbes,  Paper,  New  York  City. 

F.  Codman  Ford,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Forester  Mfg.  Co.,  Toothpicks,  Dixfield,  Me. 
Fort  Pitt  Forge  Co.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Fort  Pitt  Malleable  Iron  Co.,  Drill  Sill  Caps,  Pitts- 
burgh, Pa. 

Foster  Engineering  Co.,  Valves,  Newark,  N.  J. 

Foster  Pump  Co.,  Pumps,  New  York  City. 

Foster  Valve  Co.,  Valves,  Newark,  N.  J. 

Julius  Fowl,  Hampers,  New  York  City. 

Fox  Bros.  &  Co.,  Hand  Cars,  etc.,  New  York  City. 

M.  Ewing  Fox  Co.,  Muralite,  New  York  City. 

Fox  River  Butter  Co.,  Butter,  New  York  City. 

Franklin  Manufacturing  Co.,  Franklin,  Pa. 

Julien  P.  Friez,  Ram  Gauges,  Ink,  Forms,  Baltimore. 

Frog  Switch  &  Signal  Co.,  Ry.  Equip.,  Carlisle,  Pa. 

Franco-American  Food  Co.,  Canned  Goods,  Jersey 
City,  N.  J. 

Henry  Frank,  Leather,  New  York  City. 

Henry  Frank,  Jr.,  General  Supplies,  New  York  City. 

L.  Frank  &  Co.,  Fruits  &  Vegetables,  New  Orleans. 

Frankel  Display  Fixture  Co.,  New  York  City. 


Franklin  McVeagh  &  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

Franklin   Portable   Crane   &   Hoist    Co.,    Portable 

Cranes,  Franklin,  Pa. 

P.  A.  Frasse  &  Co.,  Machinists'  Supplies,  N.  Y.  C. 
H.  J.  Freeman,  Mattresses,  New  York  City. 
Freidman-Shelby  Shoe  Co.,  Shoes,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Frevert  Machinery  Co.,  Blocks,  New  York  City. 
Froment  &  Co.,  Pipe  Line  and  Dredges,  N.  Y.  C. 
Fuchs  &  Lang  Manufacturing  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Fuerst  Bros.  &  Co.,  Carbolic  Acids,  New  York  City. 
Fuller  Bros.  &  Co.,  General  Supplies,  New  York  City 
Fullerton  Case  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Fulton  Bag  &  Cotton  Mills,  New  York  City. 
Fulton  &  Walker  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


John  S.  Gage,  Dry  Goods,  New  York  City. 
Gaine  Bros.,  Book  Binders,  New  York  City. 
Galena-Signal  Oil  Co.,  Car,  Eng.  &  Valve  Oil,  N.  Y. 
The  Gamewell  Fire-Alarm  Telegraph  Co.,  Automatic 

Fire  Alarms,  New  York  City. 
Gardner  Governor  Co.,  Cylinders  and  Hardware, 

Quincy,  111. 

Garlock  Packing  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Thomas  Garner  &  Co.,  Stationery,  New  York  City. 
John  Garrie  &  Sons,  Inc.,  Produce  Merchant,  N.Y.C. 
The  Garvin  Machine  Co.,  Drill  Presses,  N.  Y.  C. 
Gas  Engine  &  Power  Co.,  Launch,  New  York  City. 

Charles  L.  Seabury  &  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Gates  City  Filter  Co.,  New  York  City. 
R.  H.  Geldart,  Wrenches,  Reamers,  Oakum,  N.  Y.  C. 
General  Chemical  Co.,  Sulphate  of  Alumina,  N.  Y.C. 
Gen.  Elec.  Co.,  Switch  &  Gage  Boards  &  Accessories, 

Schenectady,  N.  Y. 
The  General  Fireproofing  Co.,  Bookcase  Sections, 

Washington,  D.  C. 
General  Fireproofing  Co.,  Draughting  Tables  and 

Filing  Cases,  Youngstown,  Ohio. 
General  Railway  Signal  Co.,  Signal  Supplies,  N.Y.C. 
Genessee  Pure  Food  Co.,  Le  Roy,  N.  Y. 
Gerry  &  Murray,  Office  Sup.,  Printers,  N.  Y.  C. 
F.  W.  Gesswein,  Tools,  New  York  City. 
Getz  Bros.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Gibson  Bros.,  Tabular  Code,  V/ashington,  D.  C. 
Robert  Gilchrist  &  Co.,  Ferromanganese,  Elizabeth- 
port,  N.  J. 

E.  B.  Gill  Mfg.  Co.,  Hangers,  Chicago,  111. 
William  D.  Gill  &  Co.,  Lumber,  Baltimore,  Md. 
Gillette  Sales  Co.,  Razors,  Boston,  Mass. 
D.  L.  Gillispie  Co.,  Lumber,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
I.  Gilman  &  Co.,  Manila  Paper,  New  York  City. 
Gimbel  Bros.,  Dry  Goods,  New  York  City. 
Ellis  A.  Gimbel,  Beds,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Ginsberg  &  Dubersteins,  Hats,  New  York  City. 
Glauber  Brass  Mfg.  Co.,  Clocks,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 
Glacier  Metal  Co.,  Anti-friction  Metal,  Richmond, 

Va. 
V.  Glad  &  Sons,  Ranges,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


INDUSTRIAL  ROLL  OF  HONOR 


445 


William  Gleichman,  Flour,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Globe-Wernicke  Co.,  Office  Supplies,  N.  Y.  C. 

Glogua  &  Co.,  Alcohol  Stoves,  Chicago,  111. 

G.  A.  Gobel,  Wearing  Apparel,  Chicago,  111. 

J.  Gockner,  New  York  City. 

Frank  Godley  Co.,  Extracts  and  Flavoring,  N.  Y.  C. 

Goez  Optical  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Gold  Medal  Camp  Furniture  Co.,   Cots,    Racine 

Junction,  Wis. 

C.  H.  &  E.  S.  Goldberg,  Woodware,  N.  Y.  C. 
Golden-Anderson  Valve  Specialty  Co.,  Safety  Valves, 

Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Goldschmidt  Thermit  Co.,  Thermit  Welds,  N.  Y.  C. 
Goldschmidt  &  Co.,  Dresses,  New  York  City. 
L.  &  M.  Goldsticker,  Bottlers'  Supplies,  N.  Y.  C. 
Goodell  Pratt  Co.,  Tools,  Greenfield,  Mass. 
E.  H.  Goodman,  New  York  City. 
H.  Goodman  Co.,  Eggs,  New  Orleans,  La. 
The  B.  F.  Goodrich  Co.,  Belting,  Akron,  Ohio. 
B.  F.  Goodrich  Co.,  Rubber  Goods,  N.  Y.  C. 
Goodwin  Car  Co.,  Cars,  New  York  City. 
George  C.  Goodwin,  New  York  City. 
Nelson  Goodyear,  Buoys,  Lanterns,  New  York  City. 
Goodyear  Rubber  Co.,  Rubber  Coats,  N.  Y.  C. 
H.  R.  Gordon  Co.,  Sugar,  New  York  City. 
W.  A.  Gorden  Co.,  Fish,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Gorham  Mfg.  Co.,  Sterling  Silverware,  Providence. 
Goshen  Mfg.  Co.,  Oleomargarine,  Providence,  R.  I. 
H.  T.  Gottam  &  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Gotz  Bros.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Gould  Coupler  Co.,  New  York  City. 
W.  R.  Grace  Co.,  Lumber,  New  York  City. 
Graft  Morsbach  &  Co.,  Harness,  New  York  City. 
A.  D.  Granger  Co.,  Power  Plant  Machinery,  New 

York  City. 

Grand  Rapids  Show  Case  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Grand  Rapids  Refrigerator  Co.,  Refrigerators,  N.  Y. 
The  Granite  Railway  &  Signal  Co.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
N.  Z.  Graves  Co.,  Paints,  New  York  City. 
N.  Z.  Graves,  Co.,  Paints  and  Varnish,  Phila.,  Pa. 
Peter  Gray  &  Sons,  Cambridge,  Conn. 
William  S.  Gray  &  Co.,  Chemicals,  New  York  City. 
Great  Eastern  Clay  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Great  Western  Cereal  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 
Greenlee  Bros.  &  Co.,  Wood  Working  Machinery 

and  Tools,  Rockford,  111. 
A.  W.  Greely,  Shoes,  Haverhill,  Mass. 
Henry  J.  Green,  Scientific  Instruments,  N.  Y.  C. 
W.  Green  &  Co.,  Plain  Rivet  Lathe,  New  York  City. 
Greensboro  Table  Co.,  Tables,  Greensboro,  N.  C. 
Greenfield's  Candy  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Gress,  Owens  &  Co.,  Drugs,  New  York  City. 
John  Grieg,  Chemicals,  New  York  City. 
Griffin  Manufacturing  Co.,  Polish,  New  York  City. 
Griffing  Wheel  Co.,  Cast  Iron  Wheels,  Wash.,  D.  C. 
The  Griscom-Spencer   Co.,    Wrought    Iron    Black 

Pipe,  New  York  City. 

The  Groton-Pew  Fish  Co.,  Gloucester,  Mass. 
Gude  Bros.  &  Kieffer,  Creamery,  New  York  City. 
Guggenheim  Food  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 


Gulf  port  Creosoting  Co.,  Piles,  Guard  Rails,  Creo- 

soted  Ties,  Gulf  port,  Miss. 

A.  Gunnison  &  Co.,  Creosote  Oil,  New  York  City. 
W.  &  L.  E.  Gurley,  Repair  Parts  for  Current  Meters, 

Bi-Sulphate  Mercury  Batteries,  Troy,  N.  Y. 
C.  Gutman  &  Co.,  Suits,  New  York  City. 
The  Gutta  Percha  &  Rubber  Mfg.  Co.,  Hose,  N.Y.C. 


H 


Haas  Bros.,  Sweetmeats,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
C.  H.  Haddley,  Groceries,  Champaign,  111. 
William  W.  Haff,  Coal,  New  York  City. 
A.  L.  Hagan  Co.,  Laundry  Plant,  Ancon  Hospital, 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Haggerty  Bros.,  Glassware,  New  York  City. 
Haines,  Jones  &  Cattlebury  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Alva  Hall  Co.,  Umbrellas,  New  York  City. 
Frank  A.  Hall,  Pillows,  New  York  City. 
Hall  Switch  &  Signal  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Hall  &  Brown  Wood  Working  Machine  Co.,  Mould- 
ing Machines,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Hall  &  Ruckel,  Tooth  Wash,  New  York  City. 
George  C.  Hale,  Fire  Hose  Truck,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 
Hale  Co.,  Furniture,  New  York  City. 
Hale  Desk  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Hale  &  Kilburn  Mfg.  Co.,  Wrought  Metal  Wk.,  N.  Y. 
Hallidie  Machinery  Co.,  Drill  Presses  and  Lathes, 

Seattle,  Wash. 

Felix  Hamburger,  Computing  Machines,  N.  Y.  C. 
The  Hamilton  Co.,  Portable  Houses,  N.  Y.  C. 
Hamilton  Brown  Co.,  Shoes,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
The  Hamilton-Low  Co.,  Dish  Washing  Mach.,  N.  Y. 
Hamilton  Rubber  Mfg.  Co.,  Trenton,  N.  J. 
Hamilton  Co.,  Railway  Supplies,  New  York  City. 
Hammacher,  Schlemmer  &  Co.,  Hardware,  N.  Y.  C. 
Hammer  Bros.  White  Lead  Co.,  E.  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Hammond  Typewriter  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Hanan  &  Son,  Shoes,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
The  Hancock  Inspirator  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Handlan-Buck  Mfg.  Co.,  Elbows,  Belting,  Powder, 

Pipe  Cutter,  etc.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Joshua  Handy  Iron  Works,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Handy  Rule  &  Level  Co.,  New  York  City. 
P.  Hano  &  Co.,  Books,  New  York  City. 
William  S.  Hansall  &  Sons,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Ferdinand  Hansen,  Green  Cups,  New  York  City. 
Harbeson  Textile  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Harbison-Walker    Refractories    Co.,    Fire    Bricks, 

Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
Harland    &    Hollingsworth    Corporation,    Boilers, 

Wilmington,  Del. 

P.  J.  Harney  Shoe  Co.,  Shoes,  New  York  City. 
Harney  Shoe  Co.,  Footwear,  Lynn,  Mass. 
The  Harral  Soap  Co.,  Laundry  Soap,  N.  Y.  C. 
Harrick  Manufacturing  Co.,  Forges,  N.  Y.  C. 
Harries,  Jones  &  Cadbury  Co.,  Plumbing  Supplies, 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Jacob  Harris,  Clothing,  Rubber  Goods,  N.  Y.  C. 


446 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


F.  Harris,  Chicago,  111. 

William  B.  Harris  Co.,  Coffee,  N.  Y.  City. 

Harris  Suspender  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Harrison  Bros.  &  Co.,  Manf.  Paints  &  Varnishes, 

New  York  City. 

Harrison  Supply  Co.,  Lighting  Material,  N.  Y.  C. 
Harry  Bros.  Mfg.  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Hart,  Schafner  &  Marx,  Wearing  Apparel,  N.  Y.  C. 
Louis  Hartig,  Paddocks,  Piles,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Hartford  Machine  Screw  Co.,  Hartford,  Conn. 
M.  Hartley  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Hasbey  &  Mattson,  New  York  City. 
L.  C.  Hasinger  Co.,  Sledge  Handles,  Indiana,  Pa. 
E.  C.  Hausberg,  New  York  City. 
Havana  Tobacco  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Haverside,    Withers  &   Davis   Co.,   Gear   Wheels, 

San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Hawes,  Vol.  Gal.,  Men's  Hats,  New  York  City. 
Hawley  Box  Co.,  New  York  City. 
The  Hayden  &  Derby  Mfg.  Co.,  Injectors,  N.  Y.  C. 
Hayden-Corbett  Chain  Co.,  New  York  City. 
R.  S.  Hayes,  Switches,  Carlisle,  Pa. 
Hayes  Track  Appliance  Co.,  New  York  City. 
The  Haywood  Co.,  Dredges,  New  York  City. 
E.  C.  Hazard  &  Co.,  Groceries,  New  York  City. 
Hazard  Mfg.  Co.,  Wire  Rope,  Wilkesbarre,  Pa. 
Headley  &  Farmer,  Leather  Goods,  New  York  City. 

D.  S.  Heath  &  Co.,  Books,  Boston,  Mass. 
Heath  &  Milligan  Mfg.  Co.,  Paint,  Chicago,  111. 
Hecker,  Jones  &  Jewell  Co.,  Flour,  New  York  City. 
Heeler  Bros.  Co.,  Newark,  N.  J. 

Hegeman  &  Co.,  Druggists,  New  York  City. 
Heinz  Pickle  Co.,  Spices,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
Heller  &  Brightly,  Engineering  and  other  Instru- 
ments, Philadelphia,  Pa. 
The  L.  Helmuth  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Helvetia  Condensed  Milk  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Hemmenway  &  Son,  Flags,  New  York  City. 
A.  J.  Hemphill,  New  York  City. 
Peter  Henderson  &  Co.,  Seeds,  New  York  City. 
Hendricks  &  Class,  Hardware,  New  York  City. 

E.  L.  Henter,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Joseph  M.  Herman,  Shoes,  Boston,  Mass. 
Herman,  Bahr  &  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Herpicide  Co.,  Hair  Tonic,  Detroit,  Mich. 
Herring,  Hall,  Marvin  Safe  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Herron  Pump  &  Foundry  Co.,  Valves  &  Hydrants, 

Chattanooga,  Tenn. 

Hersey  Mfg.  Co.,  Water  Meter,  S.  Boston,  Mass. 
E.  L.  D.  Hester  Co.,  Refrigerators,  New  York  City. 

G.  B.  Hewlett,  Drawing  Materials,  New  York  City. 
Hewitt  Rubber  Co.,  Air  Brake  Hose,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Heywood  Bros.  &  Wakefield,  Furniture,  N.  Y.  C. 
Hibbard,   Spencer,   Bartlette  &  Co.,  White  Zinc, 

Tools  and  Supplies,  Chicago,  111. 
W.  O.  Hickok  Mfg.  Co.,  Paper  Ruling  Machines, 

Harrisburgh,  Pa. 

Hicks-Hampton  Lumber  Co.,  Lum.,  San  Francisco. 
W.  A.  Higgins  Packing  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Higgins  &  Seiter,  Chinaware,  New  York  City. 


Hildreth  &  Segelken,  Honey,  New  York  City. 

The  Hill  Clutch  Co.,  Clutch  Rope  Sheaves,  Cleve- 
land, Ohio. 

Alfred  Killer  Co.,  Ltd.,  Acid,  Oil,  beeswax,  New 
Orleans,  La. 

Hillery,  Kelly  Co.,  Eggs,  New  Orleans,  La. 

Hills  Bros.,  Fruit  Importers,  New  York  City. 

Hillis  &  Jones  Co.,  Washer-cutting  Machine,  Wil- 
mington, Del. 

Thomas  H.  Hindle,  Typewriter  Supplies,  N.  Y.  C. 

Hindley  Mfg.  Co.,  Steel,  Valley  Falls,  R.  I. 

Edward  Hines  Lumber  Co.,  White  Pine  Lumber, 
Chicago,  111. 

Hinton-White  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La. 

Leon  Hirsh  &  Son,  Sal  Soda,  Chalk,  Resin,  Chloride 
of  Lime,  New  York  City. 

Hirsch  Lumber  Co.,  Lumber,  New  York  City. 

Henry  A.  Hitner's  Sons  Co.,  Washers,  Phila.,  Pa. 

Clinton  E.  Hobbs,  Chain  Hoist,  Boston,  Mass. 

Hodgman  Rubber  Co.,  New  York  City. 

T.  P.  Hoffman  &  Co.,  Packing  Excelsior,  N.  Y.  C. 

R.  C.  Hoffman  &  Co.,  Iron  &  Steel  Goods,  Baltimore. 

Hoffman-Corr,  Twine,  New  York  City. 

The  Hoge  &  McDowell  Co.,  Oats,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Hohlfeld  Mfg.  Co.,  Hammocks,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Hohman  &  Maurer  Mfg.  Co.,  Thermometers,  Roch- 
ester, N.  Y. 

J.  Hohn  &  Sons,  Commission  Merchant,  N.  Y.  C. 

James  Hohnham  &  Co.,  Wearing  Apparel,  N.  Y.  C. 

Holt  &  Co.,  Flour,  New  York  City. 

Holton  &  Adams,  Brushes,  New  York  City. 

The  Holbrook  Mfg.  Co.,  Soap,  Jersey  City,  N.  J. 

Holbrook  Bros.,  Window  Glass,  New  York  City. 

Holcomb  Steel  Co.,  Steel,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

Holloplane  Co.,  Electrical  Supplies,  New  York  City. 

Holstead  &  Co.,  Commission  Merchant,  N.  Y.  C. 

Holzapfel's  Amer.  Composition  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Home  Rubber  Co.,  Rubber  Hose,  etc.,  Trenton,  N.  J. 

Hooper  &  Jennings,  Groceries,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Hoopes  &  Townsend  Co.,  Nuts,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Hopkins  &  Co.,  Wire  Goods,  New  York  City. 

Herbert  J.  Horan,  Flour,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

W.  O.  Horn  &  Bros.,  New  York  City. 

Horsburgh  &  Scott  Co.,  Gear  Wheels,  Cleveland,  O. 

Horton's  Ice  Cream,  New  York  City. 

Hospital  Supply  Co.,  Hospital  Equipment,  N.  Y.  C. 

M.  M.  Hough,  New  York  City. 

Albert  Houtman,  Dry  Goods,  New  York  City. 

Howard  &  Morse,  Wire  Goods,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Howe  Comb  Co.,  New  York  City, 

Howe  Scale  Co.,  New  York  City. 

B.  H.  Howell,  Son  &  Co.,  Sugar,  New  York  City. 

Edwin  C.  Howell,  Maps,  Washington  D.  C. 

Hoyt  &  Co.,  Drugs,  Tooth  Wash,  Lowell,  Mass. 

Hubbard  Portable  Oven  Co.,  Ovens,  New  York  City. 

Hubbard  &  Co..  Shovels,  Chisels,  Picks,  etc.,  Pitts- 
burgh,  Pa. 

T.  C.  Hublein,  Wholesale  Lio^ior  Dealer,  N.  Y.  C. 

R.  Hudnut,  Drugs  and  Perfume,  New  York  City. 

Hudson  Oil  &  Supply  Co.,  New  York  City. 


INDUSTRIAL  ROLL  OF  HONOR 


447 


Hulse  Bros.  &  Daniels  Co.,  Umbrellas,  New  York  C. 

R.  A.  Humphrey's  Sons,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

U.  T.  Hungerford  Brass  &  Copper  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

U.  T.  Hungerford  Brass  &  Copper  Co.,  New  York  C. 

William  Hunrath,  Hardware,  New  York  City. 

Hunt  Constn.  Co.,  Coal  Handling  Machinery,  N.  Y. 

Samuel  E.  Hunter,  Produce,  New  York  City. 

S.  E.  Hunter,  Popcorn,  New  York  City. 

Hunter  &  Trimm,  Fish,  New  York  City. 

Hunter  Milling  Co.,  Wellington,  Kans. 

Huntoon  Spring  Water  Co.,  New  York  City. 

E.  D.  Hurlburt,  Jr.,  Stationery,  New  York  City. 

C.  C.  Hussey,  Copper,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Hutchinson  Bros.,  Ranges,  Baltimore,  Md. 

Hutchinson-Pierce  Co.,  Wearing  Apparel,  N.  Y.  C. 

Huyler  Co.,  Candy,  New  York  City. 

Charles  Hvass  &  Co.,  Brooms,  New  York  City. 

J.  H.  Hyde,  Piles,  Jacksonville,  Fla. 

Hyde  Windlass  Co.,  Steam  Windlass,  Bath,  Maine. 

Hydrex  Felt  &  Engineering  Co.,  Hydrex  Felt.N.Y.C. 


I 


Ice  &  Cold  Machinery  Co.,  Refrigerating  Machines, 
St.  Louis,  Mo. 

A.  L.  Ide  &  Son,  Engines  for  Dredges,  Springfield,  111. 

John  Illingsworth  Steel  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Illinois  Electric  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

Illinois  Malleable  Iron  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

Independent  Baking  Powder  Co.,  Jersey  City,  N.  J. 

Independent  Electric  Supply  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Independent  Pneumatic  Tool  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

Independent  Pneumatic  Tube  Co.,  Riveting  Ham- 
mers, Chicago,  111. 

Independent  Refiners  Sales  Co.,  Lard  Oil,  N.  Y.  C. 

Independent  Salt  Co.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Indiana  Mfg.  Co.,  Refrigerators,  Peru,  Ind. 

Industrial  Works,  Loco.  Cranes,  etc.,  Bay  City, Mich. 

Horace  Ingersoll  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Ingersoll-Rand  Co.,  Pneumatic  Drills,  N.  Y.  C. 

R.  H.  Ingersoll,  Watches,  New  York  City. 

F.  F.  Ingram,  Druggists,  Detroit,  Mich. 

Inland  Type  Foundry,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Interborough  Supply  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Interlaken  Mills,  Paper,  Providence,  R.  I. 

Inter-Ocean  Steel  Co.,  Tires,  Chicago  Heights,  111. 

International  Elec.  &  Engrg.  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Interstate  Electric  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La. 

International  Electric  Protection  Co.,  Automatic 
Fire  Alarms,  New  York  City. 

International  Engineering  Works,  Boston,  Mass. 

International  Filter  Co.,  Paper,  Chicago,  111. 

International  Silver  Co.,  New  York  City. 

International  Steam  Pump  Co.,  Pumps,  N.  Y.  C. 

Inter  Seal  &  Lock  Co.,  Hastings,  Mich. 

The  Interstate  Iron  &  Steel  Co.,  Refined  Iron, 
Chicago,  111. 

Interwoven  Stocking  Co.,  New  Brunswick,  N.  J. 

W.  R.  Irby  Co.,  Tobacco,  New  Orleans,  La. 


W.  F.  Irish  Electric  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Iroquois  China  Co.,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 

Iron  City  Tool  Works,  Ltd.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Irving  Pitt  Mfg.  Co.,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 

I.  Isaac  &  Co.,  Ties,  New  York  City. 

Adolph  Issacson  &  Son,  Plumbers,  New  York  City. 


J 


Jaburg  Bros.,  Bakers'  Supplies,  New  York  City. 

Jackson  &  Sharpe  Plant  of  the  American  Car  Foun- 
dry Co.,  Wilmington,  Del. 

Jackson  Manufacturing  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Jacob  Candy  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La. 

Henry  B.  Jacobs,  Shoes,  New  York  City. 

Jacques  Baszanger  &  Co.,  Carbons,  New  York  City. 

Dr.  Jaegers  Sanitary  Woolen  Systems  Co.,  Wear- 
ing Apparel,  New  York  City. 

Jaenecke  Printing  Ink  Co.,  New  York  City. 

James  Supply,  Soldering  Pipe,  Chattanooga,  Tenn. 

Janesville  Iron  Works,  Compressed  Air  Equipment, 
Janesville,  Wis. 

Walter  Janvier,  Soaps,  New  York  City. 

Jarecki  Manufacturing  Co.,  Pipe,  Erie,  Pa. 

The  Jeffery  Mfg.  Co.,  Belt  Conveyors,  Columbus,O. 

Jenkins  Bros.,  Valves  Packing,  New  York  City. 

Jenkins  Coal  Company,  New  York  City. 

Jocknsch,  Davidson  &  Co.,  Galveston,  Tex. 

H.  W.  Johns-Manville  Co.,  Elec.  Asbestos,  N.Y.C. 

Isaac  G.  Johnson  &  Co.,  Inc.,  Steel  Castings,  Spuy- 
ten  Duyvil,  N.  Y. 

Johnson  Bros.,  Coal,  Washington,  D.  C. 

George  R.  Johnson,  Dipper  Handles,  Baltimore,  Md. 

Johnson  Wrecking  Frog  Co.,  Cleveland  Ohio. 

Mr.  J.  K.  Joice,  Lumber,  Chicago,  111. 

Jones  &  Lamson  Machine  Co.,  Springfield,  Vt. 

Jones  &  Laughlin,  Steel  Co.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Henry  E.  Jones,  Paper,  New  York  City. 

Jones  Superior  Machine  Co.,  Saw  Blades,  Chicago. 

O.  F.  Jordan  Co.,  Earth  Spreaders,  Chicago,  111. 

John  P.  Jube  &  Co.,  Carriage  Hardware,  N.  Y.  C. 

Juda  Bros.,  Dry  Goods,  New  York  City. 


K 


Kaheival  Co.,  Cigarettes,  New  York  City. 

David  Kahnweiler  Sons,  Life  Saving  Appliances, 

New  York  City. 

David  Kahnuclers  Sons,  New  York  City. 
Kalamazoo  Corset  Co.,  Kalamazoo,  Mich. 
Kalamazoo  Railway  Supply  Co.,  Kalamazoo,  Mich. 
John  P.  Kane  Co.,  Masons'  Materials,  N.  Y.  C. 
L.  Katzenstein  &  Co.,  Packing,  New  York  City. 
Kaufman  Flonacher  &  Co.,  Suits,  New  Orleans,  La. 
The  Kay  &  Ess  Co.,  Ochre,  Dayton,  Ohio. 
The  Kay-Scheerer  Co.,  Sterilizing  and  Disinfectant 

Apparatus,  New  York  City. 
Robert  A.  Keasby  &  Co.,  Asbestos,  New  York  City. 


448 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


Keasby  &  Mattison  Co.,  Cement,  Asbestos  and  Felt 
Goods,  Ambler,  Pa.  and  New  York  City. 

E.  F.  Keating  Co.,  Pipe,  New  York  City. 

E.  Keeler  Co.,  Boilers,  Williamsport,  Pa. 

Charles  A.  Keene,  Jewelry,  New  York  City. 

Keep  Mfg.  Co.,  Wearing  Apparel,  New  York  City. 

Keiffer  Bros.  Shoe  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La. 

Kellner  Bros.,  Furniture,  New  York  City. 

The  M.  W.  Kellogg  Co.,  Pipe  &  Chimneys,  N.  Y.C. 

T.  P.  Kelly  &  Co.,  Foundry  Supplies,  N.  Y.  C. 

Martin  Kelly,  Commission  Merchant,  New  York. 

Kelly-Springfield  Motor  Truck  Co.,  Motor  Busses, 
Springfield,  Ohio. 

Kelly -Springfield  Road  Roller  Co.,  Springfield,  O. 

Kemicott  Co.,  Water  Weigher,  Chicago,  111. 

Kemp,  Day  &  Co.,  Groceries,  New  York  City. 

Kemp  Machinery  Co.,  Baltimore,  Md. 

J.  B.  Kendall  &  Co.,  Iron  &  Steel,  Wash.,  D.  C. 

The  Kendall  Coal  Mining  Co.,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

The  Kennedy  Valve  Mfg.  Co.,  Elmyra,  N.  Y. 

Robert  A.  Kensbury  Co.,  Handhole  Caskets,  N.  Y.  C. 

Kensington  Engine  Works,  Ltd.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

P.  Kent  Co.,  Burlap  Bags,  New  York  City. 

Kentucky  Wagon  Mfg.  Co.,  Louisville,  Ky. 

Kenworthy  Engrg.  Co.,  Furnaces,  Waterbury,  Conn. 

C.  Kenyon  Co.,  Raincoats,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Thomas  G.  Keogh,  Vacuum  Gauges,  N.  Y.  C. 

Kerite  Insulated  Wire&  CableCo.,WireCables,N.Y. 

J.  R.  Keiser,  Ties,  New  York  City. 

Keystone  Blue  Paper  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Keystone  Driller  Co.,  Beaver  Falls,  Pa. 

Keystone  Lubricating  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Keystone  National  Powder  Co.,  Powder,  N.  Y.  C. 

King  Keystone  Oil  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

The  Keystone  Type  Foundry  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Keystone  Watch  Case  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Kilbourne  &  Jacobs  Mfg.  Co.,  Hand  Carts,  Colum- 
bus, Ohio. 

Kilbourne  &  Jacobs,  Tires,  Rubber,  N.  Y.  C. 

Kilby  Frog  &  Switch  Co.,  Birmingham,  Ala. 

C.  P.  Kimball  &  Co.,  Half -top  Cabriolets,  Chicago. 

Kingan  Provision  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Kipp  Wagon  Works,  New  York  City. 

H.  B.  Kirkham  &  Son,  Sawdust,  New  York  City. 

Kittoe  Boiler  &  Tank  Co.,  Canton,  Ohio. 

Henry  Klein,  Chemists,  New  York  City. 

Kleinert  Rubber  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Knickerbocker  Ice  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Knickerbocker  Mills  Co.,  Commissary  Sup.  N.  Y.  C. 

C.  C.  Knight  Co.,  Steel  Plates,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Knothe  Bros.,  Leather  Goods,  New  York  City. 

Knox&  Bro.,  Hammers,  Wrenches  &  Punches.N.  Y. 

Koelsch  Bros.,  Butchers,  New  York  City. 

Kohlman  Bros.  &  Sugaman,  Fruits,  New  Orleans.La. 

H.  Kohnstann,  Laundry  Supplies,  New  York  City. 

Herman  Kohn,  Wearing  Apparel,  New  York  City. 

Kohn,  Weil  &  Co.,  Hats,  New  Orleans,  La. 

Kosy  Slipper  Co.,  Lynn,  Mass. 

A.  S.  Kottwitz  Co.,  Eggs,  New  Orleans,  La. 

William  Kraft,  New  York  City. 


Krag  Imperial  Cabinet  Co,,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Charles  A.  Kreig,  Shoe  Laces,  New  York  City. 
Krengel  Manufacturing  Co.,  Stamps,  N.  Y.  C. 
Kuffon  &  Demerest,  Hardware,  New  York  City. 
Kurtz  &  Co.,  Commissary  Supplies,  Ohio,  111. 


Laclede-Christy  Clay  Products  Co.,  Blocks,  Tiling, 

St.  Louis,  Mo. 

E.  R.  Ladew,  Leather  &  Hides,  New  York  City. 
The  Laidlaw-Dunn-Gordon  Co.,  Air  Compressors 

and  Receivers,  New  York  City. 
Laidlaw-Dunn-Gordon  Co.,  Fly  Wheels, Compressor, 

Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

Lake  Bros.,  Umbrellas,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Lambert  Hoisting  Engine  Co.,  Newark,  N.  J. 
Lambert  Pharmacy  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Lambert's  Point  Tow  Boat  Co.,  Norfolk,  Va. 
Lamont  &  Corliss  Co.,  Cocoa  and  Chocolates,  New 

York  City. 
Lamsen  Com.  Stores,  Commissary  Supplies,  New 

York  City. 

Lamson  Cash  Carrier  Pneumatic  Tube  Co.,  N.  Y.  C. 
Lancaster  Forge  &  Blower  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Henry  W.  Landen,  Chemicals,  Newark,  N.  J. 
Landers,  Frary  &  Clark,  Hardware,  New  York  City. 
Landis  Sewing  Machine  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Landis  Tool  Co.,  Waynesboro,  Pa. 
W.  T.  Lane  &  Bros.,  Hardware,  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y. 
J.  H.  Lane  &  Co.,  Commission  Merchants,  N.  Y.  C. 
Lane  &  De  Groot  Co.,  Launches,  Life  Rafts,  N.  Y.  C. 
L.  Langsdorf  &  Co.,  Stationery,  Minors,  N.  Y.  C. 
Lanman  &  Kemp,  Druggists,  New  York  City. 
W.  K.  Lanman,  Machine  Bolts  &  Nuts,  Columbus.O. 
Julius  Lansburgh  Furniture  &  Car.  Co.,Wash.  D.  C. 
Lansing  Wheelbarrow  Co.,  Wheelbarrows,  N.  Y.  C. 
The  Lanston  Monotype  Mach.  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
J.  K.  Larkin  &  Co.,  Washers,  Nuts,  etc.,  N.  Y.  C. 
E.  B.  Latham  &  Co.,  New  York  City. 
W.  J.  Lathan  &  Sons,  Agents  Produce  Exchange 

Annex,  New  York  City. 

Laughead  &  Co.,  Menu  Cards,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Launto  New  Bedford  Copper  Co.,  New  Bedford, 

Mass. 

Laux  &  Appel,  Fruit  &  Vegetables,  New  Orleans,  La. 
O.  C.  Lawrence  &  Co.,  Stationers,  New  York  City. 
H.  T.  Lawler  &  Son,  Grain,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Lawyers  Co-operative  Publishing  Co.,  Rochester. 
S.  C.  Laylor  Chain  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 
Leadite  Co.,  Leadite,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Lead  Products  Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Lebanon  Chain  Works  &  Iron  Co.,  Lebanon,  Pa. 
W.  H.  Lear,  Lumber,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Lebdejeff  &  Co.,  New  York  City. 
The  Leeds  &  Northup  Co.,  Galvanometers,  Phila.,  Pa. 
William  A.  Leggett  Co.,  New  York  City. 
B.  Legrade,  Tobacco,  New  York  City. 
Lehigh-Portland  Cement  Co.,  Allentown,  Pa. 


INDUSTRIAL  ROLL  OF  HONOR 


449 


Isaac  Lehmann,  New  York  City. 

Lehn  &  Fink,  Druggists,  New  York  City. 

Leibig  Extract  Co.,  New  York  City. 

John  P.  Lein  &  Sons,  Berths  for  laborers'  quarters, 

New  York  City. 

Leob  Bros.  Leather  Belting  Co.,  New  York  City. 
J.  H.  Leonard  &  Co.,  Brass  Brushings,  Unions,  etc., 

New  York  City. 

Leousi  Clonney  &  Co.,  Sponges,  New  York  City. 
A.  Leschen  &  Sons  Rope  Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Lestrade  Bros.,  Dairy,  New  York  City. 
Leuher  Engineering  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Levy  Bros.,  Wearing  Apparel,  Louisville,  Ky. 
The  B.  Levy  Co.,  Wholesale  Druggists.,  Boston. 
C.  Levy's  Sons,  Hats,  New  York  City. 
Bernard  Levy,  Wearing  Apparel,  New  York  City. 
Lewine  Bros.,  Neckwear,  New  York  City. 
H.  Lewis  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  New  Orleans,  La. 
S.  W.  Lewis  &  Co.,  Fish  for  Export,  New  York  City. 
H.  K.  Lewis  &  Co.,  Railroad  Track,  New  Orleans. 
Libbey,  McNeil  &  Libbey,  Meat  Packers,  Chicago. 
Liberty  Oil  Co.,  Kerosene,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Library  Bureau,  Cabinets,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Lidgerwood  Mfg.  Co.,  Hoisting  Engineers,  N.  Y.  C. 
Liebers  Code  Co.,  Book  Store,  New  York  City. 
A.  S.  Liebovitz  &  Co.,  New  York  City. 
S.  Liebovitz  &  Son,  Clothing,  New  York  City. 
Lignum  Chemical  Works,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
Dexter  P.  Lillie  &  Co.,  Waste,  Chicago,  111. 
J.  E.  Linde  Paper  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Lineham  &  Molo,  Paving  Brick,  Dubuque,  Iowa. 
Theo.  Linington,  Jr.,  Rock  Salt,  New  York  City. 
Link-Belt  Co.,  Clutch  Couplings,  etc.,  Chicago,  111. 
W.  K.  Linscott,  Cross  Ties,  Mobile,  Ala. 
J.  J.  Little  &  Ives  Co.,  Publishers,  New  York  City. 
C.  S.  Little,  Druggists,  New  York  City. 
Lobdell  Car  Wheel  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Locke  Insulator  Mfg.  Co.,  Insulators,  Victor,  N.  Y. 
Locomotive  Appliance  Co.,  Chicago.,  111. 
Loch  Bros.,  Aluminum,  Lamp  Black,  N.  Y.  C. 
Logan  Iron  Works,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y, 
Long  &  Allstatter  Co.,  Punches  and  Shears,  Ham. 

ilton,  Ohio. 

Long  Bell  Lumber  Co.,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 
The  Longhead  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa, 
Lord  &  Taylor,  Clothing,  New  York  City. 
Harry  A.  Lord,  Shovels,  Allegheny,  Pa. 
Lortz-Leuscher  Co.,  Furniture,  Utica,  N.  Y. 
C.  T.  Louis  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Louisiana  Creosoting  Co.,  Creosoted  Lumber,  Slidell, 

La. 

Louisiana  Molasses  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Love  Brake  Shoe  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 
F.  H.  Lovell  &  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Lowe  &  Leveridge,  New  York  City. 
John  Lucas  &  Co.,  Paints,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Lucas  Machine  Tool  Co.,  Forcing  Presses,  Cleveland. 
The  Ludlow  Mfg.  Co.,  Loco.  Oilers,  Ludlow,  Ky. 
Ludowici-Celadon  Co.,  Terra  Cotta  Roofing  Tiles, 

Washington,  D.  C. 


Ludowici-Celadon  Co.,  Tile,  Chicago,  111. 
Ludowici  Roofing  Tile  Co.,  Ludowici,  Ga. 
Ludwig  Baumann  &  Co.,  Furniture,  New  York  City. 
The  Lunkenheimer  Co.,  Engine  Specialties,  Cincin- 

natti,  Ohio. 

David  Lupton's  Sons  Co.,  Windows,  Phila.,  Pa. 
Lutcher  &  Moore  Lumber  Co.,  Orange,  Texas. 
R.  H.  Luthin,  Druggists,  New  York  City. 
Lynah  &  Reed,  Baltimore,  Md. 
Lynchburg  Foundry  Co.,  Iron  Pipe,  etc.,  Lynch- 

burg,  Va. 

Lynchburg  Hosiery  Mills,  Lynchburg,  Pa. 
I.  L.  Lyons  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  New  Orleans,  La. 
I.  W.  Lyons  &  Sons,  Druggists,  New  York  City. 


M 


Macbeth,  Evans  Glass  Co.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
Macbeth,  Evans  Hudson  Glass  Co.,  N.  Y.  C. 
L.  H.  Mace  &  Co.,  Refrigerators,  New  York  City. 
R.  H.  Macy  &  Co.,  House  Furnishing  Goods,  N.  Y. 
Macey-Wernicke  Co.,  Furniture,  New  York  City. 
Charles  Machine  Co.,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 
The  Macomber-Whyte-Moon  Co.,  Wire  Rope,  N.  Y. 
The  W.  D.  MacGuffin  Co.,  Comsy.  Sup.,  N.  Y.  C. 
Walter  Macleod  &  Co.,  Factory  Specialties,  Cincin- 
nati, Ohio. 

The  MacMillan  Co.,  Books,  New  York  City. 
James  H.  McCall,  Pine  Barren,  Fla. 
James  H.  McCall,  Incinerators,  Huntington,  Tenn. 
McClintic-Marshall  Constn.  Co.,  Steel,  Pittsburgh. 
J.  J.  McClusky,  Paper  Boxes,  New  York  City. 
McCord  &  Co.,  Railroad  Supplies,  New  York  City. 
McCord  &  Co.,  Huntington,  Tenn. 
Henry  J.  McCoy  Co.,  Contractors'  Supplies,  N.  Y.  C. 
William  McDonagh  &  Son,  Nightsoil  Pails,  N.  Y.  C. 
James  A.  McDonald,  Lumber,  New  York  City. 
John  W.  McDonald,  Glue,  New  York  City, 
James  McKay  Co.,  Chains,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
McKesson  &  Robbins,  Drugs,  New  York  City. 
H.  McMullen,  Sign  Painter,  New  York  City. 
McNab  &  Harlin  Mfg.  Co.,  New  York  City. 
McNeil  &  Higgins  Co.,  Fruits,  Chicago,  111. 
McNunally  &  McCrea,  Cloth  Goods,  Atlanta,  Ga. 
Maendier  Bros.,  Brushes,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 
M.  Magee  &  Son,  Switch  Flags,  New  York  City. 
Ehret  Magnesia  Mfg.  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Magnus'  Metal  Co.,  Journal  Bearings,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Magor  Car  Co.,  Flat  Cars,  New  York  City. 
George  S.  Mahana,  New  York  City. 
Mahoney  Electric  Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
O.  J.  Maigne  Co.,  Printers'  Rollers,  New  York  City. 
The  Maine  Elec.  Co.,  Elec.  Cranes,  Portland,  Me. 
The  Guy  C.  Major  Co.,  Oil,  Toledo,  Ohio. 
Mai  &  Brinker  Co.,  New  York  City. 
W.  B.  Malay,  New  York  City. 
Malt  Diestase  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Maney  Milling  Co.,  Flour,  Omaha,  Neb- 
Mann  Edge  Tool  Co.,  Louistown,  Pa. 


450 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


Manhattan  Brass  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Manhattan  Electric  Supply  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Manhattan  Electrical  Supply  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Manhattan  Shirt  Co.,  New  York  City. 
The  Manhattan  Rubber  Mfg.  Co.,  Baltimore,  Md. 
The  Manhattan  Rubber  Co.,  Passaic,  N.  J. 
The  Manhattan  Supply  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Manicure  Novelty  Manufacturing  Co.,  N.  Y.  C. 
Manning,  Maxwell  &  Moore,  Tools  and  Sup.,  N.Y.C. 
Marine  Oil  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Marine  Mfg.  &  Supply  Co.,  Anchors,  N.  Y.  C. 
The  Marion  Steam  Shovel  Co.,  Marion,  Ohio. 
Mark  Mfg.  Co.,  Wrought  Iron  Pipe,  Chicago,  111. 
A.  A.  Marks,  Artificial  Limbs,  New  York  City. 

D.  B.  Martin  Co.,  Neatsfoot  Oil,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
James  C.  Martin,  School  Books,  Richmond,  Va. 
William  Martinez  &  Co.,  Shoes,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Maryland  Casualty  Co.,  Bonding  Employees,  Bal- 
timore, Md. 

Maryland  Steel  Co.,  Steel  Dump  Barges,  Baltimore. 
Marquardt  Co.,  Groceries,  New  York  City. 
John  W.  Masbury  &  Son,  Paints  and  Varnish,  N.  Y. 
Mathers  &  Lamm  Paper  Co.,  Washington,  D.  C. 
The  Mathews  Boat  Co.,  Port  Clinton,  Ohio. 
R.  T.  Matteson  &  Co.,  Packers,  Petersburg,  Va. 
A.  D.  Matthews  Sons,  Dept.  Store,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
John  Matthews,  Syrup,  New  York  City. 
Messrs.  Mattlage,  Fish  Packers,  New  York  City. 
Henry  Mauer  &  Son,  Fire  Brick,  New  York  City. 
Maxwell  &  Crouch  Mule  Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Mayer,  Lane  &  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Mead-Morrison  Mfg.  Co.,  Steel  Shovels,  N.  Y.  C. 
Mechanical  Mfg.  Co.,  Bumping  Posts,  Chicago,  111. 
Mechling  Bros.  Mfg.  Co.,CausticSoda,Camden,  NJ. 
Mehlbach  Saddle  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Meir  &  Goetz,  Wearing  Apparel,  New  York  City. 
Richard  W.  Meirs,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Melachrino  &  Co.,  Tobacco,  New  York  City. 
Mellen's  Food  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 
J.  H.  Menge  &  Sons,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Mennen's  Chemical  Co., Toilet  Articles,  Newark,  N.J. 
Merchant  &  Evans  Co.,  Condensor  Tubes,  Phila.,  Pa. 
Merchants  Fruit  &  Produce  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Merck  &  Co.,  Creoline,  New  York  City. 
Merrill-Stevens  &  Co.,  Barges,  Jacksonville,  Fla. 
Merriman  Bros.,  Snatch  Blocks,  Boston,  Mass. 
Merriman  Paper  Co.,  New  York  City. 
L.  J.  Merriman,  Piling,  Switch  Ties,Wilmington,N.C. 
Merritt-Chapman  Derrick  &  Wrecking  Co.,  N.Y.C. 
L.  J.  Merryman,  Piling,  Wilmington,  N.  C. 
Meswick  Coal  Co.,  New  York  City. 
The  Meurer  Bros.  Co.,  Metals,  New  York  City. 
Meyer  Bros.  Drug  Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Meyers  Bros.,  Pads,  New  York  City. 
John  Meyers,  Vegetables  &  Fruit,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Henry  H.  Meyer,  Hoisting  Engines  and  Steam  Con- 
nections, Baltimore,  Md. 
J.  C.  Meyer,  Lowell,  Mass. 

E.  B.  Meyrowitz,  Surgical  Instruments  and  Hos- 

pital Supplies,  New  York  City. 


Mfg.  Equipment  &  Engine  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 

H.  Michelson  &  Co.,  Drugs,  New  York  City. 

Michigan  Condensed  Milk  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Michigan  Leather  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich. 

John  Middleton,  Tobacco,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Midvale  Steel  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Midvale  Steel  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Milam-Morgan  Co.,  Ltd.,  Rice  Straw,  New  Orleans. 

The  Alexander  Milburn  Co.,  Baltimore,  Md. 

Millburn  Wagon  Co.,  Toledo,  Ohio. 

Alexander  Milburn  Co.,  Acetylene  Gas  Machines 
and  Lamps,  Baltimore,  Md. 

Alfred  Miller  Co.,  Ltd.,  Cement,  New  Orleans,  La. 

L.  H.  Miller  Safe  &  Iron  Works,  Baltimore,  Md. 

H.  C.  Miller  Co.,  Stationery,  New  York  City. 

J.  Miller  Sons  &  Co.,  Clothing,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Thomas  Miller  Bros.,  Iron  Work,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Miller  Pasteurizing  Machine  Co.,  Canton,  Ohio. 

Miller,  Aikenhead,  Wearing  Apparel,  N.  Y.  C. 

Miller  &  Graham,  Lamp  Black,  Coal  Tar,  Oil  and 
Turpentine,  Baltimore,  Md. 

George  W.  Millar  &  Co.,  Paper,  New  York  City. 

O.  A.  Miller,  Shoe  Trees,  Brockton,  Mass. 

E.  Miller  &  Sons,  Illuminating  Oil  &  Lamps,  N.Y.C. 

W.  L.  Mills,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Anson  Mills,  Esq.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

W.  H.  Miner  &  Co.,  Gravity  Side  Bearings,  Chi- 
cago, 111. 

Minnesota  Linseed  Oil  Paint  Co.,  Minneapolis, Minn. 

Minnesota  Mining  &  Mfg.  Co.,  Paper,  Chicago,  111. 

Minus,  Nugent  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Mississippi  Lumber  Co.,  Quitman,  Miss. 

Missouri  Malleable  Co.,  E.  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Mitchell  Clay  Manufacturing  Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Mobile  Stove  &  Pulley  Mfg.  Co.,  Mobile,  Ala. 

Model  Gas  Engine  Works,  N.  Y.  C. 

Modern  Frog  &  Crossing  Works,  Chicago,  111. 

Mohawk  Condensed  Milk  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Moller  &  Schuman  Co.,  Varnish,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Monarch  Biscuit  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Monarch  Engrg.  &  Mfg.  Co.,  Material  for  Furnaces, 
Baltimore,  Md. 

Monarch  Steel  Casting  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich. 

Monarch  Suspender  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Monel  Metal  Manufacturing  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Montgomery,  Ward  &  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

Montgomery  &  Co.,  Wrenches,  Drills,  etc.,  N.  Y.  C. 

Moonstone  Copying  Slate  Co.,  Columbus,  Ohio. 

J.  J.  Moore  &  Co.,  Inc.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Moos  &  Co.,  Packers,  New  York  City. 

Moran  Flexible  Steam  Joint  Co.,  Louisville,  Ky. 

Moran  Towing  &  Transportation  Co.,  N.  Y.  C. 

J.  A.  Moray,  New  York  City. 

The  Morgan  Engineering  Co.,  Alliance,  Ohio. 

Enoch  Morgan's  Sons  Co.,  Sapolio,  N.  Y.  C. 

Morris  Machine  Works,  Pumps,  Baldwinsville,  N.  Y. 

Morris  &  Co.,  Clothing,  Baltimore,  Md. 

Nelson  Morris  &  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

T.  N.  Morris  &  Co.,  Dry  Goods,  New  York  City. 

James  E.  Morris,  Groceries,  New  York  City. 


INDUSTRIAL  ROLL  OF  HONOR 


451 


Philip  Morris  &  Co.,  Cigarettes,  New  York  City. 

Morse-Boulger  Destructor  Co.,  New  York  City. 

F.  J.  Morse  Supply  Co.,  Linen  Wear,  New  York  City. 

Morse  &  Rogers,  Novelties,  New  York  City. 

A.  J.  Morse  &  Son,  Wearing  Apparel,  Boston,  Mass. 

Mosaic  Tile  Co.,  Zanesville,  Ohio. 

The  Mosaic  Tile  Co.,  Tiling,  New  York  City. 

A.  Moses  &  Sons,  Inc.,  Sponges,  New  York  City. 

W.  B.  Moses  &  Sons,  Furniture,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Mosher  Water  Tube  Boiler  Co.,  New  York  City. 

M osier  Safe  Co.,  Hamilton,  Ohio. 

Henry  Moss  &  Co.,  Machinery,  New  York  City. 

Mothersill  Remedy  Co.,  Medicines,  N.  Y.  C. 

J.  L.  Mott  Iron  Works,  Washington,  D.  C. 

H.  Mueller  Mfg.  Co.,  Plumbing  and  Gas  Fixtures, 

New  York  City. 

H.  K.  Mulford  Co.,  Vaccine  Points,  New  York  City. 
Mundet  &  Co.,  Corks,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
Municipal  Engineering  &  Contracting  Co.,Chicago. 
Henry  Mungesser  &  Co.,  Grass  Seed,  New  York  City 
John  Munora  Co.,  Commission  Mer.,  New  Orleans. 
Munson  S.  S.  Line,  New  York  City. 
Munson  Supply  Co.,  Stationery,  New  York  City. 
Murphysboro    Paving    Brick    Co.,    Paving    Brick, 

Murphysboro,  111. 
George  Murphy,  Inc.,  Paper  Cap  Slides,  etc.,  Photo 

Supplies,  New  York  City. 
Murphy  Varnish  Co.,  Newark,  N.  J. 

E.  A.  Murray,  Chemical  Mfgs.,  Detroit,  Mich. 

F.  E.    Myers    &    Bros.,    Knapsack    Pumps,   Ash- 

land,  Ohio. 
Myles  Salt  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La. 


N 


Nasen  Comp.  &  Paint  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Nason  Mfg.  Co.,  Boilers  and  Radiators,  N.  Y.  C. 
The  Nassau  Smelting  &  Refining  Works,  N.  Y.  C. 
Nathan  Mfg.  Co.,  Injectors  and  Lubricators,  N.Y.C. 
The  National  Ammonia  Co.,  New  York  City. 
National  Aniline  &  Chemical  Co.,  New  York  City. 
National  Biscuit  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 
The  Nat.  Brass  &  Copper  Tube  Co.,  N.  Y.  C. 
National  Carbon  Co.,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 
National  Cash  Register  Co.,  Dayton,  Ohio. 
National  Casket  Co.,  New  York  City. 
National  Conduit  &  Cable  Co.,  New  York  City. 
National  Drill  &  Mfg.  Co.,  Scrapers,  New  York  City. 
National-Filton  Brass  Mfg.  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich. 
National  Fire  Proofing  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 
National  Flour  Mills,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
National  Electrical  Supply  Co.,  Washington,  D.  C. 
National  Enamel  &  Stamping  Co.,  New  York  City. 
National  Folding  Box  &  Paper  Co.,  New  York  City. 
National  Gum  &  Mica  Co.,  Glue,  New  York  City. 
National  India  Rubber  Co.,  Providence,  R.  I. 
The  National  Lock  Washer  Co.,  Newark,  N.  J. 
National  Malleable  Castings  Co.,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 
National  Malleable  Casting  Co.,  New  York  City. 


National  Meter  Co.,  New  York  City. 
National  Motor  Co.,  New  York  City. 
National  Oil  Works  &  Mill  Supply  Co.,  Ltd.,  New 

Orleans,  La. 

National  Packing  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 
Nat.  Railway  Pub.  Co.,  Magazines,  New  York  City. 
National  Railway  Supply  Co.,  New  York  City. 
National  Roller  Co.,  Composition  for  Printers'  Rolls, 

New  York  City. 

National  Scales  Co.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
National  Show  Case  Co.,  New  York  City. 
The  National  Signal  Flag  Co,  Warrenton,  Va. 
The  National  Ticket  Co.,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 
National     Vaccine    &     Antitoxin     Establishment, 

Washington,  D.  C. 

S.  E.  &  L.  E.  Naylor,  Lumber  Co.,  Gulfport,  Miss. 
Neale  &  Brinker  Co.,  Hardware,  New  York  City. 
T.  S.  &  J.  D.  Negus,  Signal  Flags,  New  York  City. 
H.  L.  Nelke  &  Co.,  Wearing  Apparel,  Phila.,  Pa. 
Neostyle  Co.,  Mimeograph  Machines,  N.  Y.  C. 
Nelson  Goodyear,  Gas  Apparatus,  New  York  City. 
The  Charles  Nelson  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
The  A.  &  J.  Nelson  Mfg.  Co.,  Stove  Pipe,  New 

Orleans,  La. 

Neptune  Meter  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Nernst  Lamp  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Nestles  Food  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Nestor  Gianaclis  Co.,  Cigarettes,  New  York  City. 
Nev-a-Hone  Razor  Strop  Co.,  New  York  City. 
New  Castle  Forge  &  Bolt  Co.,  New  Castle,  Pa., 
New  England  Confectionery  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 
New  England  M.  S.  Co.,  Maple  Syrup,  Boston,  Mass. 
Newhall  Chain  Forge  &  Iron  Co.,  New  York  City. 
New  Iberia  Tabasco  Sauce  Co.,  New  Iberia,  La. 
The  Newman  Clock  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 
J.  J.  Newman  Lumber  Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
New  Haven  Clock  Co.,  New  York  City. 
New  Home  Sewing  Machine  Co.,  New  York  City. 
The  New  Freedom  Wire  Cloth  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 
The  New  Freedom  Wire  Cloth  Co.,  New  Freedom,  Pa. 
Newmeyer  &  Dimond,  Floating  Cranes,  N.  Y.  C. 
New  Orleans  Furniture  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La. 
New  Orleans  Tent  &  Awning  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Newport  News  Ship  &  Dry  Dock  Co.,  Newport  News 

Va. 

New  Process  Rawhide  Co.,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. 
Newson  &  Co.,  Books  &  Charts,  New  York  City. 
New  Jersey  Asbestos  Co.,  Camden,  N.  J. 
New  Jersey  CarSpring&RubberCo.,  Jersey  City,N.J. 
New  Jersey  Foundry  &  Mach.  Co.,  New  York  City. 
New  Jersey  School  Furniture  Co.,  Trenton,  N.  J. 
New  Jersey  Wire  Cloth  Co.,  Camden,  N.  J. 
The  New  York  Air  Brake  Co.,  New  York  City. 
The  New  York  Boat  Oar  Co.,  New  York  City. 
N.  Y.  Belting  &  Packing  Co.,  Ltd.,  New  York  City. 
New  York  Buff  Co.,  Polishers'  Supplies,  N.  Y.  C. 
New  York  Electric  Installation  Co.,  N.  Y.  C. 
New  York  Filing  Cabinet  Co.,  New  York  City. 
New  York  Frame  &  Picture  Co.,  New  York  City. 
New  York  Hollow  Ware  Co.,  New  York  City. 


452 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


New  York  Ice  Machinery  Co.,  New  York  City. 

New  York  Insulated  Wire  Co.,  New  York  City. 

New  York  Ladder  Co.,  New  York  City. 

New  York  Roofing  &  Corrugating  Co.,  Phila.,  Pa. 

New  York  Sand  &  Facing  Co.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

N.  Y.  Shipbuilding  Co.,  Camden,  N.  J. 

New  York  Shellac  Co.,  New  York  City. 

New  York  Stencil  Works,  New  York  City. 

New  York  White  Cross  Milk  Co.,  New  York  City. 

New  York  &  Brooklyn  Casket  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Niagara  Machine  &  Tool  Works,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 

Nicholson  File  Co.,  Providence,  R.  I. 

The  Nile  Tobacco  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Niles-Bement-Pond     Co.,   Lathe,    Planer,   Drilling 

Machines,  New  York  City. 

The  Nilson  Yacht  Building  Co.,  Boats,  Baltimore. 
H.  A.  Noble,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Noble  &  Salter,  Com.  Mer.,  New  Orleans,  La. 
William  R.  Noe  Co.,  Hardware,  New  York  City. 
Nollman  &  Co.,  Butter,  New  York  City. 
Charles  H.  Nolte,  Commission  Merchant,  N.  Y.  C. 
Nonpareil  Cork  Works,  New  York  City. 
Northern  Elec.  Mfg.  Co.,  Madison,  Wis. 
Northwestern  Malleable  Iron  Co.,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 
The  Northwestern  Miller,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 
A.  O.  Norton,  Jacks,  Boston,  Mass. 
Norvell-Shapleigh  Hardware  Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Norwood  Tool  Co.,  Wheeling,  West  Va. 
William  W.  Nugent  &  Co.,  Tanks,  Oils  and  Mach. 

Chicago,  111. 

Nunglsser,  Deshensen  Seed  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Nye  Steam  Pump  &  Mfg.  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 


Oliver  Typewriter  Co.,  New  York  City. 

The  William  J.  Oliver  Mfg.  Co.,  Dump  Carts, 
Knoxville,  Tenn. 

A.  Olsen,  New  York  City. 

Olson,  Mahony  Lumber  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

O'Neill-Adams  Co.,  Department  Store,  N.  Y.  C. 

Orenstein -Arthur  Koppel  Co.,  Industrial  and  Port- 
able Railways,  New  York  City. 

Orleans  Metal  Building  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La. 

John  C.  Orr  &  Co.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Orton  &  Steinbrenner,  Locomotive  Coaling  Cranes, 
Chicago,  111. 

W.  R.  Osborn,  Lawyer,  Passaic,  N.  J. 

R.  C.  Osburn,  Paper  and  Twine,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Osburn  Paper  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Oshkosh  Mattress  Co.,  Oshkosh,  Wis. 

Oster  Bros.,  Trucks,  New  Orleans,  La. 

Ostermoore  &  Co.,  Furniture,  New  York  City. 

Ostrander  Fire  Brick  Co.,  New  York  City. 

O'Sullivan  Rubber  Co.,  Rubber  Heels,  Lowell,  Mass. 

Otis  Elevator  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Spencer  Otis  Co.,  Tie  Plates,  Chicago,  111. 

Ottawa  Silica  Co.,  Sand  for  Cement  Testing,  Ot- 
tawa, 111. 

Ira  Ottenberg,  Corn  Cob  Pipes,  New  York  City. 

The  Otto  Gas  Engine  Works,  Chicago,  111. 

Outing  Shoe  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 

Randolph  Owens,  New  York  City. 

C.  W.  Owston,  Jr.,  Carpenters'  Tools,  Maplewood 
N.J. 

Oxford  Chemical  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 

The  Oxy-Acetylene  Appliance  Co.,  New  York  City. 


Oakman  Bros.,  New  York  City. 

John  Obenberger  Co.,  Buckets,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

The  S.  Obermayer  Co.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

The  Obermayer  Co.,  Inc.,  Ship  Tenders,  N.  Y.  C. 

Obermayes  Co.,  Marine  Supplies,  New  York  City. 

M.  O'Brien  &  Son,  Vegetable  Merchants,  N.  Y.  C. 

P.  H.  O'Day  &  Son,  Pattern  Makers,  N.  Y.  C. 

Office  &  School  Supply  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Ogden  &  Wallace,  Iron  and  Steel,  New  York  City. 

J.  Edward  Ogden  Co.,  Hardware,  New  York  City. 

Ogden  Iron  &  Steel  Mfg.  Co.,  New  York  City. 

The  Ohio  Brass  Co.,  Insulators,  Mansfield,  Ohio. 

Ohio  Filler  &  Shield  Co.,  Lubricating  Oils,  Columbus. 

The  Ohio  Injector  Co.,  Wadsworth,  Ohio. 

Ohio  Valley  Furniture  Co.,  Charleston,  W.  Va. 

The  James  Ohlen  &  Sons  Saw  Mfg.  Co.,  Columbus. 

Oil  City  Boiler  Works,  Oil  City,  Pa. 

Okonite  Co.,  Insulated  Wires  and  Cables,  N.  Y.  C. 

Joshua  Oldham  &  Sons,  Saws  for  Metal  and  Wood, 

New  York  City. 
Olerich  &  Son,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
D'Olier  Engineering  Co.,  Boiler  Plants,  Phila.,  Pa. 
Oliver  Iron  &  Steel  Co.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
Oliver  Machinery  Co.,  New  York  City. 


Pacific   Coast   Condensed    Milk   Co.,    New    York 

City. 

Pacific  Novelty  Co.,  Combs,  New  York  City. 
Packer  Manufacturing  Co.,  Soap,  N.  Y.  C. 
The  Page  Belting  Co.,  Concord,  N.  H. 
Pain  Fireworks  Display  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Palmer  Bros.,  Motors,  Cos  Cob,  Conn. 
Palmer  Lumber  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Panama  Lumber  &  Trading  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La. 
The  Paraffine  Paint  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 
Paragon  Electric  Co.,  Wire,  Chicago,  111. 
Paragon  Sellers  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 
Park  &  Tilford,  Groceries,  New  York  City. 
Park,  Bensinger  &  Co.,  General  Supplies,  N.  Y.  C. 
William  T.  Parke,  Shoes,  New  York  City. 
Parker,  Davis  &  Co.,  Pyrethum  Powder,  N.  Y.  C. 
Parker-Fain  Grocery  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Parker  Pen  Co.,  Janesville,  Wis. 
William  H.  Parkerton,  Wire  Works,  New  York  City. 
Parkinson  Coal  &  Coke  Co.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
W.  A.  Parsons  &  Co.,  Tinware,  Durham  Cra.,  Conn. 
Parsons  &  Whittemore,  Paper,  New  York  City. 
Parsons  Bros.,  Paper,  New  York  City. 
The  Parsons  Trading  Co.,  New  York  City. 


INDUSTRIAL  ROLL  OF  HONOR 


453 


Paterson  Parchment  Paper  Co.,  Passaic,  N.  J. 
C.  T.  Patterson  Co.,  Ltd.,  Drill  Machinery,  etc., 

New  Orleans,  La. 
Patterson,  Gottfried  &  Hunter,  Stakes,  Shears,  etc., 

New  York  City. 

Patterson -Sargent  Co.,  Varnishes,  New  York  City. 
R.  A.  Patterson  Tobacco  Co.,  Richmond,  Va. 
Patton  Paint  Co.,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 
E.  Pearson  &  Co.,  Linoleum,  New  York  City. 
J.  H.  Pearson,  Machinery,  New  York  City. 
Pears  Soap  Agency,  New  York  City. 
Peck  Bros.  &  Co.,  Plumbing  App.,    New  Haven, 

Conn. 

Peerless  Dishwasher  Co.,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 
Peerless  Electric  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Peerless  Rubber  Mfg.  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Pelton  Water  Wheel  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Penberthy  Injector  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich. 
M.   Penderson  Co.,   Com.   Merch.,   New  Orleans, 

La. 

Penick  &  Ford,  Molasses,  New  Orleans,  La. 
J.  F.  Pennell,  Steel  Castings,  New  York  City. 
Penn.    Bridge    Co.,    Towers    for    Radio    Station, 

Beaver  Falls,  Pa. 

Penn.  Flexible  Metallic  Tubing  Co.,  Phila.,  Pa. 
Penn.  Salt  Manufacturing  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Penn.  Steel  Casting  &  Machine  Co.,  Chester,  Pa. 
The  Pennsylvania  Steel  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Peoples  Tobacco  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Perfumer  Publishing  Co.,  New  York  City. 
The  Perkins-Campbell  Co.,  Harness,  Cincinnati,  O. 
Peterman  Chemical  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Petroleum  Iron  Works,  Storage  Tanks  for  Fuel  Oil, 

Sharon,  Pa. 

Pettill  &  Reed,  Groceries,  New  York  City. 
Pettinos  Bros.,  Graphite  Paint   Blank,  Bethlehem, 

Pa. 

S.  Pfeifer  Co.,  Rice,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Philadelphia  Machine  Works,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Phillips  &  Laffitte,  Welding  Plates,  Phila.,  Pa. 
Phillips,  Jones  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Phinotas  Chemical  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Phoenix  Cheese  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Phoenix  Iron  Works,  Meadville,  Pa. 
Phoenix  Knitting  Co.,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 
Phoenix  Specialty  Co.,  Corrugated  Copper  Gaskets, 

New  York  City. 

Albert  Pick  &  Co.,  Glass,  Towels,  Chicago,  111. 
Pierson  &  Co.,  Iron  and  Steel,  New  York  City. 
A.  N.  Pierson  &  Co.,  Plumbing  Pipes,  N.  Y.  C. 
Pigot,  Sayre  &  Co.,  Oils,  New  York  City. 
Pilling  Air  Engine  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich. 
R.  H.  Pilson,  Iron,  Shafts,  Ringbolts,  Wash.,  D.  C. 
Pinney  &  Geddes,  Cheese,  New  York  City. 
Pioneer  Broom  Co.,  Amsterdam,  N.  Y. 
Pioneer  Suspender  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Pitt,  Barnum  &  Co.,  Butter,  New  York  City. 
Pittsburgh  Amiesite   Co.,  Asphalt   Mixing   Plant, 

Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
Pittsburgh  Forge  &  Iron  Co.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 


Pittsburgh  Metal  Products  Co.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Pittsburgh  Plate  Glass  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Pittsburgh  Reduction  Co.,  Aluminum,  N.  Y.  C. 

Pittsburgh  Screw  &  Bolt  Co.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Pittsburgh  Spring  &  Steel  Co.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Pittsburgh  Steel  Co.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Pittsburgh  Steel  Foundry,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Pittsburgh  Valve  &  Foundry  Construction  Co., 
Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Pittsburgh  White  Metal  Co.,  Metal  Tape,  N.  Y.  C. 

Thomas  G.  Plant  Co.,  Shoes,  Boston,  Mass. 

George  P.  Plant  Milling  Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Fayette  R.  Plumb,  Chisels,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Plymouth  Cordage  Co.,  Rope  and  binder  Twine, 
Plymouth,  Mass. 

J.  M.  Pyle  &  Son,  Cleansing  Powder,  Edgewater, 
N.J. 

Pocahontas  Coke  Co.,  Bramwell,  W.  Va. 

Pocohontas  Fuel  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Poland  Spring  Water  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Alexander  Pollock  Co.,  Hardware,  New  York  City. 

Pompeian  Manufacturing  Co.,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Poole  Bros.,  Chicago,  111. 

Pormentheus  Heating  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Portcosta  Milling  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

H.  K.  Porter  Co.,  Locomotives,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Porter  Safety  Seal  Co.,  Lead  Seals,  Chicago,  111. 

William  Porters  Sons  Co.,  Fixtures,  New  York  City. 

Port  Johnson  Towing  Co.,  New  York  City. 

The  Portland  Co.,  Portland,  Me. 

Portland  Cordage  Co.,  Rope,  Manila,  Portland, 
Ore. 

Post  Pipe  Co.,  Drain  Tile,  Texarkana,  Ark. 

Postum  Cereal  Co.,  Battle  Creek,  Mich. 

Potomac  Electric  Power  Co.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Potter  Drug  &  Chemical  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 

D.  H.  Potts,  Forges,  Lancaster,  Pa. 

William  Powell  Co.,  Valves,  Globes,  etc.,  Cincinnati. 

A.  M.  Powell,  New  York  City. 

Power  &  Mining  Co.,  Cudahy,  Wis. 

Power  Specialty  Co.,  Reheaters,  New  York  City. 

Pratt  &  Whitney  Co.,  Automatic  Weighing  Ma- 
chines, New  York  City. 

Pratt  &  Whitney,  Machine  Punches,  Cutters,  etc., 
Hartford,  Conn. 

Prentiss  Tool  &  Supply  Co.,  New  York  City. 

S.  F.  Prentzel,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Pressed  Steel  Car  Co.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Prince  Manufacturing  Co.,  Paints,  New  York  City. 

Procter  &  Gamble  Co.,  Soap  and  Candles,  Cincinnati. 

Progressive  Paper  Products  Co.,  New  York  City. 

T.  C.  Prouty  Co.,  Ltd.,  Albion,  Mich. 

Provident  Chemical  Works,  New  York  City. 

The  Pulp  &  Paper  Trading  Co.,  New  York  City. 

The  Pure  Baking  Powder  Co.,  New  York  City. 

The  Pure  Oil  Co.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Purington  Paving  Brick  Co.,  Galesburg,  111. 

The  Pusey  &  Jones  Co.,  Tow  and  Tug  Boats,  Wil- 
mington, Del. 

Pyles  Nat.  Electric  Headlight  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 


454 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


Q 

Quaker  City  Rubber  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Quaker  Oats  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 
Queen  &  Co.,  Tracing  Cloth  and  Sup.,  Phila.,  Pa. 
Queen  City  Supply  Co.,  Canvas  Bolting,  Cincinnati. 
Quincy,  Manchester  &  Sargent,  New  York  City. 


Rahtgen's  American  Composition  Co.,  Anti-Corro- 
sive Compound,  New  York  City. 

The  Rail  Joint  Co.,  New  York  City. 

The  Rail  way  Appliance  Co.,  Machinery,  Chicago,  111. 

Railway  Steel  Spring  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Railway  &  Traction 'Supply  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

Ramies  &  Co.,  Metal  Polish,  New  York  City. 

Rampo  Foundry  &  Wheel  Works,  Rampo,  N.  Y. 

Rand,  McNally  Co.,  Publishers  &  Printers,  N.  Y.  C. 

John  C.  Rankin  Co.,  Stationery,  New  York  City. 

Ransom,  Parker  &  Co.,  Paper,  New  York  City. 

Ransome  Concrete  Machinery  Co.,  Dunellen,  N.  J. 

Raritan  Chemical  Works,  New  York  City. 

The  Raritan  Paint  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Rathbone  Sard  &  Co.,  Stoves,  Albany,  N.  Y. 

Rawles-Cobb  Co.,  Factory  &  Mach.  Sup.,  Boston. 

W.  S.  Ray  Manufacturing  Co.,  Galvanized  Corru- 
gated Stove  Pipe  Elbows,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

A.  J.  Reach,  Sporting  Goods,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Reading  Hardware  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Reading  Iron  Co.,  Reading,  Pa. 

Remington  &  Sherman,  Safes,  New  York  City. 

The  Record  Oil  Refining  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La. 

Rector  Help-o-phone  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Red  Wing  Milling  Co.,  Red  Wing,  Minn. 

S.  E.  Redfern,  New  Orleans,  La. 

Reeb  &  Dinkins,  Doors  &  Sashes,  New  York  City. 

Reed  Murdock  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

Reeves  Pully  Co.,  Columbus,  Ohio. 

Eli  J.  Reicer  Co.,  Show  Cases  &  Store  Fixtures,  N.  Y. 

Alex  Reid,  Engine  Boiler  Makers,  New  York  City. 

James  Reilly  Repair  &  Supply  Co.,  Heaters,  New 
York  City. 

W.  Reinerth  &  Co.,  Hats,  New  Orleans,  La. 

Reiss  &  Brady,  Canning  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Remington  Machine  Co.,  Refrigerating  and  Ice 
Making  Plants,  Wilmington,  Del. 

Remington  Typewriter  Co.,  Ne»\  York  City. 

Repetti  Co.,  Candy,  New  York  City. 

Reppenhagen  Cutlery  Co.,  Highland  Falls,  N.  Y. 

Republic  Bag  &  Paper  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Republic  Metal  Ware  Co.,  New  York  City. 

The  Republic  Rubber  Co.,  Rubber  Hose,  Youngs- 
town,  Ohio. 

Clement  Restein  Co.,  Packing,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Revere  Rubber  Co.,  New  York  City. 

J.  Reyner,  Supplies,  Newport  News,  Va. 

E.  C.  Reynolds,  Steam  Tugboat,  New  York  City. 

R.  J.  Reynolds  Tobacco  Co.,  Winston-Salem,  N.  C. 


Reynolds  &  Irving,  Groceries,  New  York  City. 

Louis  P.  Rice  &  Co.,  Harness,  New  Orleans,  La. 

Rice,  Stix  Dry  Goods  Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

Richard  Mfg.  Co.,  Miter  Forcing  Machine,  Blooms- 
burg,  Pa. 

The  Frank  Richardson  Laundry  Supply  Co.,  N.  Y.  C. 

Richardson  Silk  Co.,  Thread,  Chicago,  111. 

H.  Richters  Sons,  Neckwear,  New  York  City. 

Ridabock  &  Co.,  Wearing  Apparel,  New  York  City. 

Ridgeway  Mfg.  Co.,  Wearing  Apparel,  Trenton,  N.J. 

Riggs  &  Bro.,  Standard  Compensating  Binnacle, 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Riker  &  Hegeman,  Drugs,  New  York  City. 

Theo.  Ricksecker  Co.,  Druggists,  New  York  City. 

F.  A.  Ringler,  Electrotypers,  New  York  City. 

Ritz-Carlton  Hotel  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Riverside  Mills,  Inc.,  Cotton  Waste,  Augusta,  Ga. 

J.  B.  Roache,  Contractor,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

The  Robb  Mumford  Boiler  Co.,  Inc.,  N.  Y.  C. 

The  Roberts  Motor  Co.,  Gasoline  Motor,  Sandusky, 
Ohio. 

Roberts,  Johnson  &  Rand,  Shoes,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

C.  E.  Robidoux,  Lathe,  Carborundum  Wheels,  St. 
Louis,  Mo. 

A.  Robertson  &  Sons,  Doors,  Binghampton,  N.  Y. 

James  L.  Robertson  &  Son,  Machine  Supplies,  N.  Y. 

The  Robinson  Lumber  Veneer  &  Box  Co.,  New 
Orleans,  La. 

The  Robinson  Clay  Product  Co.,  Filters  and  Coolers, 
New  York  City. 

Rockwood  &  Co.,  Chocolate  and  Cocoa,  N.  Y.  C. 

Rochester  Stamping  Co.,  Hardware  Specialties, 
Rochester,  N.  Y. 

Rockland-Rockport  Lime  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Rockhill  &  Victor,  Wholesale  Druggists,  N.  Y.  C. 

L.  A.  Rockwell  &  Co.,  Baking  Machines,  New  York. 

W.  C.  Rodgers,  Flooring,  Hattiesburgh,  Miss. 

John  A.  Roebling's  Sons  Co.,  Wire  Rope  and  Wire 
Goods,  Trenton,  N.  J. 

Roe  Stephens  Mfg.  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich. 

Roessler  &  Hasslacher,  Chemicals,  New  York  City. 

Roger  Ballast  Car  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

H.  A.  Rogers  Co.,  Railway  Supplies,  New  York  City. 

Rohe  &  Bro.,  Packers,  New  York  City. 

Rome  Brass  &  Copper  Co.,  Rome,  N.  Y. 

P.  H.  &  F.  H.  Roots  Co.,  Cupalo  Blowers,  Conners- 
ville,  Ind. 

Rosaler  Safe  &  Lock  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Rosen  &  Hermann,  Shirts,  New  York  City. 

R.  Rosenberg  &  Sons  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Rosenberg  Bros.  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

Samuel  Rosenblatt,  New  York  Soap  Works,  N.Y.C. 

H.  Rosenthall  &  Bro.,  Paint  Brushes,  N.  Y.  C. 

Rosenthal  Bros.,  Cigars,  New  York  City. 

Rosedale  Foundry  Co.,  Cylindrical  Valves,  Pitts- 
burgh, Pa. 

Harry  &  Morris  Rosenwasser,  Leggings,  N.  Y.  C. 

Ross-Meehan  Foundry  Co.,  Chattanooga,  Tenn. 

John  Rothschild  &  Co.,  Food  Products,  San  Fran- 
cisco, Cal. 


INDUSTRIAL  ROLL  OF  HONOR 


455 


R.  P.  Rowe,  Fire  Extinguishers,  New  York  City. 
E.  W.  A.  Rowles,  Railroad  and  Steamship  Books, 

Chicago,  111. 

The  Royal  Eastern  Elec.  Supply  Co.,  N.  Y.  C. 
Royal  Mfg.  Co.,  Wool  Waste,  Rahway,  N.  J. 
Royal  Manufacturing  Co.,  Cotton,  New  York  City. 
Rubberbound  Brush  Co.,  Belleville,  N.  J. 
Rubberhide  Co.,  Boots  and  Rubber  Goods,  Boston. 
Rubberset  Co.,  Brushes,  New  York  City. 
Rubens  &  Meyer,  Clothing,  New  York  City. 
Rudolph  &  West  Co.,  Hardware,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Ruddock  Orleans  Cypress  Co.,  Cypress  Switch  Ties, 

New  Orleans,  La. 

Rueff  Bros.,  Novelties  and  Jewelry,  New  York  City. 
L.  M.  Rumsey  Mfg.  Co.,  Galvanized  Pipe,  St.  Louis. 
Rumsey  Pump  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Runckle  Bros.,  Cocoa,  New  York  City. 
Rushmore  Dynamo  Works,  Plainfield,  N.  J. 
Russell,  Burdsall  &  Wood,  Bolt  &  Nut  Co.,  Port 

Chester,  N.  Y. 

Russell  &  Erwin,  Hardware,  New  York  City. 
Russian  Caviar  Co.,  New  York  City. 
John  T.  Ryerson  &  Son,  Punching  Machs.,  etc., 

Chicago,  111. 


Sable  Bros.,  Hats,  New  York  City. 
Safety  Armorite  Conduit  Co.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
The  Safety  Insulated  Wire  &  Cable  Co.,  N.  Y.  C. 
H.  W.  St.  Charles  Condensed  Milk  Co.,  N.  Y.  C. 
H.  W.  St.  Johns,  Horlick's  Malted  Milk,  N.  Y.  C. 
Salant  &  Salant,  Shirts,  New  York  City. 
Salem  Brick  &  Lumber  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Sallade  &  Co.,  Insect  Exterminator,  N.  Y.  C. 
Salmon  Lumber  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La. 
M.  Salzbery,  Stationery,  New  York  City. 
Samuel  Cupples  Engraving  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Frank  Samuels,  Pig  Iron  and  Alloys,  Phila.,  Pa. 
Sanatol  Chemical  Laboratory  Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
San-Knit-ary  Textile  Mills,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
R.  P.  Le  Sassier,  New  Orleans,  La. 
J.  R.  Saunders  Co.,  Turpentine,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Sawyer  Belting  Co.,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 
Sawyer-Mann  Lamp  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Sargent  &  Co.,  Hardware,  New  York  City. 
Sayles-Zahn  Co.,  Packers,  New  York  City. 
Charles  Schaefer,  Feed,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
H.  A.  Schafer,  Comsn.  Merchant,  New  York  City. 
Schaffer  &  Budenburg  Mfg.  Co.,  New  York  City. 
J.  A.  Schatzberg,  Hardware,  New  York  City. 
Mr.  Edward  Schenk,  Buckets,  York,  Pa. 
Henry  Schief,  Wearing  Apparel,  New  York  City. 
Schiefflein  &  Co.,  Wholesale  Druggists,  N.  Y.  C. 
Charles  A.  Schieren  Co.,  Leather  Belting,  N.  Y.  C. 
Nathan  Schivertzer,  Comsn.  Merchant,  N.  Y.  C. 
Enos  F.  Schlichter,  Water  Tanks,  Phila.,  Pa. 
Fred  A.  Schmidt,  Blue  Print  Paper,  Wash.,  D.  C. 
H.  A.  Schnackenberg,  New  York  City. 
Schoen-Jackson  Co.,  Bronze  Hose,  Media,  Pa. 


Julian  Scholl  &  Co.,  Steam  Rollers,  New  York  City. 
Schoverling,  Daly  &  Gales,  Photography  Sup.  N.  Y. 
A.  Schraeder's  Son,  Inc.,  Materials,  New  York  City. 
J.  H.  Schriber  &  Co.,  Clothing,  New  York  City. 
L.  Schulmann  &  Sons,  Patterns  for  Uniforms,  N.  Y. 
Schuls  Bakery  Co.,  Bakery  Supplies,  Chicago,  111. 
Schultz  Patent  Rubber  Co.,  Rubber  Valves,  Phila. 
Richard  Schuster,  New  York  City. 
Schutts  &  Koerting  Co.,  Valves,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
J.  &  M.  Schwabacher,  Com.  Merch.,  New  Orleans. 
S.  M.  Schwab,  Jr.,&  Co., Dry  Goods,  Draperies,  N.Y. 
Joseph  Schwartz  Co.,  Ltd.,  Wagonettes,  New  Or- 
leans, La. 

C.  L.  Schwartz,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Schwartzchild  &  Sulzberger,  Packers,  Chicago,  111. 
Scott  Manufacturing  Co.,  Racine,  Wis. 
St.  Louis  Screw  Co.,  Brass  Bolts,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
John  Scully  &  Thomas  J.  Scully,  Perth  Amboy,  N.  J. 
Seaboard  Trading  Co.,  New  York  City. 

C.  L.  Seabury  &  Co.,  Launch,  Morris  Heights,  N.  Y. 
Seafoam  Baking  Powder  Co.,  New  York  City. 
The  Seagrave  Co.,  Wagons,  Columbus,  Ohio. 
Seaman,  Lichtenstein,  Comsn.  Merch.,  N.  Y.  C. 
Theodore  C.  Search,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

James  W.  Sederguest,  Bolts,  Boston,  Mass. 
Seeman  Bros.,  Groceries,  New  York  City. 
S.  Segari  &  Co.,  Vegetables  and  Fruit,  New  Orleans. 
William  Sellers  &  Co.,  Inc.,  Slotters,  Parallel  Driver 

Planer,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

H.  J.  Seward  &  Co.,  General  Supplies,  Baltimore. 
J.  F.  Sexton,  Plumbers,  New  York  City. 
S.  B.  Sexton  Stove  &  Mfg.  Co.,  Baltimore,  Md. 
Selby  Smelting  &  Lead  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Self -Winding  Clock  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Charles  P.  Semmelhack,  Chemists,  Chicago,  III. 
Shaw  &  Leopold,  Pipe,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
James  K.  Shaw,  Crockery,  New  York  City. 
Shawiningan  Carbide  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Samuel  T.  Shaw,  New  York  City. 
Shawmut  Clay  Manufacturing  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Shaw-Walker  Co.,  Filing  Cabinets,  Chicago,  111. 

D.  W.  Shayer  &  Co.,  Hammocks,  New  York  City. 
Shcrburne  &  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 
Sherwin-Williams  Co.,  Paints  and  Varnish,   New- 
ark, N.  J.,  and  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

James  Shewann  &  Sons,  Dry  Goods,  New  York  City. 
The  Shipley  Construction  Co.,  Chemicals,  N.  Y.  C. 
Shredded  Wheat  Co.,  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y. 
A.  Shuttleworth,  Keilles  &  Co.,  Woodware,  N.  Y.  C. 
Shaw  Electric  Crane  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Sherman,  Brown  &   Clement,  Tools  and  Machine 

Parts,  New  York  City. 

Sherman  Brown  &  Co.,  Steel  Materials,  N.  Y.  C. 
Richard  B.  Sherman,  Drills,  New  York  City. 
Charles  E.  Sholes  Co.,  Carbolic  Acid,  New  York  City 
F.  Simon  Goldberg  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Robert  H.  Sizer  &  Co.,  Trestles,  Timber,  N.  Y.  C. 
Siegel-Cooper  Co.,  Department  Store,  N.  Y.  C. 
Sigmund  Eisner,  Khaki  Goods,  Red  Bank,  N.  J. 
John  Simmons  Co.,  Plumbing  Supplies,  N.  Y.  C. 


456 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


Simmons  Team  Mule  Co.,  Fort  Worth,  Texas. 

William  Simons  &  Co.,  Steel  Bucket  Dredge,  Ren- 
frew, Scotland. 

Simplex  Electrical  Heating  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Simplex  Railway  Appliance  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Simpson  Crawford  Co.,  Office  Furniture,  N.  Y.  C. 

The  Sims  Co.,  Brackets,  New  York  City. 

Singer  Sewing  Machine  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Theodore  Sinington,  Jr.,  Brooms,  New  York  City. 

S.  R.  Slaymaker,  Lancaster,  Pa. 

Smaltz,  Goodwin  Co.,  Shoes,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

L.  C.  Smith  &  Bros.,  Typewriter  Co.,  New  York 

Theodore  Smith  &  Sons  Co.,  Excavating  Buckets, 
Jersey  City,  N.  J. 

Smith  &  Thompson,  Stationery,  New  York  City. 

Smith  Bros.,  Soap,  Coffee  and  Tea,  New  Orleans,  La. 

Augustus  Smith,  Coal  Handling  Equipment,  Bay- 
onne,  N.  J. 

The  T.  L.  Smith  Co.,  Concrete  Mixers,  Milwaukee. 

C.  F.  Smith,  Lights,  New  York  City. 

H.  D.  Smith  Machine  Co.,  Chisels  and  Wheels, 
Smithville,  N.  J. 

Smith-Premier  Typewriter  Co.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Thomas  J.  D.  Smith,  Range  Tower  Lanterns, 
Newark,  N.  J. 

Smith  Worthington  Co.,  Harness  and  Sup.,  N.  Y.  C. 

Sneath  Glass  Company,  Globes,  Hartford  City,  Ind. 

N.  Snellenburg  &  Co.,  Furniture,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Snellenburg  Cloth.  Co.,  New  York  City. 

T.  W.  Snow  Construction  Co.,  Stand  Pipe  Parts, 
Chicago,  111. 

George  H.  Snow,  Shoes,  Brockton,  Mass. 

Snow  Steam  Pump  Works,  New  York  City. 

Alvin  W.  Snyder,  Water  Pumps,  Canton,  Ohio. 

E.  G.  Soltmann  Co.,  Drawing  Materials,  N.  Y.  C. 

Somers  &  Son,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 

L.  Sonneborn  Sons,  Oil.,  New  York  City. 

B.  Soute  &  Co.,  Furniture,  New  York  City. 
South  Atlantic  Car  &  Mfg.  Co.,  Wooden  Flat  Cars, 

Waycross,  Ga. 

Southern  Creosoting  Co.,  Ltd.,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Southern  Creosoting  Co.,   Yellow-Pine   Creosoted 

Cross-Ties,  Slidell,  La.,  and  New  Orleans,  La. 
Southern  Electric  Co.,  Baltimore,  Md. 
Southern  Exporting  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Southern  Trading  Co.,  Bolts,  Tallow,  New  Orleans. 
Southern  Printers  Supply  Co.,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Southern  Saw-Mills  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La. 
A.  G.  Spalding  &  Bros.,  Sporting  Goods,  N.  Y.  C. 
Donald  B.  Spanogla,  Steel  Material,  Lewiston,  Pa. 
Elgin  Sparks,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 
Sparks  Milling  Co.,  Flour,  Alton,  111. 

C.  W.  Sparks,  Mules,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 
Sparrows    Point    Store    Co.,    Dredge    Equipment, 

Baltimore,  Md. 

Speakman  Supply  &  Pipe  Co.,  Wilmington,  Del. 
Alden  Speare  Sons  Co.,  Supplies,  New  York  City. 
The  Speddlen  Shipbuilding  Co.,  Baltimore,  Md. 
Spencer  Optical  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Sperry  Flour  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 


John  H.  Spohn  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Spotswood-Turner  Lumber  Co.,  Mobile,  Ala. 
Sprague  Electric  Co.,  Jersey  City,  N.  J. 
Sprague  Electric  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Sprauley  &  Reed,  New  Orleans,  La. 
N.  Stafford  Co.,  Badges  and  Checks,  N.  Y.  C. 
Stallman  &  Fulton  Co.,  Pyrethrum,  New  York  City. 
The  Stamford  Foundry  Co.,  Stamford,  Conn. 
Standard  Chain  Co.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
Standard  Foundry  Co.,  Iron  Castings,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
Standard  Furnace  &  Range  Co.,  Louisville,  Ky. 
Standard  Mfg.  Co.,  Camp  Chairs,  Cambridge  City, 

Ind. 

Standard  Oil  Co.,  Lubricating  Dept.,  Baltimore,Md. 
Standard  Oil  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Standard  Paint  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Standard  Sanitary  Mfg.  Co.,  Closets,  York,  Pa. 
Standard  Scale  &  Supply  Co.,  New  York  City. 
The  Standard  Scale  &  Supply  Co.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
Standard  Steel  Car  Co.,  Flat  Cars  and  Repairs, 

Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Standard  Steel  Works,  New  York  City. 
Standard  Turpentine  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Standard  Underground  Cable  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Standard  Underground  Cable  Co.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
Standard  Varnish  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Standard  Water  Meter  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Standard  Wire  Mattress  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 
Stanley  &  Patterson,  Electric  Supplies,  N.  Y.  C. 
Stanley  Jordan  &  Co.,  Chloride  of  Lime,  N.  Y.  C. 
Stanley  Rule  &  Level  Co.,  New  York  City. 
The  Stanley  Works,  Steel  Goods,  New  York  City. 
Stannard-Tilton  Milling  Co.,  Flour,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Star  &  Crescent  Milling  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 
Star  Brass  Manufacturing  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Starffer,  Eshleman  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  Hardware,  New 

Orleans,  La. 

Star  Electric  Fuse  Works,  Wilkes  Barre,  Pa. 
Stark  &  Co.,  Dry  Goods,  New  York  City. 
William  H.  Starr,  Harness,  Decatur,  111. 
Star  Headlight  Co.,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 
Star  Shirt  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Star  Well  Drilling  Machine  Co.,  Akron,  Ohio. 
Star  Well  Drilling  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Stauffer  Eshlemann  &  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Steacy-Schmidt  Manufacturing  Co.,  Spillway-gate 

Machines,  York,  Pa. 
C.  S.  Stearns,  Shoes,  Boston,  Mass. 
J.  Steckler  Seed  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La. 
A.  Steinhart  &  Bros.,  Leather  Goods,  N.  Y.  C. 
Stein,  Hirsh  &  Co.,  Laundry  Starch,  New  York  City. 
Stempel  Fire  Extinguisher  Mfg.  Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Stephen-Adamson  Mfg.  Co.,  Conveying  Machines, 

Aurora,  111. 

Sterling  Blower  &  Pipe  Mfg.  Co.,  Hartford,  Conn. 
Sterling  Electric  Motor  Co.,  Dayton,  Ohio. 
Sterling  Engraving  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Sterling  Machine  Co.,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 
Sterling  Wheelbarrow  Co.,  Steel  Wheelbarrows,  N.Y. 
C.  Stern  &  Mayer,  Wearing  Apparel,  N.  Y.  C. 


INDUSTRIAL  ROLL  OF  HONOR 


457 


Stern  Bros.,  Dry  Goods,  New  York  City. 
L.  L.  Stern,  Supplies,  Norfolk,  Va. 
John  B.  Stetson  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Stetson  Shoe  Co.,  S.  Weymouth,  Mass. 
Stevenson  Bros.  &  Co.,  Oils,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
The  Stevenson  Co.,  Ice  and  Refrigerating  Machinery, 

Chester,  Pa. 

Stewart  Dickson  &  Co.,  Packing,  New  York  City. 
Jacques  Stisch,  Vegetables  and  Fruit,  New  Orleans. 
J.  &  J-  W.  Stolts,  Caskets,  New  York  City. 
Stonega  Coke  &  Coal  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Storer  Motor  Car  Co.,  Freeport,  111. 
Eben  Storer,  Paper,  New  York  City. 
H.  M.  Storms,  Stationery,  New  York  City. 
Storrs,  Schaefer  &  Co.,  Uniforms,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 
Straus  Bascule  Bridge   Co.,    Designed   Lift   Span, 

Chicago,  111. 

L.  Strauss  &  Son,  Bath  Fixtures,  New  York  City. 
Strawbridge&  Clothier,  Dry  Goods,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
J.  S.  Stringham,  Detroit,  Mich. 
Strobel  &  Wilkins,  Toys,  New  York  City. 
Studebaker    Corporation,    Vehicles    of    all    Kinds, 

South  Bend,  Ind. 

G.  L.  Stuebner  Iron  Works,  Buckets,  Long  Island  C. 
John  Stumpf,  Ant  Paper,  Greta,  La. 
B.  F.  Sturtevant  Co.,  Engravers,  New  York  City. 
B.  F.  Sturtevant  Co.,   Generators,   Hyde    Park, 

Mass. 

Suderman  &  Dolson,  General  Sup.,  Galveston.Texas. 
Sugar  Pine  Lumber  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
J.  W.  Sullivan  &  Co.,  Marine  Engine  Builders,  N.Y.C. 
Sullivan  Machinery  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 
Sullivan  Machinery,  New  York  City. 
Sullivan  Metallic  Packing  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 
Sulzberger  &  Sons  Co.,  Packers,  Chicago,  111. 
Sun  Co.,  Petroleum  Products,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Sunlit  Fruit  Co.,  W.  Berkeley,  Cal. 
The  Superior  Machine  Co.,  Saw  Blades,  Chicago, 

111. 

Suplee,  Reeve,  Whiting  Co.,  Umbrellas,  N.  Y.  C. 
Surburg  &  Co.,  Cigarette  Papers,  New  York  City. 
Surpless,  Dunn  &  Co.,  General  Supplies,  N.  Y.  C. 
Susquehanna  Coal  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Sussfeld,  Lorsh  &  Co.,  Optical  Goods,  N.  Y.  C. 
Sussman,  Wormser,  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
Sutphen  &  Myer,  Plate  Glass,  New  York  City. 
E.  Sutro  &  Son,  Clothing,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
G.  T.  Sutterly  Co.,  Cuspidors,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Swaffield  Murphy  Comsn.  Co.,  Straw,  New  Orleans. 
H.  C.  Swain  &  Co.,  New  York  City. 
H.  C.  Swain  &  Sons,  Household  Furnishings,  New 

York  City. 

Swan  &  Finch,  Lubricating  Oils,  New  York  City. 
Nathan  Sweitzeer,  New  York  City. 
Swenson  Valve  Co.,  Decorah,  la. 
Swift  &  Co.,  Packers,  Chicago,  111. 
Swindell  Bros.,  Glass,  Baltimore,  Md. 
T.  H.  Symington  Co.,   Iron  Castings,  Baltimore, 

Md. 
Syndicate  Trading  Co.,  Wearing  Apparel,  New  York. 


Tabor  Mfg.   Co.,   Machines,   Saws  and  Grinders, 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Charles  J.  Tagliabue  Mfg.  Co.,  Thermometers,  N.  Y. 
J.  B.  Taltavall,  Publisher,  New  York  City. 
Tasker  &  Strawbridge,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Taunton-New  Bedford  Copper  Co.,  New  Bedford, 

Mass. 

George  H.  Tay  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
W.  P.  Taylor  Co.,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
N.  &  G.  Taylor,  Tin,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
W.  P.  Taylor  Co.,  Boxes,  Buffalo,  N.  Y. 
S.  C.  Taylor  Chain  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 
Taylor  Instrument  Co.,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 
Taylor-Wharton  Iron  &  Steel  Co.,  High  Bridge,  N.  J. 
Taylor  Nurse  Bed  Co.,  New  York  City. 
H.  R.  Teepe,  Mfrs.,  Agents,  New  York  City. 
Tefft-Weller  &  Co.,  Millinery  Supplies,  N.  Y.  C. 
Tedcastle  &  Co.,  Shoes,  Boston,  Mass. 
Telescope  Cot  Bed  Co.,  New  York  City. 
C.  K.  Tenny  &  Co.,  Straw  Hats,  New  York  City. 
Tenny,  Hills  &  Hall,  Hats,  New  York  City. 
Terre  Haute  Carriage  &  Buggy  Co.,Terre  Haute, 

Ind. 

F.  B.  Tharns,  Tents,  New  York  City. 
M.  H.  Thatcher,  Ancon,  Panama. 

Theobald  &  Oppenheimer  Co.,  Cigars,  Phila.,  Pa. 
Thermoid  Rubber  Co.,  Packing,  Hose,  Trenton,  NJ. 
The  Charles  Taylor's  Sons  Co.,  Brick  &  Fire  Clay, 

Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

The  Texas  Co.,  Petroleum  Oils,  New  York  City. 
The  Thew  Automatic  Shovel  Co.,  Lorain,  Ohio. 
The  Timekeeper  Co.,  Watches,  Chicago,  111. 
The  Tower  Mfg.  &  Novelty  Co.,  Stationery,  N.Y.C. 
The  Touraine  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 
The  Trenton  Iron  Co.,  Trenton,  N.  J. 
J.  R.  Thomas,  Tents,  New  York  City. 
Seth  Thomas  Clock  Co.,  New  York  City. 
W.  E.  Thomas,  Forage,  Leavenworth,  Kans. 
L.  H.  Thomas  Co.,  Paste,  Chicago,  111. 

G.  A.  Thomas  Machine  Co.,  Belleville,  N.  J. 

G.  H.  A.  Thomas  Co.,  Lumber,  New  Orleans,  La. 

Arthur  H.  Thomas  Co.,  Light  Excluding  Apparatus, 
Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Thomas  &  Betts  Co.,  Elec.  Goods,  New  York  City. 

Thomas  Laughlin  Co.,  Wood  Tackle  Blocks,  Port- 
land, Me. 

Thonet  Bros.,  New  York  City. 

F.  R.  Thorns,  New  York  City. 

J.  M.  Thorburn  &  Co.,  Comsn.  Merch.,  New  York. 

Three-In-One  Oil  Co.,  New  York  City. 

O.  &  W.  Thum  Co.,  Fly  Paper,  Grand  Rapids,  Mich. 

Tidewater  Press,  Stationery,  New  York  City. 

Tietjen  &  Lang  D.  D.  Co.,  Hoboken,  N.  J. 

Tiffany  &  Co.,  Jewelers,  New  York  City. 

George  Tileston  Milling  Co.,  St.  Cloud,  Minn. 

Walter  B.  Timms,  Lye,  Soap,  New  York  City. 

Tingue,  Brown  &  Co.,  Fits.,  New  York  City. 

Tital  Steel  Castings  Co.,  Screen  Plates,  Newark,N.  J. 


458 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


Toledo  Bridge  &  Crane  Co.,  Structural  Steel  Works, 

Toledo,  Ohio. 

Topping  Bros.,  Glass  Instruments,  New  York  City. 
W.  E.  Torrens  &  Co.,  Straw  Hats,  New  York  City. 
J.  R.  Torry  Razor  Co.,  Worcester,  Mass. 
D.  A.  Tower,  New  York  City. 
A.  J.  Towers  Co.,  Slickers,  New  York  City. 
Tower  &  Lyon  Co.,  Hardware  Specialties,  N.  Y.  C. 
Towns  &  James,  Druggists,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
Travers  Bros.  Co.,  Cord,  New  York  City. 
Walter  L.  Treat,  Reamers,  New  York  City. 
John  Tregeser,  Copper  Ware,  New  York  City. 
Trenton  Rubber  Manufacturing  Co.,  Trenton,  N.  J. 
Trojan  Powder  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Tropenas  Converter  Co.,    Converters,    New   York 

City. 

Troy  Laundry  Machinery  Co.,  New  York  City. 
True  Shape  Hosiery  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Trussed  Concrete  Steel  Co.,  Detroit,  Mich. 
Tucker  Tool  &  Machine  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Tucker  &  Carter  Rope  Co.,  Cord,  New  York  City. 
J.  Spencer  Turner  Co.,  Canvas,  New  York  City. 
R.  C.  Turner,  Insurance,  New  York  City. 
Tuttle  &  Bailey  Manufacturing  Co.,  New  York. 
Tutwiler  Coal  &  Coke  Co.,  New  Orleans,  La. 
W.  S.  Tyler  Co.,  Copper  Wire  Netting,  Cleveland, 

Ohio. 
Tyler  Tube  &  Pipe  Co.,  New  York  City. 


U 


Bernard  Ullman,  Dry  Goods,  New  York  City. 

Underwood  Typewriter  Company,  New  York  City. 

Union  Bag  &  Paper  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Union  Carbide  Sales  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Union  Condensed  Milk  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Union  Draft  Gear  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 

Union  Drawn  Steel  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Union  Fiber  Co.,  Winona,  Minn. 

Union  Foundry  Co.,  Anniston,  Ala. 

Union  Foundry  &  Machine  Co.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Union  Iron  Works,  Floating  Caisson  Dams,  San 
Francisco,  Cal. 

Union  Oil  Co.,  Road  Oil,  California. 

Union  Petroleum  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Union  Selling  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Union  Spring  &  Manufacturing  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Union  Steel  Castings  Co.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Union  Stove  Works,  New  York  City. 

The  Union  Switch  &  Signal  Co.,  New  York  City 
and  Swissdale,  Pa. 

Union  Tool  Co.,  Torrance,  Cal. 

United  Building  Material  Co.,  Giant  Portland 
Cement,  New  York  City. 

United  Cigar  Stores  Co.,  New  York  City. 

United  Engineering  &  Foundry  Co.,  Chain  Operat- 
ing Machinery,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

United  &  Globe  Rubber  Mfg.  Co.,  Wash.,  D.  C. 

United  Lead  Co.,  New  York  City. 


United  Produce  Co.,  New  York  City. 
United  Shirt  &  Cloth  Co.,  New  York  City. 
United  Shoe  Machinery  Co.,  Boston,  Mass. 
United  Shirt  &  Collar  Co.,  New  York  City. 
United  States  Envelope  Co.,  Rockville,  Conn. 
United  States  Graphite  Co.,  Saginaw,  Mich. 
United  States  Steel  Rails  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Universal  Supply  Co.,  Stationery,  New  York  City. 
Universal  Trading  Co.,  Tar,  Chloride  of  Lime,  etc., 

New  York  City. 

The  George  Urban  Milling  Co.,  New  York  City. 
U.  S.  Cast  Iron  &  Foundry  Co.,  New  York  City. 
U.  S.  Cast  Iron  Pipe  &  Foundry  Co.,  Phila.,  Pa. 
U.  S.  Electrical  Tool  Co.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 
U.  S.  Gutta  Percha  Paint  Co.,  Providence,  R.  I. 
U.  S.  Metallic  Packing  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
U.  S.  Mop  Co.,  Toledo,  Ohio. 
U.  S.  Paper  Exp.  Assn.,  New  York  City. 
U.  S.  Ray  Manufacturing  Co.,  San  Francisco,  Cal. 
U.  S.  Shipping  Co.,  New  York  City. 
U.  S.  Steel  Co.,  New  York  City. 
U.  S.  Steel  Products  Exports  Co.,  New  York  City. 
U.  S.  Tie  Plug  Co.,  Saginaw,  Mich. 


Valley  Iron  Works,  Inc.,  Williamsport,  Pa 

Valk  &  Murdoch  Iron  Works,  Charleston,  N.  C. 

Valves  Sales  Co.,  Valves,  La  Crosse,  Wis. 

Van  Camp's  Packing  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Van  Bibber  Roller  Co.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 

Van  Houton  &  Zwon,  Chocolate,  Cocoa,  N.  Y.  C. 

Peter  Van  Schaack  &  Sons,  Sponges,  Chicago,  111. 

J.  B.  Van  Seiver  Co.,  Office  Furniture,  Camden,  N.  J. 

F.  R.  &  F.  J.  Vericon,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Vermilye  &  Power,  Gongs,  Lights,  Pumps,  N.  Y.  C. 

The  Vilter  Mfg.  Co.,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

Harry  Vissering  &  Co.,  Valves,  etc.,  Chicago,  111. 

L.  Vogelstein  &  Co.,  Tin  and  Copper,  New  York. 

Voorhees  Rubber  Mfg.  Co.,  Jersey  City,  N.  J. 

Vulcan  Iron  Works,  Wilkes-Barre,  Pa. 

Vulcan  Rail  &  Construction  Co.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 


W 


The  Waage  Electric  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 
Waclark  Wire  Co.,   New  York  City. 
H.  A.  Wagner,  Lebanon,  Pa. 
Walker  Electric  Co.,  New  York  City. 
John  W.  Walker,  Packer,  New  York  City. 
Wall  Rope  Works,  Manila  Rope,  New  York  City. 
John  F.  Wallace,  New  York  City. 
D.  S.  Walton  &  Co.,  Paper,  New  York  City. 
John  Wanamaker,  Dry  Goods,  New  York  City. 
Horace  Ward,  Handles,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Warren  Wood,  Wood  Drill  Works,  Paterson,  N.  J. 
Warnock  Co.,  Hats,  New  York  City. 
Washburn-Crosby  Co.,  Flour,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 


INDUSTRIAL  ROLL  OF  HONOR 


459 


Washington  Rubber  Co.,  Washington,  D.  C.  • 
Martha  Washington  Candy  Co.,  Baltimore,  Md. 
Waterbury  Co.,  Manila  Rope,  New  York  City. 
Waterman  &  Co.,  Vegetables,  New  York  City. 
Watkins  Laundry  Machine  Co.,  New  York  City. 
John  B.  Watkins,  Dating  Stamps,  New  York  City. 
J.  Y.  Watkins  &  Son,  Hotel  Supplies,  New  York. 
Wawyer  Boot  &  Shoe  Co.,  Bangor,  Maine. 
J.  H.  Weaver  &  Co.,  Coal,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Webb  Motor  Fire  Apparatus  Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

and  Allentown,  Pa. 

Elisha  Webb  &  Sons  Co.,  Cooking  Stoves,  Phila.,  Pa. 
James  A.  Webb,  Chemicals,  New  York  City. 
F.  Weber  &  Co.,  Pencils,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
W.  C.  Weber,  Jeweler,  New  York  City. 
Webster  Refining  Co.,  Jennings,  La. 
A.  A.  Weeks-Hoskins  Co.,  Office  Fixtures&Sup.,N.Y. 
J.  H.  Weil  &  Co.,  Jacks,  German  Silver  Thumbs, 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Weller  Mfg.  Co.,  Friction  Clutch  Pulley,  Chicago. 
Welch  Grape  Juice  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Wellington,  Sears  &  Co.,  Canvas,  Boston,  Mass. 
Robert  Werk  &  Co.,  Mattresses  and  Pillows,  New 

Orleans,  La. 

Werner  &  Pfleiderer,  Conveyers,  Saginaw,  Mich. 
Wertheimer  Swarts  Shoe  Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
West  Coast  Trading  Co.,  Wearing  Apparel,  N.  Y.  C. 
West  Disinfectant  Co.,  New  York  City. 
West  End  Rolling  Mill  Co.,  Lebanon,  Pa. 
West  India  Oil  Co.,  Kero.  and  Gasoline,  N.  Y.  C. 
West  India  Oil  Co.,  Road  Oil,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
The  West  Pascagoula  Creosoting  Works,  W.  Pasca- 

goula,  Miss. 

Western  Clock  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Western  Electric  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Western  Electric  Co.,  Cable,  New  York  City. 
Western  Electric  Instrument  Co.,  Newark,  N.  J. 
Western  Railway  Equipment  Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 
Western  Steel  Car  &  Foundry  Co.,  Chicago,  111. 
Western  Tube  Co.,  Ties,  Kewanee,  111. 
Western  Wheeled  Scraper  Co.,  Aurora,  111. 
Paul  Westfall,  Drugs,  New  York  City. 
Westinghouse  Air  Brake  Co.,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  and 

Wilmerding,  Pa. 

Westinghouse  Elec.  &  Mfg.  Co.,  E.  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
Westinghouse  Machine  Co.,  E.  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 
Wetherill  Bros.,  Machine  Co.,  Gears,  Ball  Joints, 

etc.,  Chester,  Pa. 

J.  R.  Wettstein,  White  Lead,  New  York  City. 
William  Wharton,  Jr.,  &  Co.,  Iron  and  Steel,  Phila. 
C.  H.  Wheeler  Manufacturing  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Morris  Wheeler  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Wheeling  Corrugating  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Wheeling  Mold  &  Foundry  Co.,  Wheeling,  W.  Va. 
Wheelock,  Lovejoy  &  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Whelan,  Davit  &  Lane  &  De  Groot  Co.,  Metallic 

Life  Boats,  New  York  City. 
Whelock  Reinforced  Cork  Boat  Co.,  New  York. 
Whital,  Tatum  Co.,  Druggists,  New  York. 
White  Enameling  Refrigerating  Co.,  St.  Paul,  Minn. 


White  Furniture  Co.,  Mebane,  N.  C. 
The  White  Tar  Co.,  Lime,  New  York  City. 
White,  Van  Glahn  &  Co.,  Hardware,  New  York  City. 
Whiting  Foundry  Equipment  Co.,  Harvey,  111. 
C.  W.  Whitman  Co.,  Dry  Goods,  New  York  City. 
The  Whitmore  Mfg.  Co.,  Oils,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 
Whitney  Supply  Co.,  Belting,  New  Orleans,  La. 
Wichert  &  Gardiner,  Shoes,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 
Wick  Narrow  Fabric  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Wickwire  Bros.,  Inc.,  Wire  Cloth,  Cortland,  N.  Y. 
Wiebash  &  Hilger,  Hardware,  New  York  City. 
Wier  Frog  Co.,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 
W.  J.  Wilcox  Lard  &  Refining  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Will  &  Baumer,  Candles,  New  York  City. 
William -Sea  ver- Morgan    Co.,     Concrete    Buckets, 

Cleveland,  Ohio. 

A.  A.  Williams  Shoe  Co.,  Hollister,  Mass. 
Arthur  P.  Williams,  New  York  City. 
Williams  Brown  &  Earle,  Inc.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
J.  B.  Williams,  General  Supplies,  New  York  City. 
I.  T.  Williams  &  Sons,  Lumber,  New  York  City. 
Williams  &  Wells  Co.,  Steel,  New  York  City. 
Wms.  White  &  Co.,  Coal  Chute  Pockets,  Moline,  111. 
F.  P.  Wilkinson,  Hardware,  New  York  City. 
Williamson  Bros.  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Balfour  Williamson  &  Co.,  General  Sup.,  New  York. 
Williamsport  Wire  Rope  Co.,  Williamsport,  Pa. 

C.  G.  Willoughby,  Photo  Supplies,  New  York  City. 
Wilmington  Malleable  Iron  Co. .Wilmington,  Del. 
Wilson  Bros.,  Jewelry,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Wilson  Distilling  Co.,  Mineral  Water,  New  York. 
Wilson,  Adams  &  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Wilson-Masculen  Co.,  Electro  Pyro  Meters,  N.  Y.  C. 
Wilson  &  Bradbury,  Blankets,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
William  A.  Wilson,  New  York  City. 
James  B.  Wilson  Co.,  Stationery,  New  York  City. 
Jas.  G.  Wilson  Mfg.  Co.,  Shutters,  New  York  City. 
Winchester  Repeating  Arms  Co.,  New  York  City. 
Wincroft  Stove  Works,  Middletown,  Pa. 
Wingarten  Bros.,  Corsets,  New  York  City. 

D.  P.  Winne  Co.,  Rope,  New  York  City. 

The  Francis  T.  Witte  Hardware  Co.,  New  York. 
P.udolph  Wirlitzer,  Musical  Instrus.,  Cincinnati,  O. 
Wolfs,  Sayer  &  Heller,  New  York  City. 
Wolverine  Motor  Works,  Inc.,  Bridgeport,  Conn. 
Wood  Drill  Works,  Rock  Drills,  Paterson,  N.  J. 
The  Woodhouse  Mfg.  Co.,  Hand  Grenades,  N.  Y.  C. 
George  Wood  &  Sons,  Dry  Goods,  New  York  City. 
R.  D.  Wood  &  Co.,  Iron  Pumps,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

E.  B.  Woodward,  General  Supplies,  N.  Y.  C. 
Woodward  &  Lothrop,  Inc.,  Dry  Goods,  Wash.,  D.C. 
Woodward,  Wight  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  Com.  Merch.,  New 

Orleans,  La. 

Woolen  Distilling  Co.,  Peoria,  111. 
Work  &  Co.,  Straw  Hats,  New  York  City. 
James    R.    Wotherspoon,    Galvanized    Night    Soil 

Buckets,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Wouldham  Cement  Co.,  Ltd.,  New  York  City. 
E.  T.  Wright  &  Co.,  Shoes,  Rockland,  Mass. 
Wright  &  Ditson,  Sporting  Goods,  New  York  City. 


460  HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 

William  Wrigley,  Jr.,  Chewing  Gum,  Chicago,  111.  York  Export  &  Commission  Co.,  New  York  City. 

Wrought  Washer  Mfg.  Co.,  Milwaukee,  Wis.  York  Mfg.  Co.,  Chemicals,  Ice  Machines,  N.  Y.  C. 

Wycoff  Pipe  &  Creosoting  Co.,  Inc.,  Stamford,  Conn.  York  Safe  &  Lock  Co.,  Safes,  York,  Pa. 

Wycoff,  Seamans  &  Benedict,  New  York  City.  A.  C.  Young  &  Co.,  Fish  Packers,  Richmond,  Va. 

D.  Wynant,  Comn.  Merchant,  New  York  City.  Y.  M.  C.  A.  Library  Agency,  B.  P.  Bartlette,  Mgr., 
Wynkoop,    Hallenbeck,    Crawford    Co.,    Printers,  Le  Roy,  N.  Y. 

New  York  City.  Young  &  Selden  Co.,  Stationers,  Baltimore,  Md. 

A.  P.  Youngblood,  Flour,  New  York  City. 
The  Youngstown  Sheet  &  Tube  Co.,  Youngstown,  O. 
Y 

Julian  L.  Yale  &  Co.,  Wool  Waste,  Chicago,  111.  Z 

The  Yale  &  Towne  Mfg.  Co.,  Locks,  New  York. 

Yawman  &  Erbe  Mfg.  Co.,  Office  Sup.  Wash.,  D.  C.  Zabriskie  &  Co.,  Flour,  New  York  City. 

Joseph  Yeska,  Clothing,  New  York  City.  A.  Zereges  Sons,  Macaroni,  New  York  City. 

N.  D.  Yont  &  Co.,  Steel,  Pittsburgh,  Pa.  Zimmern  &  Levi,  Ties,  New  York  City. 


BIOGRAPHICAL 


ABBOT,  HENRY  LARCOM,  Int.  bd.  consulting 
eng'rs.,  Panama  Canal;  born  Beverly,  Mass.,  Aug. 
13,  1831;  ed.  Boston  Latin  School,  1846-50;  grad. 
West  Point,  1854;  L.L.D.  Harvard;  Designed 
system  of  submarine  defense  adopted  by  U.  S.; 
Retired  from  corps  of  eng'rs.  U.  S.  A.,  1895; 
Member  Tech.  Comm.  and  consulting  eng'r.  New 
Panama  Canal  Co.,  1897-1904;  Made  experi- 
ments to  solve  problems  of  the  Panama  Canal. 

ACEVEDO,  RAMON  F.f  secy,  of  Fomento  and 
Public  Works,  Republic  of  Panama;  ed.  in 
Bogota;  interested  in  commission  business  and 
commercial  interests  in  Costa  Rica  for  many 
years;  apptd.  Secy,  of  Finance  by  Pres.  Mendoza; 
apptd.  Secy.  State  by  Pres.  Arosemena. 

ACHER,  A.  H.,  capt.,  Corps  of  Engrs.,  U.  S.  A.; 
asst.  engr.  Div.  Fortifications,  The  Panama  Canal, 
since  1912;  born  June  6,  1885;  grad.  U.  S.  Mil. 
Acad.;  2d  It.  eng-,  June  II,  1909;  1st  It.  Feb.  27, 
1912;  capt.  1915;  add.  Culebra,  Canal  Zone. 

ADAMS,  JAMES  H.,  born  Miss.  1877;  went  to 
Isthmus  1907;  genl.  foreman  construction  Bas 
Obispo;  supervisor  lock  excavation  Gatun;  in 
charge  construction  Colon  harbor  breakwater, 
1911. 

ADAMSON,  WILLIAM  C,  Member  of  Congress 
from  Georgia;  chmn.  Com.  on  Interstate  and 
Foreign  Commerce;  in  charge  of  Panama  Canal 
Act  of  1912;  born  Bowdon,  Ga.,  Aug.  13,  1854; 
grad.  Bowdon  College  1874  (A.M.  Bowdon); 
read  law  in  office  of  Hon.  Sampson  W.  Harris; 
admitted  to  bar  Oct.  1876;  judge  city  court 
Carrolton,  Ga.,  1885-89;  pres.  elector  1892; 
elected  to  55th,  56th,  57th,  58th,  59th,  6oth, 
6ist,  62nd,  63rd,  64th  Congresses. 

ALEXANDER,  WILLIAM  H.,  apptd.  asst.  supt. 
transportation,  Cent.  Div.,  Canal  Zone,  July  I, 
1908. 

AMADOR,  MANUEL,  first  Pres.  Republic  of 
Panama;  active  in  revolutionary  movement 
against  Colombia;  deceased. 

AMMEN,  DANIEL,  Rear  Admiral,  U.  S.  N.;  born 
in  Brown  County,  Ohio, May  15, 1820;  entered  the 
the  navy  as  a  midshipman  in  1836;  in  1849  pro- 
moted to  lieutenant;  commissioned  captain  in 
1866.  Later  was  made  a  commodore,  and  in 
1874  commissioned  rear  admiral.  In  that  year 
was  appointed  with  General  A.  A.  Humphreys  to 
make  surveys  for  a  ship  canal  through  the  Isth- 
mus of  Panama,  and  also  through  Nicaragua. 
Three  years  later  the  commission  made  an  elabo- 
rate report,  having  caused  four  routes  to  be  sur- 
veyed. Died  Washington,  D.  C.,  July  II,  1898. 

ANDREVE,  GUILLERMO,  secy.  Pub.  Educ., 
Republic  of  Panama;  owner  of  the  newspaper 
La  Prensa;  writer  of  textbooks;  founder  of 
first  ill.  review  of  Panama,  the  Herald. 

ANDREWS,  PHILIP,  Capt.  U.  S.  N.;  born  New 
York  Mar.  31,  1866;  ap.  naval  acad.  from  N.  J., 
1882;  chief  Bu.  Nav.,  rank  of  rear  adm.,  under 
Secy.  Meyer;  com.  Maryland;  commandant 
Yerba  Buena  training  sta.,  Cal. 


ANGEL,  LAURENCE,  Capt.  U.  S.  A.,  ist  It. 
police  dept.,  Canal  Zone  in  1905;  born  Sept.  20, 
1873;  apptd.  2d  It.,  P.  R.  P.  R.  Inf.  Mar.  25, 
1902;  ist  It.  Jan.  31,  1903;  hon.  disc.  June  30, 
1904;  apptd.  ist  It.  P.  R.  P.  R.  Inf.  July  I,  1904; 
capt.  Nov.  20,  1906;  add.  San  Juan.  P.  R. 

ANNETT,  C.  F.,  ch.  bu.  communications,  Canal 
Zone,  1905. 

ARANGO,  JOSE  AGUSTIN;  Minister  of  Foreign 
Relations,  Panama;  prominent  in  securing  inde- 
pendence of  Panama;  born  Panama  City,  Feb. 
24,  1841;  died  May,  1909. 

ARANGO,  RICARDO  MANUEL,  civ.  engr.;  ch. 
engr.,  Repub.  of  Panama;  born  Panama  City; 
grad.  Rensselaer  Poly.  Inst. ;  returned  to  Panama 
as  asst.  engr.  Panama  R.  R.  Co.;  apptd.  ch.  engr., 
Panama  Water  Works;  apptd.  Minister  to  Lon- 
don, later  apptd.  consulting  engr.,  Panama 
Water  Works;  apptd.  div.  eng.,  meteorology  and 
river  hydraulics;  married  Maria  Lewis,  1899; 
add.  Panama  City,  Panama. 

ARIAS,  RICARDO;  Fiscal  Commr.  to  U.  S.; 
born  May  2,  1852;  son  of  Ramon  Arias  Perez 
and  Manuela  Clotilde  Feraud;  grad.  Commer's 
Com.  Col.  Boston;  supported  Hay-Herran  Canal 
treaty;  negotiated  monetary  convention  with 
Canal  Zone  and  superintended  issue  Republic's 
silver  coinage;  received  the  #10,000,000,  price  of 
the  canal  concession,  as  fiscal  commr.;  apptd. 
by  Pres.  Amador  Secy,  of  Government  and 
Foreign  Affairs;  was  candidate  for  pres.,  but 
resigned. 

ARIAS,  TOM  AS,  supported  movement  for  inde- 
pendence of  Panama,  and  first  Secy,  of  Gov- 
ernment and  Foreign  Relations  of  Panama;  born 
Panama  City,  Dec.  29,  1855;  ed.  Jamaica;  apptd. 
deputy  to  Legis.  Assmbly .  1 883 ;  mem.  Nat.  Cong, 
at  Bogota,  1888;  sub-secy,  of  gov.  to  Gov.  Ay- 
cardi;  apptd.  secy,  to  government,  1890;  apptd. 
senator,  1896;  apptd.  administrator  nat.  fi- 
nances; deputy  to  Legis.  Assembly,  1906-8. 

ARJONA,  ARISTIDES;  given  chg.  of  the  Gen. 
Treasury  on  independence  of  Panama;  later 
Secy,  of  State  and  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs 
under  Pres.  Amador;  apptd.  Jus.  Supreme  Court 
in  administration  of  Pres.  Obaldia;  under  prov. 
pres.  of  Rodolfo  Chiari  was  secy,  of  Foreign 
Affairs;  during  administration  of  Pres.  Porras 
was  atty.  gen.  and  later  jus.  of  the  Supreme 
Court. 

AROSEMENA,  PABLO,  ex-Pres.  of  Panama;  born 
in  Panama;  ed.  schools  there,  then  went  to 
Bogota,  Colombia,  taking  up  legal  studies;  grad. 
as  lawyer  at  age  of  17;  secy,  of  Supreme  Court; 
served  several  terms  as  rep.  and  senator  for 
Panama ;  when  Panama  belonged  to  Colombia  he 
was  pres.  of  sovereign  state  of  Panama;  apptd. 
secy,  to  Colombian  Legation  in  England  and 
France,  and  during  war  between  Chile  and  Peru 
was  Minister  to  Chile,  Peru  and  Bolivia;  deputy 
in  Panama  Assembly;  elected  first  vice -pres.  of 
Panama. 


463 


464 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


AROSEMENA,  C.  C.,  secy,  of  Commn.  for  arbi- 
tration canal  treaty,  1903;  born  Panama  City; 
ed.  Pitkins  Eng.  School,  Springfield,  Mass.,  and 
Williston  Sem.,  Easthampton,  Mass.;  grad. 
Rensselaer  Poly.  Inst.,  Troy,  N.  Y.,  as  civ.  engr., 
1891;  employed  by  Panama  Tramway  Co., 
1893-4;  with  Caribbean  Manganese  Co.,  1894-6; 
in  1903  was  one  of  the  champions  ior  the  move- 
ment which  resulted  in  the  independence  of 
Panama;  asst.  secy,  of  Foreign  Affairs  and  later 
secy.  Panama  Legation  at  Washington;  apptd. 
Minister  to  Washington;  signed  Root-Arosemena 
treaty;  apptd.  secy,  of  Fomento,  1911. 

ASHBURN,  PERCY  M.,  maj.,  med.  corps.,  U.  S. 
A.,  gen.  inspr.,  health  dept.,  The  Panama  Canal; 
born  June  28,  1872;  apptd.  asst.  surg.,  Dec.  12, 
1898;  capt.  asst.  surg.,  Dec.  12,  1903;  maj., 
June  24,  1908;  (M.  D.  Jefferson  Coll.,  1893); 
add.  Ancon,  Canal  Zone. 

ASPINWALL,  WILLIAM  H.,  merchant  and  capi- 
talist; born  in  New  York  City,  Dec.  16,  1807. 
Educated  at  private  schools.  Entered  mercan- 
tile house  of  his  uncles,  and  became  a  partner  in 
the  business  in  1832.  Firm  soon  became  the 
most  important  shipping  firm  in  the  U.  S.  In 
1849  government  awarded  him  contract  for  es- 
tablishment of  mail  steamship  line  from  San 
Francisco  to  Panama  and  he  established  Pacific 
Mail  Steamship  Co.,  retiring  from  the  mercantile 
firm.  He  conceived  the  idea  of  building  a  rail- 
road across  the  Isthmus,  and  associated  with  him 
in  the  enterprise  Henry  Chauncey,  capitalist  of 
New  York,  and  John  Loyd  Stephens,  an  explorer 
and  engineer.  They  obtained  from  the  govern- 
ment of  New  Granada  a  contract  and  concession 
for  proposed  road,  which  was  completed  in  1855. 
The  city  of  Aspinwall,  the  Atlantic  terminus  of 
the  road,  was  named  for  him.  In  1856  he  retired 
from  active  business.  Died  in  New  York  City, 
January  18,  1873. 

AUSTIN,  FREDERIC  C.,  pres.  Municipal  En- 
gineering and  Contracting  Co.,  and  F.  C.  Austin 
Drainage  Excavator  Co.,  Chicago;  supplied  ditch 
and  concrete  mixing  machinery  for  the  Panama 
Canal;  born  at  Skaneateles,  N.  Y.,  June  2,  1853; 
son  of  Dorr  and  Marietta  Austin;  ed.  Skaneateles 
Acad.;  moved  to  Chicago  1869,  taking  position 
as  bookkeeper  with  his  uncle,  Henry  W.  Austin; 
in  1872  went  to  Kansas  City,  Mo.,  traveling 
through  the  West  selling  farm  machinery;  a 
pioneer  in  the  manufacture  of  road  machinery; 
originally  of  Gould  &  Austin  Mfg.  Co.,  afterward 
for  many  years  of  the  F.  C.  Austin  Mfg.  Co., 
selling  his  interest  in  1902,  and  built  up  business 
of  his  own;  married  to  Anna  B.  Ogden  (nee  Bar- 
ker) in  May,  1887;  clubs — Chicago,  Chicago 
Athletic,  South  Shore  Country,  Western  Engineer- 
ing Soc.,  (Chicago),  Circumnavigators  (New 
York);  add.  Railway  Exchange  Bldg.,  Chicago, 
111. 

B 

BAILY,  JOHN,  English  engineer;  in  1826-36  sur- 
veyed route  for  Nicaragua  canal. 

BALBOA,  VASCO  NUNEZ  de;  born  at  Jerez  de 
los  Caballeros,  Estremadura,  Spain,  about  1475. 
Little  or  nothing  is  known  of  his  early  life.  In 


1509  he  accompanied  Bastidas  in  his  voyage  of 
discovery,  in  what  was  known  as  the  famous 
Ojeda  expedition,  sailing  from  Santo  Domingo. 
Balboa  became  a  planter,  and  was  heavily  in- 
volved in  debt.  When  Enciso  sailed  in  1510  to 
join  Ojeda  he  found  Balboa  a  stowaway  in  his 
vessel.  Balboa  persuaded  Enciso  to  sail  for  the 
Isthmus  of  Darien,  where  they  founded  Sta.  Maria 
de  la  Antigua  del  Darien.  There  Balboa  plotted 
against  Enciso,  finally  accomplishing  his  over- 
throw. Enciso  sailed  for  Spain  while  Balboa 
remained  and  conquered  the  surrounding  terri- 
tory, securing  much  booty.  On  Sept.  i,  1513, 
he  began  a  march  across  the  Isthmus  in  search 
of  the  South  Sea.  He  had  with  him  190  Span- 
iards, among  whom  was  Francisco  Pizarro,  after- 
ward conqueror  of  Peru.  On  Sept.  25,  he  dis- 
covered the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  next  day  took 
possession  of  the  ocean  and  all  the  lands  border- 
ing it  in  the  name  of  the  Spanish  king  and  queen. 
His  enemies  plotted  against  him  in  Spain,  and 
Pedro  Arias  de  Avila  was  sent  to  Panama  as 
gov.  In  1517  he  accused  Balboa  of  attempting 
to  incite  an  insurrection,  and  caused  him  to  be 
executed  at  Acla. 

BARBER,  CHARLES  W.  major  U.  S.  A.;  chief 
div.  police  and  prisons,  the  Panama  Canal; 
born  Gloucester  County,  N.  J.,  Sept.  22,  1872; 
apptd.  2nd  lieut.  U.  S.  Vols.  Spanish -American 
War;  promoted  to  1st  lieut.  and  capt.;  commis- 
sioned 2nd  lieut.  in  regular  army  1901 ;  promoted 
to  1st  lieut.  1901,  capt.  1911,  maj.  1915;  detailed 
to  duty  on  Isthmus  1909,  assigned  to  div.  police 
and  prisons;  apptd.  ch.  div.  1912.  Is  member 
Military  Order  of  Carabao,  Army  and  Navy  Club, 
Wash.,  D.  C.,  and  Army  and  Navy  Club,  Manila; 
add.  Ancon,  Canal  Zone. 

BARD,  THOMAS  R.,  ex-U.  S.  Senator,  introduced 
amendment  providing  for  tolls  exemption  for 
coastwise  ships,  which  was  dropped  at  the  time, 
the  consensus  of  opinion  in  the  Senate  being  that 
the  Hay-Pauncefote  treaty  permitted  this;  born 
Chambersburg,  Pa.,  Dec.  8,  1841;  son  of  Robert 
M.  and  Elizabeth  S.  (Little)  Bard;  grad.  Cham- 
bersburg Acad.  at  18  at  head  of  class;  studied 
law;  married  Mary  B.  Gerberding  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, Apr.  17,  1876;  large  interests  in  lands  and 
development  of  oil  industry  in  Cal. ;  U.  S.  Senator 
1900-5;  died  Hueneme,  Cal.,  Mar.  5,  1915. 

BARRETT,  JOHN,  diplomatist;  born  Grafton, 
Vt.,  Nov.  28,  1866;  son  of  Charles  and  Caroline 
(Sanford) ;  grad.  Worcester  Acad.  and  Dartmouth 
Col.  (LL.D.  Nat.  Univ.  Bogota  and  Tulane 
Univ.);  unmarried;  newspaper  work  San  Fran- 
cisco, Tacoma,  Seattle,  ed.  Telegram,  Portland; 
U.  S.  Minister  to  Siam  1894-98;  made  diplo- 
matic investigations  Japan,  Philippines,  Korea, 
Siberia,  and  India;  del.  Pan-Am,  conf.,  Mexico, 
1902;  U.  S.  Minister  to  Argentina  1903-04;  to 
Panama  1904-05;  to  Colombia  1905-06;  direc- 
tor-gen. Pan-Am.  Union  since  1907;  add.  Pan- 
Am.  Union,  Wash.,  D.  C. 

BASCOM,  JOSEPH,  D.,  secy,  treas.  Broderick  & 
Bascom  Rope  Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.;  born  St. 
Louis,  Mo.,  July  2,  1849;  son  of  Jonathan  Dayton 
and  Francis  Ann  Bascom;  married  Mary  Freder- 
ick, at  St.  Louis,  May  31,  1877;  clubs— Commer- 


BIOGRAPHICAL 


465 


cial,  St.  Louis,  Racquet,  Mercantile,  Country 
(St.  Louis);  add.  809  N.  Main  St.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

BASTIDAS,  RODRIGO  de,  Spanish  navigator; 
born  in  Spain  about  1460;  organized  expedition 
and  sailed  for  America  in  1502;  discovered  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama;  his  expedition  was  prior  to 
that  of  Ojeda,  who  later  coasted  the  line  of  South 
and  Central  America,  and  made  a  settlement  on 
the  Isthmus.  Was  wounded  in  a  revolt  and  died 
in  Santo  Domingo. 

BATES,  WILLIAM  H.,  apptd.  supt  of  steam-shovel 
repairs,  Cent,  div.,  Dec.  I,  1908. 

BAXTER,  JOHN  K.,  chief,  div.  civil  affairs,  The 
Panama  Canal;  add.  Ancon,  Canal  Zone. 

BEAM,  WALTER  IRVIN,  b.Pa.;  grad.Girard  Col.; 
went  to  Isthmus  Oct.  1905;  apptd.  Chief  Clerk 
Central  div.  Canal  Zone. 

BEAM  AN,  DON  H.,  gen.  storekeeper,  Empire, 
Canal  Zone;  born  Wash.  Co.,  Tex.,  April  13, 
1880;  ed.  pub.  schools  Texas;  grad.  law  Univ.  of 
Texas,  1900;  Vol.  Span. -Am.  War,  retired  for  in- 
juries incidental  to  service  and  apptd.  post  qmr. 
sergt.  U.  S.  A.,  and  assigned  to  duty  Am.  Leg. 
Peking;  resigned  1906  and  employed  by  Brad- 
street  Com.  Agency;  resigned  1907  to  enter 
Sou.  Ry.,  apptd.  Isthmian  Canal  Comn.  1908; 
add.  Empire,  Canal  Zone. 

BECK,  EDGAR  P.,  treasurer,  Canal  Zone;  b. 
Saginaw,  Mich.;  pub.  sch.  ed;  entered  U.  S.  army 
Jan.  1895;  served  3  years;  went  to  Isthmus 
1905  as  accountant;  apptd.  asst.  treasurer  1908; 
apptd.  treasurer  1908. 

BELDING,  W.  M.,  apptd.  master  bldr.,  div.  of 
bldg.  constrn.,  1907. 

BELL,  WILLIAM  H.,  surg.,  U.  S.  N.,  supt.  hosp. 
Ancon,  Canal  Zone,  1910-13;  born  Milwaukee, 
Wis.,  Mar.  3,  1873;  ed.  pub.  schools;  grad.  Univ. 
of  Pa.,  1897;  apptd.  Med.  Corps,  U.  S.  N.,  Sept. 
1 6,  1898;  senior  surg.  with  battalion  of  marines 
on  duty  at  Camp  Elliott  at  Empire,  1904-5; 
served  on  U.  S.  S.  Dixie  and  U.  S.  S.  Nevada,  and 
in  Bu.  Med.  &  Surgery;  married  Eleanor  Yorke 
Parker,  of  Phila.,  Oct.  13,1902;  add.  Navy  Yard, 
Phila.,  Pa. 

BENSON,  ERNEST  S.,  apptd.  gen.  auditor,  Wash- 
ington Off.,  Isthmian  Canal  Commn.,  Apr.  27, 

1905- 

BERGIN,  RALPH  WILLIAM,  Receiving  and 
Forwarding  Agent  and  Port  Capt.  P.  R.  R.  and 
S.  S.  Lines;  b.  Ky. ;  pub.  sch.  ed.;  service  various 
R.  R.'s;  went  to  Isthmus  with  French  Co.;  en- 
tered service  P.  R.  R.  in  1888. 

BERTONCINI,  C.  F.,  apptd.  ch.  bu.  map  making, 
lithography  and  prints,  Canal  Zone,  1905. 

BEYER,  W.  F.,  asst.  engr.,  lighthouse  constr., 
The  Panama  Canal;  add.  Ancon,  Canal  Zone. 

BIERD,  W.  G.,  apptd.  gen.  supt.  and  later  gen. 
mgr.,  P.  R.  R.,  Canal  Zone,  1907. 

BISHOP,  JOSEPH  B.,  secy.  The  Panama  Canal 
since  Sept.  I,  1905;  born  Seekonk,  Mass.,  Sept. 
5,  1847;  son  of  James  Madison  and  Elzada  (Bal- 
com)  Bishop;  A.  B.,  Brown  Univ.,  1870;  mar- 
ried Harriet  Hartwell  of  Providence,  R.  I.,  Dec. 
14,  1872;  on  ed.  staff  N.  Y.  Tribune,  1870-83; 
ed.  writer,  N.  Y.  Evening  Post  1883-00;  ch.  ed. 
staff  New  York  Globe,  1900-5;  clubs — Univ.  (New 
York),  Metropolitan,  Chevy  Chase  (Washing- 


ton);  Author,  Cheap  Money  Experiments,  1892; 

Our   Political   Drama,    1904;     Issues  of  a   New 

Epoch,  1904;  The  Panama  Gateway,  1913;  add. 

Ancon,  Canal  Zone. 
BLACK,  W.  M.,  col.  Corps  of  Engrs.,  U.  S.  A.,  in 

chg.  of  engineering  staff,  The  Canal  Zone,  1904; 

born  Dec.  8,  1855;  grad.  U.  S.  Mil.  Acad.,  apptd. 

2d  It.  June  15,1877;    1st  It.  March 3 1, 1 880;  capt. 

Dec.  31,  1886;   maj.  May  18,  1898;  It.  col.  June 

26,  1905;  col.  July  28,  1908;  add.  Army  Bldg., 

New  York  City. 
BLACKBURN,   JOSEPH    CLAY   STILES,   civil 

governor,    Canal   Zone,    Sept.    !9O4~Dec.   1909; 

mem.  Isthmian  Canal  Comn.,  Apr.  I,  i9O7-Dec. 

4,  1909;   born  Oct.  I,  1838,  Woodford  Co.,  Ky.; 
son  of  Edward  M.  and  Lavinia  S.  Blackburn; 
married  Therese  Graham,  of  Danville,  Ky.,  Feb. 
10,  1858  (died  1899);   2d,  Mrs.  Mary  E.  Black- 
burn,   of    Washington,    D.    C.,    Dec.    u,    1901; 
A.  B.,  Centre  Col.  Ky.,  1857  (L.L.D.);  admitted 
to    bar    1858;     practiced    at    Chicago    1858-60; 
served  throughout  Civil  War  in  C.  S.  A.;    re- 
sumed practice  in  Ky.;    mem.  Ky.  Ho.  of  Rep., 
1871-5;  mem.  44th  to  48th  Congresses  (1875-85) ; 
U.  S.  Senate,  1885-97  and  1901-7;    mem.  Isth- 
mian Canal  Commn.  Apr.  I,  i9O7~Dec.  4,  1909; 
del.  Dem.  Nat.  conventions,  1896,   1900,   1904; 
a  leader  in  the  free  coinage  movement;    chmn. 
Dem.  caucus,  U.  S.  Senate,   1906,   1907;    Pres. 
Interstate  Club;  add.  Versailles,  Ky. 

BLACKBURN,  S.  E.,  magistrate,  The  Panama 
Canal  since  April  I,  1914;  add.  Balboa,  Canal 
Zone. 

BLOUNT,  F.  R.,  supt.  railroad  transportation, 
Panama  Railroad;  add.  Ancon,  Canal  Zone. 

BLUE,  RUPERT,  surgeon-general  U.  S.  Public 
Health  Service  since  Jan.  8,  1912;  born  Richmond 
Co.,  N.  C.,  May  30,  1867;  son  of  John  G.  and 
Annie  M.  Evans  Blue;  ed.  Univ.  of  Va.,  1889-90., 
Univ.  of  Md.,  1892  (D.  Sc.  1909);  grad.  Lon- 
don Sch.  Tropical  Medicine,  1910;  Interne, 
1892,  asst.  surg.  1903,  passed  asst.  surg.  1907, 
surg.  1909;  served  at  Cincinnati,  Galveston, 
Charleston,  S.  C.,  San  Francisco,  Portland,  Ore., 
Milwaukee,  Genoa,  Italy,  New  York,  Norfolk 
and  New  Orleans;  was  in  charge  of  opera- 
tions in  eradication  of  bubonic  plague  in  San 
Francisco  1903-4;  served  through  the  epidemic 
of  yellow  fever  in  New  Orleans  1905;  dir.  sanita- 
tion of  Jamestown  Expn.,  1907;  dir.  2d  campaign 
against  bubonic  plague,  San  Francisco,  1907-8; 
add.  U.  S.  Public  Health  Service,  Washington, 
D.  C. 

BOGGS,  FRANK  C.,  major,  Corps  of  Engrs., 
U.  S.  A.,  general  purchasing  officer,  The  Panama 
Canal,  and  chief  of  Washington  office  since  1908; 
born  Swedesboro,  N.  J.,  March  16,  1874;  son  of 
George  B.  and  Hannah  G.  Boggs;  married 
Marianne  Thomson,  Norristown,  Pa.,  June,  1900; 
grad.  Norristown  (Pa.)  high  school,  1890;  grad. 
U.  S.  Mil.  Acad.  1898;  Q.  M.  Eng.  Bat.,  Willet's 
Pt.,  N.  Y.,  1898-9;  local  charge  fortification  work, 
Tampa,  Fla.,  i899-'oo;  student  Eng.  school,  U. 

5.  A.,  Willet's  Pt.  and  Wash.  D.  C.,  and  adjt. 
bat.  eng.,  1900-03;  survey  work  and  local  charge 
fortification  work,  Phil.  Islands,  1903-06;    local 
charge  construction  lock  and  dam,  Monongahela 


466 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


River,  and  in  charge  eng.  dis.,  Wheeling,  W.  Va., 
1906-08;  mem.  Am.  Soc.  Civ.  Engrs.,  Wash.  Soc. 
Engrs.,  Nat.  Geog.  Soc.,  Army  and  Navy  Club; 
res.  The  Westmoreland,  Wash.  D.  C.;  office  The 
Panama  Canal,  Washington,  D.  C. 

BOLICH,  D.  W.,  div.  engr.,  Culebra  constrn.  div., 
1907-08. 

BOOTH,  RUFUS  K.,  chief  accountant,  The  Pan- 
ama  Canal,  since  Dec.  23,  1912. 

BOYD,  FEDERICO,  mem.  Joint  Land  Commn.; 
born  in  City  of  Panama,  Sept.  24,  1853;  son  of 
Archibald  B.  Boyd;  ed.  in  U.  S.;  in  1873  married 
Teodolinda  Briceno;  was  one  of  the  leaders  in 
the  councils  and  in  movements  which  resulted  in 
secession  of  prov.  of  Panama  from  Colombia,  and 
was  one  of  two  commissioners  sent  to  Washing- 
ton to  conclude  treaty  for  construction  of  the 
interoceanic  canal;  apptd.  Minister  Exterior 
Relations,  and  in  1910  2d  v.  p.  of  Panama;  apptd. 
secy.  Foreign  Affairs  by  Pres.  Arosemena;  offered 
position  Minister  to  Washington,  but  declined; 
add.  Panama  City. 

BREM,  WALTER,  physician;  grad.  Johns  Hop- 
kins; went  to  Isthmus  Aug.  12,  1905;  apptd. 
phys.  Ancon  hospital;  apptd.  med.  clinic  Colon. 

BRISTOW,  JOSEPH  LITTLE,  U.  S.  Senator 
1909-15;  born  Wolfe  Co.,  Ky.,  July  22,  1861; 
ed.  Baker  Univ.,  Kan.  (LL.D.,  1909);  married 
Margaret  A.  Hendrix,  Flemingsburg,  Ky.,  1879; 
owner  and  ed.  Salina  (Kan.)  Republican-Journal; 
asst.  postmaster- gen.,  1897-05;  conducted 
postal  investigations  Cuba  1900;  investigated 
traffic  questions  Panama  Railroad  1905;  add. 
Salina,  Kan. 

BRODERICK,  JOHN  J.,  pres.,  Broderick  &  Bas- 
com  Rope  Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.;  born  Dec.  29, 
1846;  ed.  St.  Louis  Univ.,  A.  B.,  1862,  St.  Louis 
Univ.;  married  Emelia  C.  Kern,  St.  Louis,  May 
8,  1878;  began  commercial  life  in  hardware  busi- 
ness; add.  805  N.  Main  St.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

BROOKE,  GEORGE  D.,  mem.  bd.  appraisal, 
Canal  Zone,  1904;  ch.  bu.  mach.  and  equip., 
1905;  supt.  motive  power  and  mach.,  P.  R.  R., 
1907. 

BROOKE,  MARK,  capt.,  Corps  of  Engrs.,  U.  S.  A., 
representing  U.  S.  and  under  instructions  from 
atty.  gen.  took  possession  on  May  4,  1904,  of  all 
the  canal  properties  in  accordance  with  treaty 
signed  Nov.  18,  1903;  in  chg.  of  work  and  con- 
tinued operations  which  had  been  conducted  by 
the  French  Canal  Co.;  born  Aug.  27,  1876;  grad. 
U.  S.  Mil.  Acad.,  apptd.  2d  It.,  June  12,  1902;  1st 
It.  Apr.  23,  1904;  capt.  Mar.  28,  1910;  add.  Ma- 
nila, P.  I. 

BROWN,  THOMAS  E.,  Jr.,  assoc.  jus.  supreme  ct., 
Canal  Zone  until  June  30,  1914;  born  Brooklyn, 
N.  Y.;  ed.  pub.  schools  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  grad. 
Brown  Univ.,  1890;  studied  law  New  York  Law 
School;  A.  B.  1893;  practiced  law  in  New  York 
City;  apptd.  dist.  judge,  Isthmian  Canal  Commn., 
1907. 

BRYAN,  WILLIAM  JENNINGS,  sec.  state  in 

Wilson  cabinet,  1913 — ;  born  Salem,  111.,  Mar. 
19,  1860;  son  of  Silas  Lillard  and  Mariah  Eliza- 
beth (Jennings)  Bryan;  ed.  111.  Col.  and  Union 
Col.  of  Law,  Chicago;  married  Mary  Elizabeth 
Baird,  Perry,  111.,  1884;  member  52d  and  53d 


Cong.,  1st  Neb.  dist.;  ed.  Omaha  World-Herald, 
1894-96;  nom.  for  Pres.  of  U.  S.  by  Dem.  nat. 
conv.  1896,  1900,  1908;  editor  Commoner,  Lin- 
coln, Neb.;  raised  1st  reg.  Neb.  vol.  inf.  for 
Span.-Am.  War  and  served  as  col.;  author  The 
First  Battle,  Under  Other  Flags,  The  Old  World 
and  Its  Ways;  toured  world  1906;  as  sec.  state 
conducted  negotiations  for  treaty  with  Colombia, 
1913-14. 

BUDD,  R.,  engr.  constrn.  and  maintenance,  P.  R.  R. 
1907;  ch.  engr.,  P.  R.  R.,  1909;  resigned  Sept.  21, 
1909. 

BULWER,  Sir  HENRY,  British  diplomat;  born 
London,  Feb.  13,  1801,  died  Naples  May  23,  1872; 
brother  of  Lord  Lytton;  minister  to  U.  S.,  1849- 
52,  and  signed  Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty. 

BUNAU-VARILLA,  PHILIPPE,  chief  engr.  Pan- 
ama  Canal  under  French  regime,  and  first  minis- 
ter of  Panama  Republic  at  Washington,  where  he 
negotiated  the  Hay-Bunau-Varilla  treaty;  born 
Paris,  France,  July  26,  1859;  educated  Ecole 
Poly  technique;  commissioned  capt.  of  engrs. ; 
administrator  of  railways  in  Madrid;  invented  a 
dredge  for  digging  canals  and  dredging  harbors; 
planned  harbor  works  and  railways  in  Algeria 
and  Tunis;  became  connected  with  Count  de 
Lesseps  and  was  given  charge  of  work  on  Panama 
Canal,  1884;  made  many  radical  changes  in  plan 
of  operations;  active  work  on  canal  ended  1888; 
Minister  of  Panama  at  Washington,  1903-4; 
returned  to  France  1904;  since  then  engaged  in 
building  railways  in  West  Africa  and  improve- 
ments of  navigable  waterways  in  Rou mania; 
wrote  "Panama  Le  Passi,"  a  work  on  Panama  and 
the  Canal. 

BURR,  WILLIAM  HUBERT,  civil  engineer; 
apptd.  April,  1899,  by  Pres.  McKinley,  mem. 
Isthmian  Canal  Comn.;  apptd.  1904,  by  Pres. 
Roosevelt,  mem.  Isthmian  Canal  Comn.  and  mem. 
bd.  consulting  engineers  since  1905;  born  Water- 
town,  Conn.,  July  14,  1851;  son  of  George 
William  and  Marion  Foote  (Scovill)  Burr;  C.  E. 
Rensselaer  Poly.  Inst.,  1872;  married  Caroline 
Kent  Seelye  1876  (died  1894);  2d  Gertrude  Gold 
Shipman,  1900;  began  practice  as  civil  engr. 
1872;  prof,  rational  and  tech.  mechanics,  Rensse- 
laer Poly.  Inst.  1876-84;  asst.  to  chief  engr.  and 
later  gen.  mgr.  Phoenix  Bridge  Co.,  1884-91; 
prof,  engineering  Harvard,  1892-3;  prof,  civil 
engineering  Columbia,  since  1893;  consulting 
engr.  to  dept.  pub.  works,  1893-5,  parks,  1895-7, 
of  docks,  1895-7,  a°d  now  dept.  of  bridges  and 
bd.  of  water  supply,  New  York;  apptd.  by  Gov. 
Dix  1911,  mem.  advisory  bd.  of  engineers  for 
construction  of  Barge  Canal  by  State  of  New 
York;  awarded  first  place  in  nat.  competition, 
1900,  for  proposed  memorial  bridge  across  Poto- 
mac at  Washington;  mem.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Instn. 
Civ.  Engrs.  of  Great  Britain,  etc.;  author,  The 
Stresses  in  Bridge  and  Roof  Trusses,  1881; 
Elasticity  and  Resistance  of  the  Materials  of 
Engineering,  1883;  Ancient  and  Modern  Engi- 
neering and  the  Isthmian  Canal,  1902;  The 
Graphic  Method  by  Influence  Lines  for  Bridge 
and  Roof  Computation  (with  M.  S.  Falk),  1905; 
Suspension  Bridges,  Arch  Ribs  and  Cantilevers, 
1913;  add.  Columbia  Univ.,  New  York. 


BIOGRAPHICAL 


467 


BURTT,  A.  M.,  apptd.  supervising  architect,  Canal 

Zone,  1905. 
BUTLER,  HENRY  V.,  It.  comdr.,  U.  S.  N.,  capt. 

of  the  port,  The  Panama  Canal;   born  March  9, 

1874;    grad.   U.   S.   Nav.   Acad.;    add.   Balboa, 

Canal  Zone. 

c 

CALDWELL,    BERT   W.,   phys.;    born    Illinois; 

went  to  Isthmus  1905;    apptd.  dist.  phys.  Bas 

Obisbo;   supt.  Santo  Tomas  Hospital,  1911. 
CALVO,  RAOUL  J.,  municipal  treasurer,  Panama; 

born    Penonoma;     ed.    schools    Balboa,    leaving 

when  17  to  enter  business;    supported  Obaldia 

party  in  1908  and  apptd.  mem.  Consejo  Electoral; 

clubs  —  Union,  International;   add.  Ancon,  Canal 

Zone. 
CAMPBELL,  A.  I.,  res.  engr.,  1st  dist.  dept.  of 

constrn.  and  engrg.,  Corozal,  April  i,  igog-Dec. 

27,  1909. 
CAREW,  FRANK  J.,  supt.,  sou.  div.,  permanent 

buildings  div.,  The  Panama  Canal,  since  Aug.  19, 


CARPENTER,  C.  L.,  asst.  engr.,  Culebra  constrn. 
div.,  1905;  apptd.  res.  engr.,  Gatun  locks  div., 
1907. 

CARTER,  H.  R.,  U.  S.  Health  and  Marine  Hosp. 
Serv.,  ch.  quarantine  officer,  Canal  Zone,  sta- 
tioned at  Ancon,  1904;  dir.  of  hospitals,  1905. 

CASAS,  BARTOLOME  de  las,  a  Spanish  Domini- 
can, famous  as  defender  of  the  Indians;  born  at 
Seville,  1774;  went  to  Hispaniola  and  accom- 
panied Velasquez  in  conquest  of  Cuba;  in  1515 
went  to  Spain  to  intercede  with  Ferdinand  in  be- 
half of  Indians;  apptd.  Protector  of  the  Indians  by 
Cardinal  Ximenes,  and  returned  to  Hispaniola, 
1516;  returned  to  Spain  and  was  received  by 
Charles  V;  took  Dominican  habit  at  Santo 
Domingo,  1522;  bishop  of  Chiapas,  Mexico; 
published  a  history  of  the  Indies;  died  Madrid, 
July,  1566. 

CERON,  ALyARO  de  SAAVEDRA,  Spanish  ex- 
plorer, cousin  of  Hernan  Cortes  and  follower  of 
Balboa;  suggested  plans  in  1529  for  a  canal 
across  Isthmus  of  Panama. 

CHIARI,  RODOLFO,  ist  v.  p.  Repub.  of  Panama, 
sub.  -secy,  finance  during  administration  Pres. 
Obaldia,  later  mgr.,  govt.  bank  City  of  Panama; 
born  Aguadulce,  prov.  Cocle;  ed.  pub.  schools; 
municipal  treas.  Colon;  rep.  prov.  Cocle  first 
nat.  conv.;  municipal  treas.  dist.  Panama; 
tendered  but  declined  secy,  finance  by  Pres. 
Mendoza;  elec.  3d  designado,  1910. 

CHOATE,  JOSEPH  HODGES,  diplomatist  and 
lawyer;  born  Salem,  Mass.,  Jan.  24,  1832;  ed. 
Harvard;  (LL.D.  Amherst,  Harvard,  Cambridge, 
Edinburgh,  Yale,  St.  Andrew's,  Glasgow,  Wil- 
liams, Pa.,  Union,  McGill;  D.  C.  L.  Oxford); 
married  Carolina  Dutcher  Sterling,  1861;  mem. 
com.  of  70  that  broke  up  Tweed  ring,  1871; 
ambass.  to  Great  Brit.  1899-05,  and  assisted  in 
negotiation  of  ist  and  2d  Hay-Pauncefote  treaties; 
long  career  as  author,  speaker,  lawyer,  and  pub- 
licist; add.  60  Wall  St.,  N.  Y. 

CLARK,  F.  C.,  apptd.  asst.  engr.  operating  ma- 
chinery, Culebra,  1909. 


CLARKE,  ERNEST  W.,  apptd.  res.  engr.,  bu. 
waterworks,  sewers  and  roads,  Colon,  1905. 

CLAYTON,  JOHN  MIDDLETON,  secy,  of  state 
under  Taylor,  Mar.  184910  July  1850;  negotiated 
and  signed  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty;  born  Dags- 
boro,  Del.,  July  24,  1796,  died  Dover,  Del., 
Nov.  9,  1856;  grad.  Yale  1815;  mem.  Del.  assem- 
bly, sec.  state  of  Del.,  U.  S.  Senator  1829-36, 
chief  justice  Del.  1837-39,  U.  S.  Senator  1845-49, 
1853-56. 

CLEAR,  THOMAS  L.,  collector,  accounting  dept., 
The  Panama  Canal,  since  Apr.  i,  1914;  and  apptd. 
asst.  auditor,  Canal  Zone,  Sept.  12,  1908;  born 
Wash.  D.  C.;  ed.  Wash,  schools;  grad.  Columbian 
Univ.  Wash.;  entered  gov.  service  Feb.  1900; 
in  Dept.  Interior;  employed  by  S.  F.  R.  system, 
1902-8;  married  Nov.  29,  1892,  Laura  Virginia 
Cronise;  add.,  Empire,  Canal  Zone. 

COALE,  THOMAS  E.,  pres.  Thos.  E.  Coale  Lum- 
ber Co.,  Phila.,  Pa.;  shipped  great  quantities  of 
lumber  to  the  Canal;  born  Catonsville,  Md.,  May 
19,  1865;  ed.  pub.  schools;  married  Nannie  M. 
Coale  Nov.  20,  1890;  clubs — Racquet,  Delaware 
River  Club;  add.,  Franklin  Bank  Bldg.,  Phila., 
Pa. 

COLE,  HARRY  O.,  res.-  engr.,  ist  dist.,  Pacific 
div.,  The  Panama  Canal,  since  1911,  in  chg.  locks, 
dams  and  dry  excavation;  born  Morgantown, 
W.  Va.;  grad.  W.  Va.  Univ.  1898;  office  eng.  in 
chg.  of  designs,  Pacific  div.,  1908-09;  asst.  engr. 
3d  dist.,  1909-11. 

COLLINS,  LORIN  C.,  judge,  apptd.  justice  su- 
preme ct.,  Canal  Zone,  June  21,  1905;  died  Sept. 
27,  1912. 

COLON,  BARTOLOME,  brother  of  Christopher 
Columbus;  born,  probably  in  Genoa,  about 
1445;  in  1488  visited  England  to  interest  Henry 
VII  in  the  scheme  of  his  brother,  but  met  with 
no  success.  Returning  to  Spain  he  followed  the 
second  voyage  of  his  brother  with  a  fleet  carrying 
supplies,  arriving  at  Isabella  in  June  1493.  The 
admiral  made  him  Adelantado,  and  from  1496 
to  1498  he  governed  the  island  during  his  brother's 
absence.  Founded  Santo  Domingo  in  1496.  In 
1500  Bobadilla  sent  him  a  prisoner  to  Spain,  where 
he  was  finally  released.  He  was  with  his  brother 
on  his  fourth  voyage,  1502-04,  and  was  the  leading 
spirit  when  active  work  was  to  be  done.  In 
1509  he  accompanied  Diego  Colon  to  Hispaniola, 
where  he  held  many  important  and  lucrative 
offices.  Died  at  Santo  Domingo,  May,  1515. 

COLON,  DIEGO,  son  of  Christopher  Columbus; 
born  probably  at  Lisbon,  about  1476;  Queen 
Isabella  made  him  a  page  at  Spanish  court  in 
1492  where  he  remained  until  after  his  father's 
death;  in  1520  he  was  confirmed  as  admiral  of 
the  Indies,  and  Gov.  of  Hispaniola,  but  without 
the  title  of  viceroy.  He  arrived  at  Santo  Domin- 
go, July  10,  1509.  Velazquez,  whom  he  sent  to 
conquer  Cuba,  threw  off  his  authority.  In  1523 
he  was  recalled  to  Spain  to  answer  charges  which 
had  been  made  against  him,  but  was  never 
brought  to  trial.  Diego  Colon  apptd.  Balboa 
gov.  of  Tierra  Firme.  He  died  at  Montalvan, 
near  Toledo,  Feb.  23,  1526. 

COLON,  LUIS,  Duke  of  Veragua  and  Marquis  of 
Jamaica;  born  in  Santo  Domingo  in  1521;  son 


468 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


of  Diego  Colon,  and  grandson  of  Christopher 
Columbus;  in  1536  relinquished  all  claim  to  title 
of  viceroy,  and  in  return  was  created  Duke  of 
Veragua;  in  1530  was  imprisoned  for  having 
three  wives,  and  was  banished  to  Oran,  Africa, 
where  he  died. 

COLUMBUS,  CHRISTOPHER  (CRISTOBAL 
COLON),  discoverer  of  America;  born  Genoa, 
1446,  died  Valladolid,  Spain,  1 506 ;  discovered 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  1502. 

COMBER,  WILLIAM  GEORGE,  res.  engr.,  div. 
dredging,  dept.  Operation  and  Maintenance,  The 
Panama  Canal;  born  London,  Eng.,  Sept.  14, 
1855;  ed.  pub.  schools  there;  removed  to  U.  S. 
1883;  asst.  engr.  in  charge  of  dredging  div.  on 
Mississippi  River,  1898;  asst.  engr.,  in  charge  of 
gen.  survey  of  Mississippi  River,  1902;  apptd. 
res.  engr.,  Cristobal  div.,  Canal  Zone,  1905;  div. 
engr.  La  Boca,  1907;  chmn.  bd.  steamboat  insp. 
service,  Canal  Zone,  Nov.  12,  igog-Apr.  25,  1913; 
married  Hattie  Belle  Gilbert;  add.,  Paraiso, 
Canal  Zone. 

CONCHA,  JOSE  VICENTE,  diplomat;  secy,  of 
war  of  Columbia,  Minister  to  U.  S.,  1901-02; 
formulated  draft  of  treaty  for  transfer  of  French 
canal  company's  property  to  U.  S.  and  cession  of 
Panama  canal  zone  to  U.  S. 

CONNOR,  M.  E.,  physician,  health  officer  of  Pan- 
ama, The  Panama  Canal;  add.,  Ancon,  Canal 
Zone. 

COOKE,  FREDERICK  H.,  civ.  engr.,  U.  S.  N., 
designing  engr.,  Dept.  Operation  and  Mainte- 
nance, The  Panama  Canal,  since  Jan.  2,1912;  born 
Mar.  n,  1879;  commd.  U.  S.  N.,  Jan.  I,  1904; 
add.,  Culebra,  Cana.  Zone. 

COOKE,  TOM  M.,  apptd.  coll.  revenue,  Canal 
Zone,  1904. 

CORCORAN,  A.  T.,  apptd.  gen.  foreman,  in  chg. 
locomotive  dept.,  mech.  div.,  Canal  Zone,  1910. 

CORNISH,  L.  D.,  apptd.  designing  engr.,  dept. 
lock  and  dam  constrn.,  Culebra,  1907;  apptd.  to 
Washington  Off.,  Isthmian  Canal  Commn.,  Sept., 
1905;  born  Lee  Centre,  N.  Y.;  grad.  Syracuse 
Univ.,  with  degree  of  C.  E. 

CORNTHWAITE,  H.  G.,  asst.  chief  hydrographer, 
The  Panama  Canal;  add.,  Culebra,  Canal  Zone. 

CORSE,  W.  B.,  res.  engr.,  first  dist.,  Pacific  div., 
Canal  Zone;  died  1911. 

COSA,  JUAN  de  la,  Spanish  navigator;  date  of 
birth  unknown;  was  pilot  of  Columbus  on  his 
first  voyage  of  discovery;  made  five  voyages  to 
coast  of  South  America,  1499,  1500,  1504,  1507, 
and  1509;  was  killed  by  Indians  near  Bay  of 
Cartagena,  Nov.  1509;  his  map  of  the  world, 
made  in  1500,  is  the  oldest  known.  It  is  now  the 
property  of  the  Spanish  Govt. 

CRAIG,  JAMES  G.,  apptd.  July  16,  1909,  senior 
traveling  engineer,  The  Panama  Canal  and  P. 
R.  R.;  born  Atlanta;  went  to  Panama  as  loco, 
engr.,  1905. 

CROMWELL,  WILLIAM  NELSON,  late  general 
counsel  of  New  Panama  Canal  Co.,  of  France,  and 
chief  negotiator  in  transfer  of  Panama  Canal  to 
U.  S.;  born  1854;  son  of  Col.  John  Nelson  Crom- 
well; L.  L.  B.,  Columbia,  1876  (LL.D.  Kenyon 
Coll.  1904);  senior  of  law  firm,  Sullivan  and 
Cromwell;  specialty  is  corporation  law;  organ- 


ized, 1899,  National  Tube  Co.  (capital  £8,000,000) ; 
since  then  many  other  corporations;  apptd. 
assignee  and  reorganized  Decker,  Howell  &  Co., 
1890,  N.  P.  R.  R.  Co.,  and  later  Price,  McCor- 
mick  &  Co.,  which  had  failed  for  several  millions, 
and  many  others,  and  put  all  on  paying  basis; 
was  officer  or  counsel  of  more  than  20  of  largest 
corporations  in  U.  S.,  and  one  of  organizers  of 
U.  S.  Steel  Corpn. ;  for  several  years  represented 
New  Panama  Canal  Co.  in  negotiations  at  Wash- 
ington, Paris,  Panama  and  Bogota;  dir.  Am. 
Bank  Note  Corpn.,  Mercantile  Nat.  Bank,  N.  Y.; 
trustee  Am.  Surety  Co.  of  New  York;  clubs — 
Lawyers',  Union  League,  Metropolitan;  summer 
home  Seabright,  N.  J.;  res.  12  W.  49th  St.,  New 
York;  office  49  Wall  St.,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

CROWLEY,  D.  E.,  resigned  as  supt.  of  constrn., 
Empire  dist.,  Central  div.,  May  n,  1910. 

CUM  MINGS,  E.  E.,  master  mech.,  Gorgona  shops 
until  June  1909. 

CURL,  HOLTON  C.,  Surg.  U.  S.  N.,  supt.  Colon 
hosp.,  1905;  add.,  navy  yard,  Mare  Island,  Cal. 

GUSHING,  CALEB,  American  diplomat;  born 
Salisbury,  Mass.,  1800;  died  Newburyport, 
Mass.,  1879;  member  Congress  1833-43;  judge 
sup.  court  Mass.,  1852;  atty.-gen.  U.  S.,  1853; 
counsel  for  U.  S.  in  Alabama  claims;  nom.  chief 
justice  of  U.  S.,  1874,  but  not  confirmed;  minis- 
ter to  Spain,  1874-77;  went  to  Bogota,  1869, 
and  assisted  in  negotiation  of  treaty  for  Isthmian 
Canal;  treaty  not  ratified. 

D 

DAM  PIER,  WILLIAM,  English  freebooter;  born 
Eng.  1652;  was  with  Captain  Sharp  when  that 
freebooter  attempted  to  capture  Panama.  In 
1685  he  led  an  expedition  across  the  Isthmus  to 
lie  in  wait  for  the  treasure  fleet.  It  resulted  in 
failure,  and  he  then  turned  to  attack  Leon, 
Nicaragua.  There  he  met  with  no  better  success. 
He  circumnavigated  the  globe  four  times.  Died, 
London,  1715. 

DARLING,  SAMUEL  T.,  physician;  apptd.  to 
Isthmus  Feb.  28,  1905,  prof,  duties  included  in- 
terne, physician,  pathologist  and  ch.  of  laboratory; 
native  of  Harrison,  N.  J.;  grad.  Coll.  Physicians 
and  Surgeons,  Balto.,  1903;  res.  pathologist  of 
City  Hosp.  in  Baltimore,  and  instructor  in  His- 
tology and  Pathology,  Coll.  Physicians  and  Sur- 
geons, Balto.,  1903-5;  pres.  Canal  Zone  Medical 
Assn.  1907;  married  Miss  Llewellyn  of  Char- 
lottesville,  Va.,  1905. 

DAUCHY,  WALTER  E.,  apptd.  div.  engr.,  dept. 
of  constrn.,  Canal  Zone,  1904. 

DAVIS,  CARLETON,  E.,  engr.  in  charge  of  water- 
works, sewerage,  Canal  Zone,  1904;  apptd.  ch. 
bu.  waterworks,  sewerage  and  roads,  Canal  Zone, 
1905- 

DAVIS,  GEORGE  W.,  major  general,  U.  S.  A., 
mem.  Isthmian  Canal  Commn.,  1904-5;  chmn. 
bd.  of  consulting  engrs.  on  type  of  Panama  Canal, 
1905-6;  born  Thompson,  Conn.,  July  26,  1839; 
son  of  George  and  Elizabeth  Grow  Davis;  mar- 
ried Carmen  Atocha  of  Washington,  Apr.  30, 
1870;  ed.  Nichols  Acad.  Dudley,  Mass.,  and 
State  Normal  Sch.  New  Britain,  Conn.;  served 


Medal  of  honor  presented  to  canal  employees  who  gave  two  years'  continuous  service. 


BIOGRAPHICAL 


469 


through  Civil  War;  hon.  mustered  out  Apr.  30, 
1866;  capt.  I4th  U.  S.  Inf.  Jan.  22,  1867;  maj. 
Ilth  Inf.  Aug.  16,  1894;  trans,  to  9th  Inf.  May 
29,  1897;  It.  col.  1 4th  Inf.  Apr.  26,  1898;  brig.- 
gen.  U.  S.  V.,  May  4,  1898;  hon.  discharged  Apr. 
14,  1899;  col.  23d  Inf.  Oct.  19,  1899;  brig.  gen. 
Feb.  2,  1901;  maj.  gen.  July  21,  1902;  gen. 
mgr.  and  v.  p.  Nicaragua  Canal  Constrn.  Co., 
1900-3 :  retired  by  operation  of  law,  1903 ;  clubs — 
Metropolitan,  Chevy  Chase;  add.,  The  Connecti- 
cut, Washington,  D.  C. 

DEEKS,  W.  E.,  physician;  born  Morrisburg, 
Canada;  grad.  McGill  Univ.,  studied  in  London, 
Berlin  and  Vienna;  worked  in  Canada  and  United 
States;  went  to  Isthmus  1906,  apptd.  head  of 
medical  clinic  Ancon  hospital. 

de  LESSEPS,  Count  FERDINAND,  builder  of 
Suez  Canal  and  projector  of  Panama  Canal; 
born  Versailles,  Nov.  10,  1805;  died  Dec.  7, 
1894;  son  of  Mathieu  and  Catherine  (de  Griveg- 
n6e)  de  Lesseps;  mother  was  a  grand -aunt  of 
Empress  Eugenie;  married  Mile.  Agathe  Dela- 
malle,  1837;  married  Mile.  Autard  de  Bragard, 
1869;  ed.  Coll.  of  Henry  IV,  Paris;  commis- 
sary in  army,  1818-20;  vice  consul  at  Lisbon, 
1825-27;  held  positions  in  administration  of 
Foreign  Affairs  at  Tunis,  Egypt,  Holland  and 
Spain;  Minister  to  Spain  1848;  while  in  Egypt 
became  interested  in  project  for  a  canal  across 
Isthmus  of  Suez;  returned  to  Egypt  in  1854  and 
submitted  sketch  for  canal  to  Said  Pasha;  the 
sketch  was  approved  and  active  work  begun 
1859;  canal  completed  under  his  supervision 
1869;  made  survey  for  canal  across  Panama  1879; 
investigated  the  route  through  Nicaragua;  de- 
cided in  favor  of  Panama;  as  projected  by  him 
canal  was  to  be  a  sea  level  connection  between 
the  two  oceans;  company  became  bankrupt  after 
much  work  was  done,  and  de  Lesseps  sentenced 
to  a  term  of  imprisonment;  elected  mem.  Acad. 
of  Sciences,  i875,and  of  Academic  Frangaise,  1884; 
Chevalier  Legion  of  Honor;  author  of  a  number 
of  books,  most  of  them  concerning  the  Suez 
and  Panama  Canals.  His  memoirs,  written 
for  his  children,  have  been  translated  into  English. 

DERRICK,  C.,  apptd.  asst.engr.,  charged  with  the 
design  of  movable  dams,  Culebra,  Sept.  15,  1908. 

DESHON,  GEORGE  D.,  It.  col.  med.  corps.,  U.  S. 
A.,  supt.  Ancon  hospital,  The  Panama  Canal; 
born  Aug.  5,  1864;  grad.  U.  S.  Mil.  Acad.;  2d  It., 
July  i,  1886;  resigned,  Mar.  21,  1890;  apptd. 
asst.  surg.,  U.  S.  A.,  May  5,  1892;  capt.,  asst. 
surg.,  May  5,  1897;  maj.  surg.,  Dec.  5,  1904;  It. 
col.,  Aug.  6,  1912;  add.,  Ancon,  Canal  Zone. 

DEVOL,  CARROLL  A.,  brig.  gen.  qmr.  corps, 
U.  S.  A.;  born  in  Washington  Co.,  Ohio,  April  17, 
1859;  ed.  Pennsylvania  Mil.  Col.  and  in  1879 
commissioned  2nd  It.  U.  S.  A.;  ist  It.  1886; 
capt.  1896;  major  1902;  It.  col.  1909;  col.  1911; 
apptd.  brig.  gen.  qmr.  corps,  1913;  served  with 
credit  in  Philippines;  stationed  in  San  Francisco 
at  time  of  the  great  earthquake  and  at  request  of 
City  Council  took  charge  of  receipt  and  distribu- 
tion of  all  supplies;  in  June,  1908,  ordered  to 
Canal  Zone  to  take  charge  of  depts.  of  Labor  and 
Quarters,  and  Material  and  Supplies;  add.  office 
Qmr.  Gen.,  Washington,  D.  C. 


DIAZ,  PEDRO  A.,  twice  gov.  of  Panama;  born 
City  of  Panama,  July  5,  1854;  ed.  pub.  schools  of 
Panama;  married  Kerima  Guterrez,  1879;  apptd. 
secy,  treas.  1910. 

DICKINSON,  JACOB  McGAVOCK,  born  Jan. 
30,  1857,  at  Columbus,  Miss.:  son  of  Henry  and 
Anna  (McGavock)  Dickinson;  ed.  Nashville 
Univ.,  and  at  law  school,  Columbia  Col.  N.  Y.; 
married  Martha  Overton,  of  Nashville,  Tenn., 
Apr.  20,  1876;  admitted  to  bar  1874;  practiced 
at  Nashville  1874-99;  Chicago,  1899-09;  served 
several  terms  by  spl.  commn.  on  supreme  bench 
of  Tenn.;  asst.  atty.  gen.  of  U.S.,  1895-7;  counsel 
for  U.  S.  before  Alaskan  Boundary  Tribunal, 
1903;  gen.  solicitor  I.  C.  R.  R.  Co.,  1899-01,  and 
gen.  counsel  1901-9;  Secy,  of  War  in  cabinet  of 
Pres.  Taft,  Mar.  4,  igog-May,  1911,  in  which 
capacity  he  was  active  in  prosecuting  the  work 
of  building  the  canal;  clubs — Wayfarers,  Cliff 
Dwellers,  Industrial  (Chicago),  Metropolitan, 
University  (Washington);  add.  Stahlman  Bldg., 
Nashville,  Tenn. 

DICKSON,  TRACY  CAMPBELL,  col.  U.  S.  A.; 
born  Independence,  Iowa,  Sept.  17,  1868;  apptd. 
U.  S.  Mil.  Acad.  1888;  on  graduating  commis- 
sioned 2nd  It.  artillery  corps,  two  years  later 
transferred  to  ord.  dept.;  ist  It.  1894;  capt.  1901 ; 
major  1906;  It.  col.  1912;  col.  1915;  in  1910 
ordered  to  Canal  Zone,  duty  being  to  inspect 
shops  at  various  points;  detached  Mar.  7,  1914; 
add.  ord.  dept.  Sandy  Hook  Proving  Ground,  Ft. 
Hancock,  N.  J. 

DISMUKES,  DOUGLAS  E.,  comdr.,  U.  S.  N.; 
capt.  of  the  port,  The  Panama  Canal;  born  Oct. 
I,  1869;  grad.  U.  S.  Nav.  Acad.;  add.  Cristobal, 
Canal  Zone. 

D'OLIER,  WILLIAM  LIVINGSTON;  pres. 
D'Olier  Eng.  Co.,  pres.  D'Olier  Centrifugal  Pump 
and  Machine  Co.,  Phila.,  Pa.;  as  construction  en- 
gineer built  steam  power  plants  at  Gatun  and 
Miraflores  for  Isthmian  Canal  Com.;  born  Phila., 
Pa.,  Dec.  9,  1871;  son  of  Henry  and  Kate  B. 
D'Olier;  ed.  Phila.  High  School;  married  Harriet 
Coombs  Harvey,  Phila.,  Dec.  12,  1900;  until 
1894  engaged  in  cotton  and  cotton  manufacturing 
business;  invented  and  patented  improvements 
on  extractors  and  centrifugal  machines  in  sugar, 
textile  and  powder  industries;  designed  and 
invented  sewage  purification  apparatus;  mem. 
Am.  Soc.  Mech.  Engrs.;  mem.  Albany  Soc.  C.  E.; 
mem.  Permanent  International  Assn.  Nav.  Cong. ; 
mem.  Phila.  Manufacturers  Club;  add.  Morris 
Bldg.,  Phila.,  Pa. 

DONAHUE,  JOHN  V.,  apptd.  asst.  supt.  of 
constrn.,  Chagres  dist.,  Central  div.,  May  I,  1910; 
born  Grafton,  O.,  went  to  Isthmus  1907,  as  fore- 
man construe.,  Culebra. 

DOYING,  WILLIAM  ALBERT  EDWARD,  in- 
specting engr.  The  Panama  Canal  since  1908; 
born  Danville,  Quebec,  Can.,  June  13,  1867; 
son  of  Ira  E.  and  Sarah  J.  Doying;  married  Caro- 
line A.  Huttner,  N.  Y.  City,  June  25,  1900;  mem. 
cl.  of  1900,  Stevens  Inst.;  machinist  1889-90; 
elec.  contracting,  Summit,  N.  J.,  1891-3;  supt. 
erection  hotel  bldgs.  and  cottages,  Summit,  N.  J., 
1894-6;  drafting  dept.,  Western  Elec.  Co.,  1896-7; 
gen.  engineering  work,  Met.  St.  Ry.,  N.  Y.,  1895- 


470 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


05;  squad  master  on  sub-stations  and  carhouses, 
expert  in  courts  on  construction  and  equipment; 
asst.  insp.  engr.,  Isthmian  Canal  Comn.,  New 
York,  1905-8;  mem.  committees  on  standardi- 
zation of  elec.  lamp  specifications,  Portland  cement 
specifications,  and  rubber  specifications;  mem. 
Am.  Soc.  Mech.  Engrs.,  Am.  Soc.  Civ.  Engrs.,  Am. 
Inst.  Elec.  Engrs.,  Wash.  Soc.  Engrs.,  Nat.  Geo. 
Soc.,  Sons  Am.  Revolution;  res.  3525  I4th  St., 
office  The  Panama  Canal,  Wash.,  D.  C. 
DRAKE,  Sir  FRANCIS,  British  admiral;  born 
near  Tavistock,  Devonshire,  England,  about 
1 545.  Early  went  to  sea,  and  was  a  captain  under 
Hawkins  at  the  attack  on  San  Juan  de  Ulloa, 
I57°»  where  he  displayed  great  gallantry.  He 
became  the  terror  of  the  Spanish  and  captured 
many  ships,  and  looted  several  settlements  in 
America.  In  one  of  his  expeditions  he  circum- 
navigated the  globe.  Died  on  board  his  ship 
at  Nombre  de  Dios,  Isthmus  of  Panama,  Jan.  28, 

1595- 

DURAN,  F.  MUTIS,  apptd.  ch.  jus.  Supreme 
Court,  Canal  Zone,  June  I,  1905;  court  dissolved 
1914. 

DURHAM,  H.  W.,  apptd.  res.  engr.,  bu.  water- 
works,  sewers  and  roads,  Canal  Zone,  1904. 

DUTROW,  HOWARD  V.,  physician;  born 
Charlesville,  Md.;  grad.  Univ.  of  Md.  1904  as 
M.  D.;  went  to  Isthmus  1905  on  staff  of  Colon 
hospital;  asst.  physician  Culebra  district;  physi- 
cian Corozal;  assistant  eye  and  ear  clinic  Ancon 
hospital. 


EARNSHAW,  GEORGE  EDWARD,  pres.  Earn 
Line  Steamship  Co.,  operating  between  United 
States  ports  and  Panama;  born  Cambridge, 
Eng.  May  29,  1846,  son  of  Rev.  Samuel  and  Anna 
(Watt)  Earnshaw;  ed.  private  tuition  in  Eng. 
and  private  schools  in  Germany;  married  Helen 
Heffelfinger,  June  14,  1900,  at  Phila.,  Pa.;  was 
an  export  merchant  at  Birmingham,  Eng.  from 
1870  to  1884;  in  1884  removed  to  Phila.  and 
joined  in  establishing  the  Earn  Steamship  Co.; 
mem.  Hist.  Soc.  of  Pa.,  Pa.  Acad.  Fine  Arts,  Am. 
Acad.  Political  and  Social  Science,  Art  Club  of 
Phila.,  Phila.  Country  Club,  Marion  Cricket  Club; 
res.  282  South  23d  St.,  Phila. 

EASON,  J.  J.,  gen.  foreman  in  charge,  car  and 
foundry,  mech.  div.,  dept.  of  Construction  and 
Engineering,  The  Panama  Canal  since  1910. 

EDWARDS,  CLARENCE  R.,  brig.  gen.  U.  S.  A., 
ch.  Wash.  Office,  Isthmian  Canal  Comn.,  June 
21,  igos-Nov.  15,  1905;  born  Jan.  I,  1859;  grad. 
U.  S.  Mil.  Acad.,  2d  It.,  June  13,  1883;  1st  It., 
Feb.  25,  1891 ;  capt.,  July  30,  1898;  brig.  gen.  ch. 
bu.  insular  affairs,  June  30,  1906;  brig.  gen.  May 
12,  1912;  add.,  Tivoli  Hotel,  Ancon,  Canal  Zone. 

EHLE,  BOYD,  apptd.  res.  engr.,  Canal  Zone,  1904. 

EINSTEIN,  JAMES  H.,  pres.  and  gen.  mgr., 
Tower  Manufacturing  and  Novelty  Co.,  New 
York,  N.  V.,  contractors  for  office  supplies  for 
Canal  Zone;  born  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  1870;  ed.  pub. 
schools  St.  Louis;  married  Augusta  Liebknecht, 
1904;  club — Arkwright;  add.  326  Broadway, 
New  York,  N.  Y. 


ELLIOTT,  MALCOLM,  prin.  hydrographer,  div. 
of  meteorology  and  river  hydraulics,  1907-10. 

EMBREE,  C.  J.,  asst.  engr.,  elec.  and  mech.  engr., 
the  Panama  Canal,  since  Oct.  26,  1913;  add. 
Culebra,  Canal  Zone. 

ENCISO,  MARTIN  FERNANDEZ  de,  Spanish 
lawyer;  born  1470;  went  to  America  with  Basti- 
das  in  1500,  practiced  law  in  Santo  Domingo,  and 
joined  Ojeda  in  colonizing  Tierra  Firme  in  1509; 
founded  Antigua,  but  was  deposed  by  Balboa; 
went  to  Spain,  returning  with  Pedrarias,  and  led 
expedition  against  Indians  of  Cenu;  wrote  first 
book  in  Spanish  on  the  New  World;  died  1528. 

ENDICOTT,  MORDECAI  T.,  rear  adml.,  U.  S.  N., 
mem.  Isthmian  Canal  Comn.,  Apr.  I,  1905- 
March  15,  1907;  born  May's  Landing,  N.  J., 
Nov.  26,  1844;  son  of  Thomas  D.  and  Ann 
(Pennington)  Endicott;  ed.  prep,  parochial  school; 
C.  E.,  Rensselaer  Poly.  Inst.,  1868;  married 
Elizabeth  Adams,  May  29,  1872;  apptd.  civ. 
engr.,  U.  S.  N.,  1874;  apptd.  mem.  Nicaragua 
Canal  Comn.,  1895;  apptd.  ch.  bu.  yards  and 
docks,  navy  dept.,  1898  with  rank  of  commodore; 
later  advanced  to  rank  of  rear  adml.;  retired 
1906  but  continued  on  active  duties  until  1909; 
mem.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.  (pres.  1911);  clubs — Army 
and  Navy,  Cosmos,  (Washington);  Engineers' 
(New  York);  add.  1330  R  St.,  Wash.,  D.  C. 

ERNST,  OSWALD  H.,  brig,  gen.,  U.  S.  A.,  mem. 
Isthmian  Canal  Comn.,  Apr.  I,  igos-June  30, 
1906;  born  nr.  Cincinnati,  O.,  June  27,  1842; 
son  of  Andrew  Henry  and  Sarah  H.  Ernst;  at- 
tended Harvard  1858-60;  grad.  U.  S.  Mil.  Acad. 
1864;  married  Elizabeth  Amory,  of  Roxbury, 
Mass.,  Nov.  3,  1866;  1st  It.  engrs.,  1864;  capt. 
Mar.  1867;  maj.,  May  5,  1882;  It.  col.,  Mar.  31, 
1895;  brig.  gen.  vols.,  May  27,  i898-June  12, 
1899;  col.  Feb.  20,  1903;  brig.  gen.  June  27, 
1906;  mem.  Isthmian  Canal  Comn.,  1899-1901 
and  1905-6;  pres.  Miss.  River  Comn.,  1903-6; 
dir.  Panama  Railroad  since  1905;  retired  June  27, 
1906;  mem.  Loyal  Legion,  Mil.  Order  Foreign 
Wars,  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.;  clubs — Metropolitan 
Chevy  Chase;  author  Manual  of  Practical  Mili- 
tary Engineering,  etc.;  add.  1321  Conn.  Av., 
Washington,  D.  C. 

ESPINOSA,  MANUEL  B.,  leader  in  movement  for 
independence  of  Panama;  native  of  Cartagena; 
ed.  priv.  schools  Cartagena;  moved  to  Panama 
In  1873  and  began  business  for  himself  in  1881; 
important  figure  in  commercial  world  since  that 
time;  owns  largest  drug  business  on  the  Isth- 
mus, and  has  large  real  estate  holdings;  assisted 
greatly  in  development  of  Panama;  married 
in  1884  *o  Elisa  Remon;  add.  Ancon,  Canal  Zone. 


FAIRBANKS,  CHARLES  WARREN,  ex-V.  P.  of 
U.  S.;  born  on  farm  nr.  Unionville  Center,  O., 
May  II,  1852;  son  of  Loriston  M.  and  Mary  A. 
(Smith)  Fairbanks;  A.  B.,  Ohio  Wesleyan 
Univ.,  1872;  A.M.,  1875;  (LL.D.  1901;  LL.D. 
Baker  Univ.,  1903,  la.  State  Univ.,  1903, 
Northwestern,  1907);  was  agent  for  the  As- 
sociated Press  at  Pittsburgh  and  Cleveland, 


BIOGRAPHICAL 


471 


1872-4;  admitted  to  Ohio  bar  1874  and 
established  practice  at  Indianapolis;  married 
Cornelia  Cole,  of  Marysville,  O.,  1874  (she 
died  Oct.  24,  1913);  chmn.  rep.  state  convs. 

1892,  1898;  del.  at  large  rep.  nat.  convs.  St.  Louis, 
1896  (temporary  chmn.),  Phila.  1900  (chmn.  com. 
on    resolutions),    Chicago,     1904     (unanimously 
nominated  for  v.  p.),  Chicago,  1912  (chmn.  com. 
on  resolutions);    Rep.  caucus  for  U.  S.  senator, 

1893,  but   defeated    by    David    Turpie,    dem.; 
elected  U.  S.  senator  from  Ind.,  for  terms  1897-03, 
1903-09;  resigned  Mar.  4,  1905;  elected  V.  P.  of 
U.  S.  on  ticket  with  Theodore  Roosevelt,  Nov. 
1904,  term  expiring  Mar.  4,   1909;    was  U.  S. 
senator  when  Congress  had  before  it  question  of 
constructing  the  Panama  Canal;    so  that  work 
might  not  stop  at  any  time  for  want  of  funds, 
offered  amendment  to  Spooner  bill  providing  for 
issue  and  sale  of  bonds  when  money  needed  for 
construction  work;   res.  Indianapolis,  Ind. 

FAUCETT,  N.  S.,  apptd.  dep.  treas.,  Wash.  Off., 
Isthmian  Canal  Comn.,  1904. 

FAURE,  Ad.,  cost  keeping  accountant,  in  office 
of  chmn.  and  chief  engr.,  The  Panama  Canal;  add. 
Culebra,  Canal  Zone,  since  1910. 

FEUILLE,  FRANK,  spec,  atty.,  The  Panama 
Canal;  born  Havana,  Cuba,  Sept.  10,  1860; 
apptd.  law  elk.,  dept.  justice  in  Porto  Rico;  later 
asst.  atty.  gen.;  apptd.  spec,  judge,  1904;  apptd. 
atty.  gen.  of  Porto  Rico,  1905;  apptd.  by  exec, 
order,  April  16,  1910,  counsel  and  ch.  atty.  for 
Isthmian  Canal  Comn.  and  Panama  R.  R. ;  add. 
Ancon,  Canal  Zone. 

FIELDS,  J.  B.,  gen.  foreman  in  charge  erection  of 
buildings,  The  Panama  Canal,  since  Dec.  5,  1913; 
add.  Culebra,  Canal  Zone. 

FILOS,  FRANCISCO,  secy,  of  state  and  justice, 
Republic  of  Panama;  ed.  at  Cartagena;  served 
as  atty.  gen.;  was  mem.  law  firm  with  Pres. 
Porras. 

FINLEY,  GEORGE  I.,  asst.  engr.,  charge  of  de- 
sign of  structural  work  on  permanent  shop  build- 
ings, dept.  of  construction  and  engineering,  The 
Panama  Canal. 

FLINT,  A.  L.,  asst.  chief  of  office,  The  Panama 
Canal;  add.  Washington,  D.  C. 

FLYNN,  J.  H.,  apptd.  ch.  draftsman,  Canal  Zone, 
1909;  grad.  Mass.  Inst.  Tech.;  went  to  Isthmus 
1905;  ch.  draftsman  mechanical  div.,  1906; 
mechanical  engr.,  I.  C.  C.,  since  1909. 

FORBES,  S.  G.,  elect,  supt.  Atlantic  div.;  b.  Ala.; 
grad.  Ala.  Polytech.  Inst.  degree  B.  S.  1900;  went 
to  Isthmus  1907  as  foreman  elect,  dept.;  apptd. 
station  engr.  Gatun  in  chg.  power  plant  for  locks 
and  dams;  apptd.  elect,  supt.  Atlantic  div. 

FREEMAN,  F.  C.,  supt.  div.  of  clubhouses,  dept. 
of  engr.  and  construction  since  1907;  secy.  Inter- 
national Comn.  Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tion of  North  America,  The  Panama  Canal; 
born  Randolph,  N.  Y.;  ed.  Univ.  of  Mo.,  Univ. 
of  Colo.;  married  Bernice  G.  Hackenberg  1909. 

FRENCH,  H.  F.,  apptd.  prin.  hydrographer,  3d 
div.,  ch.  engr's.  off.,  Culebra,  Jan.  I,  1910. 

FYFFE,  JAMES  PERRY,  police  chief;  born  Mays- 
ville,  Ky.;  grad.  Ky.  State  Univ.  and  Cincinnati 
Univ.;  practiced  law ;  apptd.  ch.  div.  of  police  and 
prisons  Canal  Zone  1910. 


GAILLARD,  DAVID  DuBOSE,  It.  col.  Corps,  of 
Engrs.,  U.  S.  A.,  mem.  Isthmian  Canal  Comn. 
and  dir.  Panama  R.  R.  Co.,  Mar.  16,  i9O7~Dec. 
5,  1913;  born  Fulton  P.  O.,  S.  C.,  Sept.  4,  1859; 
son  of  Samuel  Isaac  and  Susan  Richardson  DuBose 
Gaillard;  married  at  Winnsboro,  S.  C.,  Katherine 
Rose  Davis,  of  Columbia,  S.  C.,  Oct.  6,  1887;  ed. 
pvt.  country  sch.,  Clarendon  Co.,  S.  C.,  and  Mt. 
ZionSch.,  Winnsboro,  S.  C.,  1872-4;  apptd.  from 
S.  C.  and  grad.  U.  S.  Mil.  Acad.,  1884;  Eng.  Sch. 
of  Application,  1887;  apptd.  2d  It.  engrs.,  June 
15,  1884;  ist  It.,  Oct.  27,  1887;  capt.,  Oct.  25, 
1895;  col.  3rd  U.  S.  V.  engrs.,  June  7,  1898;  hon. 
mustered  out,  May  17,  1899;  maj.  Apr.  23,  1904; 
It.  col.  Apr.  n,  1909;  asst.  to  Capt.  W.  M.  Black, 
and  in  charge  various  surveys  and  harbor  improve- 
ments at  St.  Augustine  and  Tampa  and  With- 
lacoochee  River,  Fla.,  1887-91;  mem.  Internat. 
Boundary  Comn.,  U.  S.  and  Mex.,  1891-4;  in 
chg.  Washington  Aqueduct  1895-8;  on  staff  Maj. 
Gen.  J.  F.  Wade,  U.  S.  V.,  Apr.-June,  1898; 
served  in  U.  S.  and  Cuba,  June  l8g8-May  1899; 
ch.  engr.  dept.  of  Santa  Clara,  Cuba,  Feb.-Apr., 
1899;  asst.  to  engr.  commr.  of  D.  C.,  1899-1901; 
in  chg.  of  all  river  and  harbor  improvement  of 
Lake  Superior,  1901-3;  mem.  gen.  staff  corps  and 
engr.  officer  Northern  Div.  1903-4;  on  duty  at 
Army  War  College,  1904-6;  chief  mil.  informa- 
tion div.,  army  of  Cuban  pacification  at  Marianao, 
Cuba,  Oct.  I9o6-Feb.  1907;  supervising  engr.  in 
charge  of  dredging  in  harbors,  building  break- 
waters, etc.,  Apr.  I,  i9O7~July  I,  1908;  div.  engr. 
Central  Div.,  Gatun  to  Pedro  Miguel,  from  July  i, 
1908;  author  of  "Wave  Action  in  Relation  to 
Engineering  Structures,"  1904;  died  Baltimore, 
Md.,  Dec.  5,  1913. 

GARELLA,  NAPOLEON,  French  engr.;  in  1843 
surveyed  Panama  Canal  route,  recommended  a 
tunnel  through  Culebra. 

GARLINGTON,  CRESWELL,  ist.  It.  Corps  of 
Engrs.,  U.  S.  A.,  in  charge  fortification  work, 
The  Panama  Canal;  born  June  23,  1887;  grad. 
U.  S.  Mil.  Acad.;  apptd.  2d  It.  engr.,  June  15, 
1910;  ist  It.  Feb.  27,  1913;  add.  Culebra,  Canal 
Zone. 

GARRISON,  LINDLEY  MILLER,  born  Camden, 
N.  J.,  Nov.  28,  1864;  son  of  Joseph  Fithian  and 
Elizabeth  (van  Arsdale)  Garrison;  educ.  pub. 
schools,  Episcopal  Acad.,  Phila.,  and  Univ.  of 
Pa.;  married,  Jan.  30,  1900,  Margaret  Holden, 
at  Jersey  City,  N.  J.;  B.  L.  Univ.  of  Pa.;  prac- 
ticed law  until  Jan.  15,  1904,  to  become  Vice 
Chancellor  of  N.  J.;  took  oath  of  office  as  Secre- 
tary of  War  in  Cabinet  of  Pres.  Wilson,  March 
5,  1913;  clubs — Lotus  (N.  Y.);  Harvard  (N.  J.); 
Army  and  Navy,  and  Univ.  (Wash.  D.  C.);  res. 
1830  Connecticut  Av.,  Wash.  D.  C. 

GAUSE,  FRANK  A.,  supt.  schools  Canal  Zone, 
Aug.  23,  l9O9~Aug.  23,  1913;  born  Westfield, 
Ind.,  Mar.  I,  1874;  son  of  Amos  W.  and  Margaret 
(Morrow)  Cause;  grad.  Friends'  Acad.,  West- 
field,  Ind.,  1891;  A.  B.  Ind.  Univ.  1904;  M.  A. 
1905;  married  Rose  Carey,  1896;  dist.  sch. 
teacher  1892-4;  asst.  prin.  Friends'  Acad., 
1894-5;  supt.  schools  Cicero,  Ind.,  1897-1903; 


472 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


author,  Story  of  Panama;  An  Isthmian  Idyl; 
res.  Westfield,  Ind. 

GERIG,  WILLIAM,  div.  engr.,  Gatun  dam  div., 
1907;  div.  engr.,  Colon  dredging  div.,  1907. 

GIBSON,  COLLINS  P.,  apptd.  asst.  supt.  of  Em- 
pire dist.,  Central  div.,  Canal  Zone,  May  u,  1910. 

GILMORE,  MAURICE  E.,  born  Somerset,  Ky., 
Sept.  14,  1880;  son  of  Cyrus  B.  and  Elizabeth 
Gilmore;  ed.  Kendall  Col.  and  Univ.  of  Mo.  (B. 
S.  and  C.  E.);  served  Span.-Am.  War  under  Col. 
Roosevelt;  apptd.  levelman  Isthmus  Panama  in 
1908,  worked  for  Panama  R.  R.  in  various  posi- 
tions from  levelman  to  asst.  engr.;  asst.  engr.  in 
charge  of  surveys  on  no  miles  of  railroad  between 
Chame  and  Santiago  for  Panama  Gov.;  served 
two  years  as  supt.  pub.  wks.  for  Isthmian  Canal 
Comn.  in  Panama,  Colon  and  Canal  Zone; 
clubs — Univ.  Strangers,  and  Tivoli,  and  the  Chan- 
ticleer and  Chagres  Soc. ;  add.  Ancon,  Canal  Zone. 

GOETHALS,  GEORGE  WASHINGTON,  major 
gen.  U.  S.  A.,  governor  of  The  Panama  Canal; 
apptd.  chairman  and  ch.  engr.  Isthmian  Canal 
Comn.  Feb.  26,  1907;  completed  the  Panama 
Canal;  by  executive  order  and  in  conformity  with 
Panama  Canal  Act  of  Aug.  24,  1912,  organization 
of  Isthmian  Canal  Comn.  was  abolished  and  The 
Panama  Canal  contemplated  by  the  act  was  made 
effective;  Col.  Goethals  was  then  apptd.  governor 
of  the  Panama  Canal;  born  Brooklyn,  June  29, 
1858;  student  Col.  of  City  of  N.  Y.,  1873-6; 
grad.  U.  S.  Mil.  Acad.  1880;  2d  It.  engrs.  June  12, 
1880;  1st  It.  June  15,  1882;  capt.  Dec.  14,  1891; 
It.  col.,  ch.  engr.  vols.  May  9,  1898;  hon.  dis- 
charged from  vol.  service  Dec.  31,  1898;  maj. 
Eng.  Corps  Feb.  7,  1900;  grad.  Army  War  Col. 
1905;  It.  col.  Mar.  2,  1907;  col.  Dec.  3,  1909; 
maj.  gen.,  Mar.  4,  1915;  instructor  in  civil  and 
mil.  engineering,  West  Point,  several  years  until 
1888;  in  charge  canal  construction,  Mussel 
shoals;  ch.  of  engrs.  during  Spanish-American 
War;  mem.  board  of  fortifications  (coast  and 
harbor  defense);  LL.D.,  Yale,  Harvard;  mem. 
Delta  Upsilon;  add.  Balboa  Heights,  Canal 
Zone,  Panama. 

GOETHALS,  GEORGE  R.,  son  of  Geo.  W.  Goe- 
thals; capt.  Corps  of  Engrs.,  U.  S.  A.,  in  charge 
construction  of  gun  and  mortar  batteries  for  de- 
fense of  the  canal  since  Jan.  I,  1912;  born  March 
4,  1886;  grad.  U.  S.  Mil.  Acad.,  2d  It.  engr.  Feb. 
14,  1908;  1st  It.  Feb.  27,  1911,  capt.  1915. 

GOLDMARK,  HENRY,  designer  of  steel  lock 
gates  used  at  Panama  Canal;  born  N.  Y.  City, 
June  15, 1857;  grad.  Polytechnic  Inst.  (Brooklyn) ; 
Harvard  Univ.  and  Royal  Polytechnic  Univ.  of 
Hanover;  before  entering  upon  a  contract  with  the 
Canal  Comn.  had  been  connected  with  many 
notable  engineering  projects  of  U.  S.  and  Canada; 
des.  engr.,  in  chg.  structural  designing,  Washing- 
ton Off.,  Isthmian  Canal  Comn.,  1907-1908,  then 
transferred  to  Isthmus  as  designing  engr.  locks, 
gates  and  protective  devices,  at  Culebra. 

GONZALEZ,  GIL,  Spanish  explorer;  born  at  Avila 
about  1470.  Was  one  of  the  most  intrepid  of 
the  Spanish  explorers  who  followed  the  footsteps 
of  Columbus.  In  1511  he  was  made  Contador 
of  Hispaniola.  In  June,  1519,  the  Gov.  of  Cas- 
tilla  del  Oro  was  directed  by  the  Spanish  govern- 


ment to  turn  over  to  Gonzalez  the  vessels  that 
had  been  built  for  Vasco  Nunez,  and  with  these 
he  was  to  explore  the  South  Sea.  In  this  expedi- 
tion he  was  very  successful.  He  coasted  along 
the  South  Sea,  and  dividing  his  command  he 
made  an  expedition  into  the  interior,  where  in 
1522  he  discovered  Lake  Nicaragua.  He  was  in  a 
continual  quarrel  with  Pedrarias,  but  on  his  re- 
turn to  Panama  in  1523  he  boasted  he  had  coasted 
650  leagues,  traveled  by  land  324  leagues,  and 
converted  32,000  souls.  He  brought  back  with 
him  112,000  pesos  of  gold.  Died  at  Avila  about 
1528. 

GOOLSBY,  E.  M.,  clerk  of  the  courts,  The  Panama 
Canal,  since  Apr.  i,  1914;  add.  Ancon,  Canal 
Zone. 

GORGAS,  WILLIAM  CRAWFORD,  maj.  gen. 
surg.  gen.  U.  S.  A.;  chief  sanitary  officer,  Panama 
Canal  Mar.  i,  1904,  and  mem.  Isthmian  Canal 
Comn.,  1907-Mar.  31,  1914;  born  Mobile,  Ala., 
Oct.  3,  1854;  son  of  Gen.  Josiah  (C.  S.  A.)  and 
Amelia  Gayle  Gorgas;  married  Marie  Cook 
Doughty  of  Cincinnati,  Sept.  15,  1885;  A.  N., 
Univ.  of  the  South,  1875;  M.  D.,  Bellevue  Hos. 
Med.  Col.  (New  York  Univ.),  1879;  Interne  Belle- 
vue Hosp.,  1878-80;  (hon.  Sc.  D.,  Univ.  of  Pa., 
1903.  Univ.  of  the  South,  1904,  Harvard,  1908, 
Brown,  1909,  Jefferson  Med.  Col.,  1909;  LL.D., 
Univ.  of  Ala.,  1910,  Tulane,  191 1) ;  apptd.  surg.  U. 
S.  A.,  June  16,  1880;  capt.  asst.  surgeon  June  16, 
1885;  maj.  brigade  surgeon  vols.,  June  4~July  6, 
1898;  maj.  surgeon,  July  6,  1898;  chief  sanitary 
officer  of  Havana  and  in  charge  of  sanitary  work 
there,  1898-1902,  applied  methods  of  combatting 
yellow  fever  which  eliminated  that  disease  in 
Havana;  col.,  asst.  surgeon-gen.,  by  spcl.  act  of 
Congress,  for  yellow  fever  work  at  Havana,  Mar. 
9.  1903;  mem.  Isthmian  Canal  Comn.  Mar.  4, 
1907;  recipient  of  Mary  Kingsley  medal  from 
Liverpool  Sch.  of  Tropical  Medicine,  May  27, 
1907;  hon.  fellow  N.  Y.  Acad.  Medicine,  1908; 
assoc.  fellow  Col.  of  Physicians  of  Phila.;  asso. 
mem.  Societe  de  Pathologic  Otolique,  Paris,  1908; 
pres.  A.  M.  A.,  1908-9,  Am.  Soc.  Tropical  Medi- 
cine, 1910;  mem.  Am.  Pub.  Health  Assn.,  Assn. 
Mil.  Surgeons  (v.  p.) ;  U.  S.  del.  1st  Pan-American 
Med.  Congress,  Santiago,  Chili,  1908 ;  apptd.  surg. 
gen.  with  rank  of  brig,  gen.,  Jan.  16,  1914;  maj. 
gen.,  Mar.  4,  1915;  add.  War  Dept.,  Wash.,  D.  C. 

GREENSLADE,  GEORGE  A.,  gen.  supt.,  4th  div., 
ch.  engrs.  off.,  The  Panama  Canal,  since  May  I, 
1910. 

GROVE,  WILLIAM  R.,  maj.  qmr.  corps,  U.  S.  A., 
inspr.  Supply  Dept.,  The  Panama  Canal  since 
Apr.  i,  1914;  comd.  capt.  U.  S.  A.,  Feb.  2,  1901; 
maj.  Dec.  10,  1911;  add.  Cristobal,  Canal  Zone. 

GRUNSKY,  CARL  EWALD,  civil  engr.,  mem. 
Isthmian  Canal  Comn.,  1904-5;  born  San  Joa- 
quin  Co.,  Cal.,  Apr.  4,  1855;  son  of  Carl  Albert 
Leopold  and  Clotide  Josephine  Frederica  (Cam- 
erer)  Grunsky;  grad.  Stockton  (Cal.)  High 
Sch.,  1870,  Realschule,  Stuttgart,  Germany, 
1872-4;  Polytechnikum,  Stuttgart,  1874-7,  grad. 
at  head  of  class;  married  Mattie  Kate  Powers, 
of  Sacramento,  Cal.,  Mar.  12,  1884;  asst.  and  ch. 
asst.  engr.  of  Cal.,  1879-80;  mem.  San  Fran. 
Sewerage  Comn.,  1892-3;  city  engr.,  San  Fran. 


BIOGRAPHICAL 


473 


1900-4;  consulting  engr.  U.  S.  Reclamation  Ser., 
1905-7;  consulting  engr.  at  New  York  since  1907; 
mem.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Tech.  Soc.  of  the  Pacific 
Coast,  Cal.  Acad.  of  Sciences;  add.  45  Broadway, 
New  York. 

GRUVER,  Dr.  F.,  apptd.  quarantine  officer,  Pan- 
ama, 1907. 

GUARDIA,  AURELIO,  secy.  Finance,  Panama; 
born  San  Carlos,  prov.  Panama;  ed.  pub.  schools; 
apptd.  Minister  of  Hacienda  of  prov.  Cocle, 
1888;  rep.  prov.  Cocle  in  Nat.  Cong,  of  Colombia, 
1892-4;  also  prefect  and  fiscal  in  Cocle,  and 
circuit  judge  in  Colon;  married  in  1880;  since 
1904,  superior  judge. 

GUDGER,  HEZEKIAH  ALEXANDER,  chief 
justice  Supreme  Court  Canal  Zone  since  Jan.  4, 
1909;  born  Marshall,  N.  C.,  May  27,  1850;  son 
of  Joseph  J.  and  Sarah  E.  (Barnard)  Gudger; 
ed.  Leicester  Acad.  and  Weaverville  Col.,  N.  C., 
to  1870  (A.  M.);  grad.  Bailey's  Law  Sch.,  Ashe- 
ville,  N.  C.,  Aug.  10,  1875;  practiced  law  Ashe- 
ville;  elec.  to  N.  C.  legis.  1872,  1874;  prin.  N.  C. 
Instn.  for  Edn.  of  the  Deaf,  Dumb  and  Blind, 
1877-83;  resigned  to  reenter  practice  law,  Jan. 
1883;  elec.  to  N.  C.  Senate  1885;  Am.  Con.  Gen. 
to  Panama,  1897-1905;  justice  Supreme  Court 
Canal  Zone,  Feb.  24, 1905;  Grand  Master  Masons 
of  N.  C.,  two  terms;  add.  Ancon,  Canal  Zone, 
Panama. 

GUTHRIE,  M.  C.,  physician,  chief  quarantine 
off.,  The  Panama  Canal;  add.  Ancon,  Canal 
Zone. 

H 

HAGAN,  JAMES  MONROE,  supt.  constr.,  Em- 
pire  dist.,  Canal  Zone,  since  May  n,  1910;  native 
of  Greenville,  111.;  ed.  pub.  school;  apptd.  gen. 
foreman,  Dec.  1907;  asst.  supt.,  1908;  add.  Em- 
pire, Canal  Zone. 

HAINES,  A.  L.,  physician,  b.  N.  Y.;  grad.  State 
Normal  Col.  1880,  degree  M.  D. ;  practiced  med. ; 
went  to  Isthmus  1905  as  dist.  phys.  Culebra  dist.; 
apptd.  dist.  phys.  Empire  dist.  1907. 

HAINS,  PETER  C.,  brig,  gen.,  mem.  Isthmian 
Canal  Comn.,  Apr.  I,  igos-March  15,  1907;  born 
Phila.,  July  6,  1840;  son  of  Reuben  P.  and 
Amanda  M.  Hains;  grad.  U.  S.  Mil.  Acad.  1861; 
married  Virginia  P.  Jenkins,  Nov.  1864;  2d  and 
1st  It.  arty.  1861;  to  engr.  corps.  1863;  capt. 
1863;  maj.  1870;  It.  col.  1886;  col.  1895;  brig, 
gen.  vols.  1898;  brig.  gen.  1903;  mem.  Nicaragua 
Canal  Comn.  1897-9;  mem.  Isthmian  Canal 
Comn.,  1899-1903;  retired  from  active  service 
July  6,  1904;  add.  Washington,  D.  C. 

HAMMER,  J.,  mem.  staff,  Washington  office,  Isth- 
mian Canal  until  Oct.  1908,  then  transferred  to 
Isthmus  as  designing  engr.,  lock  gates  and  pro- 
tective devices,  Culebra. 

HAMMOND,  JOHN  HAYS,  engr.;  born  San 
Francisco,  Mar.  31,  1855;  son  of  Richard  Pindle 
and  Sarah  Elizabeth  Hays  Hammond;  married 
Natalie  Harris,  of  Miss.,  Jan.  I,  1880;  ed.  pub. 
and  pvt.  schools;  Ph.  B.,  Sheffield  Scientific  Sch. 
(Yale),  1876,  A.  M.,  Yale,  1898;  mining  course  at 
Royal  Sch.  of  Mines,  Freiburg,  Saxony;  (D.  E., 
Stevens  Inst.  Tech.  1906);  LL.D.,  St.  Johns  Col., 
1907;  specl.  expert  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  1880, 


examining  Cal.  gold  fields;  later  in  Mexico  and 
afterward  consulting  engr.  Union  Iron  Works, 
San  Francisco,  and  to  Central  and  Southern 
Pacific  Rwys.;  has  examined  properties  in  all 
parts  of  the  world;  became  consulting  engr.  for 
Barnato  Bros.,  1893,  and  later  for  Cecil  Rhodes; 
pres.  Am.  Inst.  Mining  Engrs.,  1907-8;  clubs — 
Century,  University  (New  York)  and  University 
Clubs  of  San  Francisco,  Denver,  and  Salt  Lake 
City;  add.  71  Broadway,  New  York. 

HANNA,  MARCUS  A.,  champion  of  Panama  in 
Panama  vs.  Nicaragua  route;  U.  S.  senator; 
born  Lisbon,  Ohio,  Sept.  24,  1837;  son  of  Leonard 
and  Samantha  Hanna;  ed.  pub.  schools  of  Cleve- 
land; assumed  control  of  firm  of  Hanna,  Garret- 
son  &  Co.,  upon  death  of  his  father;  firm  dis- 
solved in  1867  and  he  associated  himself  with 
Rhodes  &  Co.,  successors  to  Rhodes,  Card  &  Co., 
pioneer  coal  and  iron  firm  of  Cleveland;  in  1872 
organized  and  equipped  the  Cleveland  Trans.  Co., 
one  of  the  largest  lines  operating  on  the  Great 
Lakes;  pres.  Union  Nat.  Bank  of  Cleveland,  1884; 
del.  at  large  from  Ohio  to  Rep.  Nat.  convs.,  1884 
and  1896;  chmn.  Nat.  Committe,  campaign  Pres. 
McKinley;  apptd.  U.  S.  senator  March  2,  1897, 
and  reelected  1898;  died  Washington,  D.  C.,  Jan. 
15,  1904. 

HARDING,  CHESTER,  col.  Corps  of  Engrs.,  U. 
S.  A.,  charge  Atlantic  Div.  construction  work 
Panama  Canal;  born  Enterprise,  Miss.,  Dec.  31, 
1866;  grad.  Ala.  Univ.,  degree  B.  E.;  grad.  U.  S. 
Mil.  Acad.;  add.  2d  It.  engr.  June  12,  1889;  zd 
It.  Aug.  12,  1890;  1st  It.  Jan.  26,  1895;  capt. 
July  5,  1898;  maj.  June  27,  1906;  It.  col.  Feb.  27, 
1913;  col.  1915;  add.  Balboa,  Canal  Zone. 

HARMON,  DANIEL  W.,  capt.  med.  corps,  U.  S. 
A.;  health  officer  of  Colon,  The  Panama  Canal; 
born  Aug.  I,  1880;  1st  It.  med.  res.  corps  July  7, 
1908;  grad.  Army  Med.  School  1909;  1st  It.  med. 
corps  May  27,  1909;  capt.  June  25,  1912;  M.  D. 
Univ.  of  Va.,  1903;  add.  Cristobal,  Canal  Zone. 

HARPER,  A.  C.,  res.  engr.,  surveys  and  borings, 
La  Boca  locks  div.,  apptd.  1907. 

HARRIS,  WILLIAM  B.,  pres.  William  B.  Harris 
Co.,  New  York,  N.  Y.,  shippers  of  supplies  to 
Canal  Zone;  born  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  Oct.  19, 
1871;  son  of  Samuel  L.  and  Alice  (Wilde)  Harris; 
ed.  grammar  sch.,  Gt.  Barrington,  Mass.;  grad. 
high  sch.  East  Orange,  N.  J.;  grad.  Newark 
Acad.;  married  Gallic  W.  Underbill,  Dec.  2, 
1896;  add.  65  Front  St.,  New  York. 

HARROD,  BENJAMIN  MORGAN,  civil  engr., 
mem.  Isthmian  Canal  Comn.,  1904-7;  born,  New 
Orleans,  Feb.  19,  1837;  son  °f  Charles  and  Mary 
(Morgan)  Harrod;  A.  B.,  Harvard,  1856,  A.  M., 
1859  (LL.D.,  Tulane,  1906);  married  Eugenia 
Uhlhorn,  of  New  Orleans,  Sept.  II,  1883;  pvt., 
It.  of  arty.,  brigade  and  div.  engr.  and  capt.  engr. 
corps,  C.  S.  A.,  in  Civil  War;  chief  state  engr. 
of  La.,  1877-80;  mem.  U.  S.  Miss.  River  Comn., 
1879-1904;  city  engr.  of  New  Orleans,  1888-92; 
chief  engr.  in  charge  of  constructing  drainage 
system,  New  Orleans,  1895-1902;  died  Sept.  7, 
1912. 

HARTIGAN,  FRED  L.,  resigned  as  supt.  of 
constrn.,  June  13,  1908. 

HAUPT,   LEWIS   MUHLENBERG,   canal  com- 


474 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


missioner;  born  Gettysburg,  Pa.,  Mar.  21,  1844; 
ed.  Lawrence  Sc.  School;  grad.  U.  S.  Mil.  Acad., 
1867;  married  Isabella  Cromwell,  June  26,  1873; 
second  It.  engrs.  U.  S.  A.,  1867;  resigned  Sept. 
20,  1869;  prof.  civ.  engineering,  univ.  of  Pa., 
1872-92;  mem.  Nicaragua  Canal  Comn.,  1897- 
99;  mem.  Isthmian  Canal  Comn,  1899-1902. 

HAWKINS,  Sir  JOHN,  English  admiral;  born  at 
Plymouth,  1532;  during  1562-7  engaged  in  car- 
rying cargoes  of  slaves  from  Africa  to  the  West 
Indies  and  the  Spanish  Main.  This  was  in  viola- 
tion of  Spanish  laws,  and  it  brought  him  into  a 
conflict,  Sept.  24,  1568,  with  a  Spanish  fleet  in 
harbor  of  Vera  Cruz.  Hawkins  was  worsted  in 
the  fight,  and  escaped  with  difficulty,  losing  most 
of  his  vessels.  In  1573  apptd.  treasurer  of  the 
English  navy.  As  rear  adml.  he  took  a  promi- 
nent part  in  the  defeat  and  overthrow  of  the 
Spanish  Armada,  in  August  1588.  Died  at  sea 
off  Porto  Rico,  Nov.  12,  1595,  while  second  in 
command  of  Drake's  expedition. 

HAY,  JOHN,  secretary  of  state,  signer  of  Hay- 
Pauncefote  and  Hay-Bunau-Varilla  treaties; 
born  Salem,  Ind.,  Oct.  8,  1838;  son  of  Charles  and 
Helen  Leonard  Hay;  married  Clara  L.  Stone,  1874; 
grad.  Brown  Univer.,  1858;  asst.  secy,  to  Pres. 
Lincoln  and  later  acted  as  his  adjutant  and  aid- 
de-camp;  soon  after  death  of  Pres.  Lincoln 
apptd.  secy,  of  legation  Paris;  1867-8  secy,  lega- 
tion and  charge  d'affaires  Vienna;  1869  secy,  lega- 
tion Spain;  ist  asst.  secy.  State  1879-81;  am- 
bassador to  Great  Britain,  1897;  his  services  at 
the  Court  of  St.  James  were  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance in  promoting  the  spirit  of  amity  between 
the  two  countries,  and  attitude  of  friendly  neu- 
trality which  Great  Britain  assumed  at  outbreak 
of  Spanish-Am.  War  may  be  ascribed  largely  to 
his  diplomacy;  apptd.  secretary  of  state  Sept.  30, 
1898,  and  served  until  his  death  in  1905. 

HEBARD,  R.  W.f  res.  engr.,  Chagres  div.,  Aug.  2, 
1907-Oct.  2,  1909. 

HECKER,  FRANK  JOSEPH,  mem.  Isthmian 
Canal  Comn.,  Mar.-Dec.,  1904;  born  at  Free- 
dom, Mich.,  July  6,  1846;  son  of  Frank  and 
Cynthia  (Shield)  Hecker;  ed.  in  pub.  schools; 
pvt.,  and  1st  sergt.  Mo.  Inf.,  1864-5;  married 
Anna  M.  Williamson,  of  Omaha,  Dec.  8,  1868; 
organized  Peninsular  Car  Co.,  1879;  dir.  Peoples' 
State  Bank,  Union  Trust  Co.,  Detroit  Copper  and 
Brass  Rolling  Mills,  Detroit  Lumber  Co.;  police 
commr.,  Detroit,  1880-90;  col.  q.  m.  vols.  1898-9; 
chief  of  div.  of  transportation  of  the  army  during 
Spanish-Am.  War;  clubs — Detroit,  Yondotega, 
Country,  Old,  Detroit  Boat;  add.  Union  Trust 
Bldg.,  Detroit. 

HELLER,  CHARLES  W.,  pres.  Heller  &  Brightly, 
Phila. ;  furnished  instruments  in  eng.  work  on 
Panama  Canal;  born  Phila.,  May  n,  1883;  son 
of  Charles  S.  and  Ada  M.  Heller;  ed.  North  East 
Manual  Training  High  School,  Phila.;  married 
Bertha  A.  Hurgust,  Nov.  23,  1909. 

HELMER,  J.  H.,  claim  officer,  accounting  dept., 
The  Panama  Canal ;  add.  Empire,  Canal  Zone. 

HEPBURN,  WILLIAM  PETERS,  ex-congressman 
and  author  of  House  bill  providing  for  construc- 
tion of  Nicaragua  Canal;  born  Wellsville,  Ohio, 
Nov.  4,  1833;  ed.  pub.  schools  Iowa;  (LL.D., 


Cornell  Col.,  la.,  1904);  admitted  to  bar,  1854; 
dist.  atty.  nth  Jud.  dist.,  1853-61;  capt.,  maj., 
and  It.  col.  2d  la.  cav.  1861-65;  pres.  elector  1876; 
at  large,  1888;  mem.  47th~49th  Congresses;  Solic. 
Treas.  1888-93;  rnem.  53d-6oth  Congresses; 
chmn.  Com.  Interstate  and  Foreign  Commerce, 
59th-6oth  Congresses;  add.  Clarinda,  la. 

HERRICK,  ALFRED  B.,  surgeon;  born  Amster- 
dam, N.  Y.,  ed.  Williams  Col.  and  Johns  Hopkins 
Univ.;  served  4  years  in  hospital  work  Wash. 
D.  C.  Went  to  Isthmus  July  1904,  engaging  in 
sanitary  work;  apptd.  chief  surgical  clinic  Ancon 
hospital. 

HINMAN,  H.  D.,  asst.  engr.,  construction  Pacific 
terminals,  The  Panama  Canal,  since  Aug.  I,  1912. 

HISE,  ELIJAH,  American  diplomat;  charge 
d'affaires  to  Central  America,  1848,  instructed 
"to  obtain  information  as  to  nature  and  extent 
of  late  British  encroachments  in  Central  Amer- 
ica"; without  authority  negotiated  and  signed 
treaty  with  Nicaragua  whereby  United  States 
undertook  to  defend  and  protect  sovereignty  of 
Nicaragua  and  latter  country  granted  to  U.  S. 
exclusive  canal  rights;  treaty  never  submitted 
to  Senate. 

HITT,  SAMUEL  M.,  architect  permanent  building 
div.,  supply  dept.,  since  Dec.  5,  1913;  add. 
Balboa,  Canal  Zone. 

HODGES,  HARRY  FOOTE,  brig.  gen.  corps, 
engrs.  U.  S.  A.,  engr.  of  maintenance,  The  Panama 
Canal;  connected  with  the  canal  organization 
from  Sept.  15,  1908,  as  mem.  and  asst.  chief  engr.; 
born  Boston,  Feb.  25,  1860,  son  of  Edward  Ful- 
ler and  Anne  Frances  (Hammatt)  Hodges;  mar- 
ried Alma  L'Hommedieu  Raynolds,  Chicago, 
Dec.  8,  1887;  student  Boston  Latin  Sch.  and 
Adams  Acad.;  grad.  U.  S.  Mil.  Acad.,  1881; 
2d  It.  corps,  engrs.,  July  17,  1881 ;  1st  It.,  Feb.  20, 
1883;  capt.,  May  18,  1893;  maj.,  May  2,  1901; 
It.  col.,  Aug.  27,  1907;  col.,  July  ii,  1911;  brig, 
gen.,  Mar.  4,  1915;  It.  col.  1st  U.  S.  vol.  engrs., 
June  10,  1898;  col.,  Jan.  21,  1899;  hon.  mustered 
out,  Jan.  25,  1899;  with  bat.  engrs.  river  and 
harbor  work,  1881-8;  instr.  and  asst.  prof, 
engrng.  West  Point,  1888-92;  river,  harbor  and 
fortification  work,  1892-8;  in  field  in  Porto  Rico, 
1898-9;  river  and  harbor  work,  1899-1901;  ch. 
engr.  dept.  of  Cuba,  1901-2;  in  office  Chief  Engrs. 
U.  S.  A.,  1902-7;  gen.  pur.  officer  Isthmian  Canal 
Comn.,  1907-8;  dir.  and  2d  v.  p.  Panama  R. 
R.  Co.;  comdg.  North  Atlantic  coast  artillery 
dist.;  mem.  Army  and  Navy  and  Chevy  Chase 
clubs,  Wash.  D.  C.;  add.  Ft.  Totten,  N.  Y. 

HOFFMAN,  GEORGE  M.,  It.  col.  corps  of  engrs. 
U.  S.  A.;  res.  engr.  in  charge  of  construction 
spillways  Panama  Canal,  iox>8-Sept.  26,  1913; 
born  June  15,  1870;  cadet  U.  S.  Mil.  Acad.,  June 
17,  1892;  apptd.  add.  2d  It.,  June  12,  1896;  2d 
It.,  May  18,  1898;  ist  It.,  July  5,  1898;  capt.  Apr. 
23,  1904;  maj.,  Dec.  3,  1909;  It.  col.,  Mar.  4, 
1915;  add.  Federal  Bldg.,  Rock  Island,  111. 

HOHLFELD,  HERMAN  L.,  pres.  Hohlfeld  Mfg. 
Co.,  Phila.,  furnished  supplies  to  Canal  Zone;  born 
Saxony,  Germany,  Jan.  12,  1866;  son  of  Henry 
and  Caroline  Hohlfeld;  attended  pub.  sch.  Adams, 
Mass.;  married  Phoebe  Hobson,  Phila.,  Jan. 
1893;  mem.  Manufacturers  Club,  Trades  League, 


BIOGRAPHICAL 


475 


Merchants  and  Manufacturers  Assn.,  Am.  Civ. 
Alliance  (Phila.). 

HOLMES,  FRANK,  res.  engr.,  supply  dept.,  The 
Panama  Canal,  since  Aug.  i,  1913;  add.  Culebra, 
Canal  Zone. 

HUFF.  FRED  LEON,  asst.  supt.  of  constrn., 
Central  Div.,  Aug.  18,  igoS-Aug.  6,  1912;  born 
1879,  Whiteside,  Mo.;  went  to  Isthmus  1905,  as 
gen.  foreman. 

HUGHES,  CHARLES  R.,  engr;  grad.  Cornell 
Univ.;  went  to  Isthmus  1905;  engaged  surveys 
for  Gatun  Lake;  foreman  spillway  excavation, 
1908;  supervisor  spillway  construction,  1910; 
supt.  of  construction  of  Gatun  dam  and  spillway. 

HUMPHREYS,  ANDREW  ATKINSON,  brig, 
gen.  U.  S.  A.;  was  mem.  Interoceanic  Canal 
Comn.;  born  Phila.,  Pa.,  Nov.  2,  1810;  grad. 
U.  S.  Mil.  Acad.,  1831;  resigned  from  service 
1836  to  engage  in  civil  engineering;  employed  by 
gov.  construction  light-houses;  1838  apptd.  It. 
corps  of  Topographical  Engrs.;  1848,  capt. ; 
for  12  years  had  charge  of  surveys  for  improve- 
ment of  Mississippi  River;  1854  surveyed  railroad 
route  from  Mississippi  River  to  Pacific  coast; 
1862  apptd.  brig.  gen.  U.  S.  V.;  1863  apptd.  chief 
of  staff  by  Gen.  Meade;  1864  assigned  to  com- 
mand 2d  Corps.  Army  of  the  Potomac;  1866 
apptd.  brig,  gen.,  Corps  of  Engrs.;  retired  in  1879; 
with  Admiral  Ammen  apptd.  Commr.  to  make 
surveys  for  a  ship  canal  through  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama,  and  also  through  Nicaragua;  died  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  Dec.  27,  1883. 

J 

JACKSON,  WILLIAM  H.,  district  judge,  The 
Panama  Canal,  since  April  I,  1914;  add.  Ancon, 
Canal  Zone. 

JACKSON,  WILLIAM  KENNETH,  Jr.,  dist.  atty., 
The  Panama  Canal  since  Apr.  I,  1914;  pros, 
atty.  Canal  Zone  since  Apr.  1910:  born  Box 
Station  (now  Denver)  Tenn.,  Nov.  13,  1886;  son 
of  William  K.  and  Medora  E.  (Montgomery) 
Jackson;  ed.  Univ.  of  Fla.  and  Univ.  of  Va.; 
A.  B.  Univ.  of  Fla.,  1904;  L.L.B.  Univ.  of  Va., 
1908;  practiced  law  in  Jacksonville,  Fla.,  as 
member  of  firm  of  Jackson  &  Nixon,  1908-9; 
apptd.  asst.  pros.  atty.  Canal  Zone,  and 
asst.  atty.  Isthmian  Canal  Comn.,  and  Panama 
Railroad,  Mar.  1909;  add.  Ancon,  Canal  Zone. 

JACKSON,  WILLIAM  P.,  ex-U.  S.  senator;  born 
Salisbury,  Md.,  Jan.  n,  1868;  son  of  William  H. 
and  Arabella  (Humphreys)  Jackson;  ed.  Wilming- 
ton Conf.  Acad.,  Dover,  Del.;  married  Sallie 
McCoombs,  of  Md.,  1890  (died  1899),  2d  Kath- 
erine  Shelmerdine,  of  Phila.,  1900;  entered  lum- 
ber mfg.  business  1887  and  assisted  in  organizing 
Jackson  Bros.  Co.;  apptd.  U.  S.  senator,  Nov. 
29,  1912,  to  fill  vacancy  caused  by  death  of  Isidor 
Rayner;  add.  Salisbury,  Md. 

JACOBSON,  BENJ.  L.,  dept.  commissary  supply 
dept.,  The  Panama  Canal;  add.  Cristobal, 
Canal  Zone. 

JADWIN,  EDGAR,  It.  col.  Corps  of  Engrs.,  U.  S. 
A.;  served  as  res.  eng  Atlantic  Div.,  Panama 
Canal;  born  Nov.  14,  1869;  grad.  U.  S.  Mil. 
Acad.;  add.  2d  It.,  June  n,  1892;  2d  It.,  May  10, 


1895;  ist  It.,  July  31,  1897;  capt.,  May  2,  1901; 
maj.,  Feb.  28,  1908;  It.  col.,  1915;  served  through 
Spanish- Am.  War  as  maj.  and  It.  col.  3d  reg. 
U.  S.  V.  Engrs.;  July  18,  1907,  detailed  to  Canal 
Zone  as  div.  eng.,  Chagres  Div.;  1908  apptd.  res. 
eng.  Atlantic  Div.;  in  charge  breakwater  con- 
struction at  Colon,  the  excavation  of  sea  level 
canal  from  Atlantic  to  Gatun,  and  of  the  dry  dock 
and  machine  shops  at  Cristobal;  add.  Off .  Chief 
Engrs.,  Wash.,  D.  C. 

JERVEY,  JAMES  POSTELL,  It.  col.,  Corps  of 
Engrs.,  U.  S.  A.,  res.  engr.  and  supt.  construction 
locks  at  Panama  Canal,  until  Sept.  26,  1913; 
born  Nov.  14,  1869;  grad.  U.  S.  Mil.  Acad.; 
add.  2d  It.,  June  II,  1892;  2d  It.,  May  10,  1895; 
ist  It.,  July  31,  1897;  capt.,  May  2,  1901;  maj., 
Feb.  28,  1908;  It.  col.,  1915;  detailed  to  duty 
on  Isthmus  July  1908;  add.  Custom  House, 
Norfolk,  Va. 

JEWEL,  LINDSEY  LOUIN,  engr.;  born  Mont- 
gomery Co.,  Va.,  1877;  grad.  Va.  Polytech.  Inst.; 
went  to  Isthmus  1910  in  charge  construction  of 
lock  gates  for  McClin tic- Marshall  Construction 
Co.,  of  Pittsburgh. 

JOHNSON,  BEN.,  engr.;  born  Greenville,  Miss.; 
grad.  West  Point,  1889;  resigned;  went  to  Isth- 
mus, 1907  as  asst.  supt.  Gorgona;  supt.  of  locks, 
1909. 

JOHNSON,  LUCIUS  E.,  pres.  Norfolk  and  West- 
ern Ry.  Co.;  born  Aurora,  111.,  Apr.  13,  1846; 
son  of  J.  Spencer  and  Eliza  (Brown)  Johnson; 
ed.  public  sch.,  Aurora;  married  Ella  Parker, 
Apr.  10,  1869;  first  connection  with  railroad  work 
was  in  capacity  of  locomotive  fireman  on  C.  B. 
R.  R.,  in  1866;  after  filling  various  positions 
promoted  in  1886  to  div.  supt.;  in  1890  apptd. 
supt.  Mont.  Cent.  Ry.;  resigned  1889  and  apptd. 
div.  supt.  L.  S.  &  M.  S.  Ry.;  1897  apptd.  gen. 
supt.  N.  &  W.  Ry.;  filled  positions  of  v.  p.  and 
gen.  mgr.,  gen.  mgr.,  pres.  and  gen.  mgr.;  elec. 
pres.  Feb.  I,  1904;  clubs — Shenandoah  and  Coun- 
try Clubs  (Roanoke,  Va.),  Virginia  Club  (Nor- 
folk), Queen  City  (Cincinnati),  Racquet  Club 
(Phila.),  Tedesco  Country  (Swampscott,  Mass.); 
add.  Roanoke,  Va. 

JOHNSON,  M.  O.,  apptd.  supervising  architect, 
Canal  Zone,  1904. 

JOHNSON,  EMORY  RICHARD,  Canal  commis- 
sioner; born  Wisconsin,  Mar.  22,  1864;  B.  L. 
univ.  of  Wisconsin,  1888,  M.  L.  1891;  Ph.  D. 
univ.  of  Pa.,  1893;  married  Ora  L.  March  of 
Oshkosh,  Wis.,  Sept.  5,  1894;  Pr°f-  transportation 
and  commerce,  U.  of  Pa.,  1896;  expert  on  trans- 
portation, U.  S.  Industrial  Comn.,  1899;  member 
U.  S.  Canal  Commission,  1899-1904;  expert  on 
transportation,  Panama  Canal,  1913. 

JOHNSTON,  WILLIAM  C.,  commr.  to  rep.  Pana- 
ma in  settlement  of  Canal  Zone  boundary;  ex-asst. 
chief  engr.,  Repub.  Panama;  born  London,  Eng., 
Nov.  10,  1870;  ed.  Eng.,  Belgium  and  Germ.; 
went  to  Panama,  1893;  apptd.  official  engr.  for 
gov.  of  Panama,  1908;  prov.  of  Code,  1909; 
act.  div.  engr.,  1911. 

JUDSON,  WILLIAM  V.,  It.  col.  Corps  of  Engrs., 
U.  S.  A.,  asst.  div.  eng.,  Canal  Zone  until  Apr.  I, 
1914;  born  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  Feb.  16,  1865; 
son  of  Charles  E.  and  Abby  (Voorhees)  Judson; 


476 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


ed.  Harvard,  1882-4;  grad.  U.  S.  Mil.  Acad., 
1888;  U.  S.  Engr.  School  Application  1891;  mar- 
ried Alice  Carneal  Clay,  of  Lexington,  Ky.,  Apr. 
21,  1891;  add.  2d  It.  Eng.  Corps.,  June  II,  1888; 
2d  It.  July  23,  1888;  1st  It.  May  18,  1893;  capt. 
July  5,  1898;  maj.  Mar.  2,  1906;  It.  col.,  Mar.  2, 
1912;  recorder,  bd.  engrs.,  U.  S.  A.;  instr.  mil. 
engrng.  U.  S.  Engr.  School;  asst.  to  ch.  engrs.; 
mil.  attach6  with  Russian  Army,  Russo-Japanese 
War;  engr.  commr.  District  of  Columbia;  add. 
Chicago,  111. 

K 

KAGY,  LEVI  M.,  mem.  Joint  Land  Comn.,  The 
Panama  Canal;  add.  Ancon,  Canal  Zone. 

KITTREDGE,  ALFRED  BEARD,  U.  S.  senator 

from  South  Dak. ,  July  n,  1901,  to  Mar.  3,  1909; 

born  Nelson,  N.  H.,  Mar.  28,  1861;    grad.  Yale, 

1885;  adm.  to  practice  law  at  Sioux  Falls,  S.  D.; 

hm.  Senate  Com.  on  Interoceanic  canals,  and 

trong   advocate    of   Panama   route;     died    Hot 

Springs,  Ark.,  May  4,  1911. 

KNAPP,  HARRY  SHEPARD,  capt.  U.  S.  N.;  born 
Conn.,  June  27,  1856;  apptd.  naval  acad.  from 
Conn.,  1874;  rnem.  gen.  and  joint  boards;  writer 
on  naval  questions;  add.  Navy  Dept.,  Wash., 
D.  C. 

KNOX,  PHILANDER  CHASE,  ex-secy,  of  state; 
born  Brownsville,  Pa.,  May  6,  1853,  son  of  David 
S.  and  Rebekah  (Page)  Knox;  ed.  Mt.  Union  Col., 
O.,  Pittsburgh,  adm.  to  bar,  1875;  married 
Lillie,  daughter  of  Andrew  D.  Smith,  Pittsburgh, 
1880;  atty.  gen.  in  McKinley  and  Roosevelt 
cabinets,  1901-4,  and  visited  Paris  in  negotia- 
tions for  acquisition  of  New  French  Canal  Co. 
titles;  apptd.  U.  S.  senator,  June  10,  1904,  to  fill 
unexpired  term  of  M.  S.  Quay;  elected  U.  S. 
senate  for  term  1905-11;  resigned  and  became 
secy,  of  state  in  Taft  cabinet,  1909-13;  carried  on 
negotiations  with  Colombia  and  tolls  question  with 
Great  Britain;  add.  Pittsburgh  and  Washington. 

KYLE,  OSCEOLA,  judge,  Canal  Zone,  i9O4~March 
23.  1905. 


LA  GARDE,  LOUIS  A.  col.,  med.  corps.,  U.  S.  A., 

ret.;    supt.  Ancon  hosp.,  1904;    born  April  15, 

1849;  apptd.  asst.  surg.  June  6,  1879;  capt.  asst. 

surg.  June  6,  1883;    maj.  surg.  Nov.  13,  1896; 

It.  col.  dept.  surg.  gen.  March   17,   1906;    col. 

Jan.  I,  1910;  retired  from  active  service  Apr.  15, 

1913;  add.  2642  Woodley  PL,  Washington,  D.  C. 
LANSDOWNE,  Fifth  Marquis  of,  (Henry  Charles 

Keith    Petty -Fitzmaurice),    British   secretary  of 

State  for  foreign  affairs  1900,  directed  negotiations 

of  Hay-Pauncefote  treaty. 
LANG,  A.  R.,  supt.  div.  of  schools,  The  Panama 

Canal;  add.  Ancon,  Canal  Zone. 
LEFEVRE,    ERNESTO    TISDEL,   Minister  for 

Foreign  Affairs,  Panama ;  born  in  Panama,  1 876 ; 

ed.  in  U.  S. ;  organized  Tel.  Co.  of  Panama,  Elec. 

Light  and  Ice  Supply  Co.  and  Int.  Ins.  Co.  of 

Panama,  Panama  Match  Co.,  and  other  concerns; 

1903   apptd.   ch.   dept.    Posts   and   Telegraphs; 

Clubs — University,    Commercial,    International; 

married  Oderay  Arango. 
LEFEVRE,   JOSE    EDGAR;    priv.  secy,  to  Pres. 


Amador  of  Panama;  now  secy.  Panama  Leg.  at 
Washington;  born  Panama,  Feb.  24,  1881;  ed. 
Panama  and  U.  S.;  mgr.  Panama  Tel.  Co.; 
apptd.  elk.  Panama  R.  R.  Co.;  later  asst.  gen. 
paym.;  elec.  assemblyman  prov.  Los  Santos, 
1906;  Chev.  Legion  of  Honor  of  France;  mem. 
Span.  Am.  Acad.  of  Arts  and  Sciences;  hon.  mem. 
Geog.  Soc.  Washington;  Clubs — International, 
Tivoli,  Union,  University  (Panama),  Nat.  Press. 
Club,  (Washington,  D.  C.);  add.  Stoneleigh 
Court,  Washington,  D.  C. 

LePRINCE,  JOSEPH  A.,  civ.  engr.,  chief  sanitary 
inspr.,  Canal  Zone  until  March  25,  1914;  born 
Leeds,  Eng.,  1875;  attended  Sachs  Col.  Inst. 
New  York;  grad.  Col.  U.  1898,  C.  E.;  (M.  A. 
J899);  practiced  profession  and  appointed  on 
Isthmus  June  1904;  acting  health  officer  City  of 
Panama  during  yellow  fever  campaign;  married 
Julia  Mercedes  Lluria,  Havana,  1902. 

LEWIS,  SAMUEL,  mem.  Joint  Land  Comn., 
The  Panama  Canal;  ed.  pub.  sch.  New  York; 
completed  ed.  under  direction  of  the  Christian 
Brothers  at  Passy,  France;  mem.  Municipal 
Council  when  Panama  was  a  Dept.  of  Colombia, 
apptd.  v.  p.  of  that  body  in  1903;  mem.  2d  Mixed 
Com.  created  by  the  Hay-Buneau-Varilla  treaty; 
later  apptd.  secy,  of  Foreign  Affairs  during  admin- 
istration of  Pres.  Obaldia,  retaining  his  post  under 
interim  govt.  of  Pres.  Mendoza;  temp,  in  charge 
Dept.  State  and  of  Dept.  of  Finances  and  Treas- 
ury during  administration  of  Pres.  Mendoza; 
mem.  Bd.  of  Dirs.  of  National  Bank  of  Panama 
since  1908;  leader  of  Conservative  Progressive 
party;  mem.  Fourth  Mixed  Claim  Com.,  and 
pres.  Municipal  Council,  City  of  Panama. 

LITTLE,  JOSEPH,  supt.  of  constrn.  Culebra  div., 
until  Feb.  3,  1913. 

LLOYD,  J.  A.,  American  engineer;  in  1827  sur- 
veyed Panama  Canal  route. 

L'OLONNOIS,  FRANCOIS,  French  buccaneer; 
this  notable  pirate  was  transported  while  a  youth 
to  the  West  Indies,  where  he  joined  in  several 
filibustering  expeditions,  as  a  common  mariner. 
He  so  distinguished  himself  by  his  brute  strength 
and  ferocity  that  the  Governor  of  Tortuga  supplied 
him  with  a  ship  to  sail  on  his  own  account.  His 
success  was  very  great.  So  enraged  was  he  against 
Spain  that  he  made  an  oath  never  to  give  quarter 
to  a  Spaniard,  and  he  kept  his  oath,  butchering 
more  than  a  score  of  prisoners  with  his  own  hand 
on  one  occasion.  In  1660  and  1665  he  led  expedi- 
tions against  the  west  coast  of  Central  America, 
with  some  success.  He  was  finally  defeated  by 
the  islanders  near  the  Gulf  of  Darien.  Killed  by 
Indians  1668. 

LOOM  IS,  FRANCIS  BUTLER,  diplomat;  born 
Marietta,  O.,  July  27,  1863;  son  of  Judge  William 
H.  and  Frances  (Wheeler)  Loomis;  ed.  Marietta 
Col.;  on  ed.  staff  N.  Y.  Tribune,  1893;  married 
Elizabeth  M.  Mast,  of  Springfield,  Ohio,  Apr.  23, 
1897;  State  Librn.  of  Ohio,  1886-7;  newspaper 
corres.  at  Washington,  1887-90;  Consul  at  St. 
Etienne,  France,  1890-93;  on  return  to  U.  S. 
apptd.  ed.  Cincinnati  Tribune;  Minister  to 
Portugal  1897-1901;  apptd.  asst.  secy.  State 
1901 ;  as  Secy,  ad  interim  and  as  asst.  secy,  was 
in  charge  of  questions  arising  out  of  the  revolution 


BIOGRAPHICAL 


477 


at  Panama.  1905  sent  to  France  as  spec.  amb.  to 
receive  remains  of  John  Paul  Jones;  grand  off. 
Legion  of  Honor  of  France;  add.,  Metropolitan 
Club,  Washington,  D.  C. 

LOULAN,  J.  A.,  in  charge  of  lock  excavation  and 
trestles,  La  Boca  locks  div.,  1907;  apptd.  supt. 
Ancon  quarry  and  crushers,  4th  dist.,  Pacific  div., 
1910;  born  Jamaica,  L.  I.,  1861. 

LYSTER,  THEODORE  C.,  It.  col.  med.  corps 
U.  S.  A.;  born  Kans.  1875;  grad.  Univ.  Mich., 
1899;  ap.  from  Mich  priv.  and  acting  steward 
hosp.  corps,  1898;  asst.  surg.,  1900;  capt.,  1905; 
maj.,  1909;  It.  col.,  1915;  chief  eye,  ear  and 
throat  clinic,  Ancon  hospital;  later  served  in 
Philippines;  add.  Washington,  D.  C. 


M 


MACARTHUR,  ARTHUR  FREDERIC,  engineer, 
contractor;  born  Oramel,  N.  Y.,  1860;  grad. 
Harvard,  1882;  mar.  Mary  Seymour  Barnum, 
N.  Y.,  1889;  supt.  MacArthur  Bros.  Co.,  1883, 
gen.  mgr.,  1892;  v.  p.,  1903,  pres.  since  1908;  int. 
in  other  companies;  add.  n  Pine  St.,  N.  Y. 
McILVAINE,  CLOYD  A.,  exec,  secy.,  The  Panama 
Canal;  born  Creston,  O.,  1877;  ed.  Wooster 
Univ.  and  Normal  Univ.,  Ada,  O.;  went  to 
isthmus,  Dec.,  1904. 

McKINLEY,  WILLIAM,  twenty-fifth  Pres.  of 
U.  S.;  born  Niles,  O.,  June  29,  1843;  enlisted  as 
private  soldier  in  Civil  War,  mustered  out  capt. 
and  brev.  maj.;  member  45th,  46th,  47th,  49th, 
50th,  and  5ist  Cong.;  gov.  of  O.,  1892-96; 
elected  Pres.  of  U.  S.,  1896;  reflected,  1900; 
assassinated  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  Sept.,  1901 ;  directed 
negotiation  of  first  Hay-Pauncefote  treaty  and 
otherwise  furthered  canal  projects. 
McLEAN,  JOHN  H.,  paym.,  accounting  dept., 

The  Panama  Canal;  add.  Empire,  Canal  Zone. 
MAC  DONALD,  DONALD  FRANCIS,  geologist, 
The  Panama  Canal;  went  to  Isthmus,  Jan.  1911; 
born  Pictou  Co.,  Nova  Scotia;  trav.  in  Alaska 
and  Brit.  Col.  for  Hudson  Bay  Fur  Co.;  grad. 
Univ.  of  Wash.,  1905;  M.  S.,  Geo.  Wash.  Univ., 
1906;  field  work,  Geolog.  Survey,  1902-11;  add. 
Culebra,  Canal  Zone. 

MACFARLANE,  JAMES,  engineer;  born  Bank- 
foot,  Perthshire,  Scotland;  went  to  Isthmus  1901 
as  superintendent  in  charge  of  bridges  Panama 
railroad;  member  board  local  inspectors  Canal 
Zone. 

MADURO,  HENRY  L.,  director  of  Maduro  Co., 
Panama;  born  St.  Thomas,  D.  W.  I.,  Aug.  5, 
1866;  son  of  Solomon  L.  and  Esther  Piza  de 
Maduro;  ed.  pub.  schools,  New  York  City; 
married  Fanny  Eder  Maduro;  entered  firm  of 
Maduro  e  Hijo  at  Panama  in  1886;  became  a 
partner  in  1892;  mem.  Union  and  Univ.  Clubs, 
(Panama);  add.  Panama  City,  Panama. 
MADURO,  JOSHUA  L.,  dir.  Maduro  Co.,  Panama; 
born  St.  Thomas,  D.  W.  I.,  son  of  Solomon  and 
Esther  Piza  de  Maduro;  ed.  Boltz  Col.,  Hamburg; 
married  Estelle  Delvalle,  Oct.  1908;  mem.  firm 
of  Maduro  e  Hijo,  Panama,  since  Jan.  1884;  del. 
Chamber  Com.,  of  Panama,  to  Phila.  Commercial 
Cong.,  1899;  resided  in  London  1894-96;  and 


from  1896  to  1905  in  N.  Y.  City,  during  which 
time  he  became  citizen  of  U.  S.;  mem.  Univ. 
Club  (Panama). 

MAGOON,  CHARLES  E.,  gov.  Canal  Zone,  May 
25,  1905,  to  Oct.  12,  1906;  born  Steele  Co.,  Minn., 
Dec.  5,  1861;  son  of  Henry  C.  and  Mehitable  W. 
(Clement)  Magoon;  ed.  high  sch.,  Owatonna, 
Minn.,  Univ.  of  Neb.;  (L.L.D.,  Monmouth, 
1905);  unmarried;  admitted  to  bar,  1882;  law 
officer  Bu.  Insular  Affairs,  War  Dept.,  1899-1904; 
gen.  counsel,  Isthmian  Canal  Comn.,  July  i, 
i9O4-April  i,  1905;  mem.  Isthmian  Canal  Comn. 
1905-6;  Minister  to  Panama,  July  17,  1905- 
Oct.  12,  1906;  provisional  gov.  Cuba,  Oct.  12, 
I9o6-Jan.  28,  1909;  Clubs — Metropolitan,  Chevy 
Chase,  Alibi,  Cosmos  (Washington);  author, 
The  Law  of  Civil  Government  Under  Military 
Occupation,  1902;  home,  Lincoln,  Neb.;  add. 
Metropolitan  Club,  Washington. 

MANN,  C.  H.,  depot  qmr.,  supply  dept.,  The 
Panama  Canal;  add.  Cristobal,  Canal  Zone. 

MANSVELT,  English  buccaneer;  came  into  prom- 
inence on  the  Spanish  Main  in  1664,  when  he  led 
a  fleet  of  fifteen  vessels,  manned  by  500  free- 
booters of  various  nativities  in  an  attempt  to 
capture  Nata;  established  pirate  settlement  on 
Santa  Catarina,  leaving  it  in  charge  of  100  men; 
this  was  to  be  a  rendezvous  for  pirates,  and 
existed  for  many  years.  His  attempt  on  Nata 
failed,  and  he  undertook  an  expedition  against 
Cartago,  capital  of  Costa  Rica.  In  this  expedition 
Henry  Morgan,  afterward  so  notorious,  was  second 
in  command.  The  expedition  consisted  of  French 
and  English,  and  national  prejudices  caused  so 
much  quarreling  that  Mansvelt  and  Morgan  had 
to  exercise  all  their  skill  and  authority  to  prevent 
the  factions  falling  on  each  other.  The  Governor 
of  Cartago,  having  received  information  of  the 
approach  of  the  freebooters,  fell  on  them  suddenly 
with  a  superior  force,  driving  them  back  and 
forcing  them  to  hastily  put  to  sea.  Mansvelt 
sought  shelter  at  Santa  Catarina,  and  died  there. 

MARKS,  DAVID,  mem.  Joint  Land  Commn.,  The 
Panama  Canal;  died  July  17,  1914. 

MASON,  CHARLES  FIELD,  col.  Medical  Corps, 
U.  S.  A.,  chief  health  officer  The  Panama  Canal 
since  April  I,  1914;  supt.  Ancon  Hospital,  The 
Panama  Canal,  since  May,  1909;  born  Richmond, 
Va.,  Feb.  27,  1864;  ed.  pvt.  schools  and  Mil. 
Acad.,  Fredericksburg,  Va. ;  son  of  Wiley  Ray  and 
Susan  Thornton  Mason;  married  Mary  E.  Hare, 
March  4,  1903;  apptd.  1st  It.,  med.  corps,  May  6, 
1886;  capt.  asst.  surg.,  July  2,  1893;  maj.  surg., 
Dec.  9,  1901;  It.  col.  Jan  I,  1910;  col.,  1915; 
served  in  Spanish-Am.  War  as  maj.  and  surg. 
N.  J.  Vol.;  served  in  Porto  Rico  and  Philippines; 
asst.  surg.  gen.  1904-9;  author  of  Handbook  for 
the  Hospital  Corps,  Medical  Electricity,  Prize 
Essay  for  1910  on  "The  Medical  Department  of 
the  Army;"  mem.  Am.  Med.  Assn.,  Assn.  Mil. 
Surgeons  U.  S.;  Citizens'  Service  Inst.,  Na- 
tional Geographic  Society,  Canal  Zone  Med. 
Assn.,  and  Texas  State  Med.  Assn.;  add.,  Ancon, 
Canal  Zone. 

MAXIM,  Sir  HIRAM  STEVENS,  American-Eng- 
lish engineer  and  inventor;  born  Sangerville,  Me., 
Feb.  5,  1840;  invented  automatic  system  of  fire- 


478 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


arms,  explosives,  etc. ;  member  Vickers'  Sons  & 
Maxim;  knighted  1901;  add.  London,  Eng. 

MAY,  WILLIAM  HOWARD,  marshal,  The 
Panama  Canal,  since  April  i,  1914;  born  Elkton, 
Md.,  1873;  secy,  to  U.  S.  Senator  A.  P.  Gorman 
for  sixteen  years  to  1906;  went  to  Isthmus  as 
secy,  to  Col.  Goethals,  1907,  serving  until  apptd. 
marshal. 

MEARS,  FREDERICK,  capt.  U.  S.  A.,  formerly 
ch.  eng.,  P.  R.  R.  Co.;  born  Ft.  Omaha,  Neb., 
May  25,  1878;  ed.  pub.  sch.  N.  Y.  City  and  San 
Francisco;  enlisted  as  private  U.  S.  Army,  1899; 
apptd.  2d  It.,  1901;  1st  It.,  1906;  capt.,  1915; 
grad.  Infantry  and  Cavalry  Sch.  at  Ft.  Leaven- 
worth,  1904,  and  the  U.  S.  Staff  Col.,  1905; 
married  April  6, 1907,  Jane  P.  Wainwright;  apptd. 
to  Isthmian  Canal  Comn.,  May  1906;  asst. 
engr.,  May  1907;  res.  eng.  for  the  P.  R.  R.  Co., 
1907;  chief  engr.,  P.  R.  R.  Co.,  1907-9;  add. 
Dept.  Interior,  Washington,  D.  C. 

MENDOZA,  CARLOS  A.,  ex-pres.  Panama;  born 
Panama  City,  Oct.  31,  1856;  ed.  schools  of 
Panama  and  Bogota;  secy,  of  govt.  of  Gen. 
Aispuru,  1885;  1897  del.  to  Liberal  Conv.  at 
Bogota;  1903  apptd.  Minister  of  Justice;  1908 
apptd.  secy,  of  property  by  Pres.  Obaldia;  as- 
sumed presidency  of  Panama  on  death  of  Pres. 
Obaldia,  March  1910. 

METCALFE,  RICHARD  L.,  mem.  Isthmian 
Canal  Comn.,  Aug.  9,  1913-Mar.  31,  1914;  civ. 
gov.,  Panama  Canal  Zone,  1913-14;  born  Oct.  II, 
1861;  son  of  Dr.  Richard  L.  and  Ellen  T.  (Ed 
wards)  Metcalfe;  ed.  pub.  schs.;  married  Bessie 
Buehler,  of  Seymour,  Ind.,  Apr.  30,  1885;  re- 
porter Omaha  World-Herald,  1888;  asst.  to 
William  J.  Bryan,  editor,  1894;  editor  World- 
Herald,  1896-05;  asst.  editor  The  Commoner, 
1905-13;  apptd.  Apr.  i,  1914  mem.  committee 
for  formal  opening  Panama  Canal,  created  by 
Exec.  Order,  May  20,  1914;  add.  Ancon,  Canal 
Zone. 

MILLARD,  JOSEPH  HOPKINS,  ex-U.  S.  Sen- 
ator; born  Hamilton,  Can.,  Apr.  1836;  ed. 
common  schools;  mar.  Carolina  Grover  Bar- 
"rows,  Davenport,  la.,  1860  (died  1901);  res. 
Omaha  since  1856;  founded  Omaha  Nat.  Bank, 
pres.  since  1867;  ex-mayor  Omaha;  director 
U.  P.  R.  R.  thirteen  years;  U.  S.  Senator  1901-07; 
dim.  Com.  on  Interoceanic  Canals;  add. 
Omaha,  Neb. 

MONNICHE,  T.  B.,  engr.  of  docks,  dept.  Opera- 
tion and  Maintenance,  The  Panama  Canal,  since 
Apr.  i,  1914;  apptd.  eng.  in  chg.  design  and 
construction  of  aids  to  navigation,  Culebra, 
Sept.  15,  1908;  add.  Cristobal,  Canal  Zone. 

MOORE,  F.  H.,  asst.  engr.,  charged  with  the  de- 
signing of  movable  dams,  Culebra,  apptd. 
Sept.  15,  1908. 

MOORE,  J.  HAMPTON,  Member  of  Congress 
from  Pa.,  President  of  Atlantic  Deeper  Water- 
ways Association  since  1907;  born  Woodbury, 
N.  J.,  Mar.  8,  1864;  married  Adelaide  Stone  in 
1899;  ed.  in  common  schools;  law  student  in 
Phila.,  1877-80;  reporter  in  the  courts  on  Public 
Ledger,  1881-95;  chief  elk.  to  city  treas.,  Phila., 
1894-7;  editor  and  pub.,  1898-1900;  secy,  to 
mayor,  1900;  city  treas.,  1901-3;  ch.  bu. 


mfrs.,  Dept.  Com.  and  Labor,  Jan.  1905;  re- 
signed to  become  pres.  City  Trust  Safe  Deposit 
and  Surety  Co.,  of  Phila.;  apptd.  by  the  court, 
June  24,  1905,  receiver  of  the  Co.;  pres.  Allied 
Republican  Clubs  of  Phila.,  1900-9;  pres.  Penn. 
State  League  in  1900  and  reflected  in  1901; 
elected  pres.  Nat.  Republican  League,  at  Chicago, 
1902,  and  reflected  at  Indianapolis,  1904;  elected 
to  59th  Cong,  for  unexpired  term;  reflected  to 
6oth,  6ist,  62nd,  63rd  and  64th  Congresses. 

MORALES,  EUSEBIO  A.,  Minister  of  Panama  to 
Washington;  prime  minister  of  provisional  govt., 
Panama,  1903;  born  Sinclejo,  Colombia,  1865; 
ed.  priv.  and  pub.  schs.;  practiced  law  in  Panama, 
1887;  apptd.  judge,  1888;  secy,  of  treas.,  1900; 
Fiscal  Commr.  to  U.  S.,  1904;  apptd.  counsel  for 
Panama,  assemblyman,  1906-8;  secy,  of  Public 
Instruction,  1909;  married  Henriquita  Bermudez; 
add.  Stoneleigh  Court,  Washington,  D.  C. 

MORGAN,  Sir  HENRY,  buccaneer;  born  in 
England,  1635;  it  is  said  he  was  kidnapped  when 
a  boy  and  sold  into  slavery  at  Barbados.  He 
became  a  sailor,  and  in  1666  was  captain  of  one 
of  the  vessels  in  a  buccaneering  expedition.  He 
soon  rose  to  command  of  the  buccaneers,  and 
performed  many  daring  feats.  In  Jan.,  1671,  he 
organized  a  buccaneering  expedition  against  the 
Spanish  settlement  at  Panama.  Jan.  18  he 
defeated  the  Spanish,  captured  the  city,  and  se- 
cured great  booty.  Died  Aug.,  1688. 

MORGAN,  JOHN  T.,  U.  S.  Senator  from  Ala- 
bama; born  Athens,  Tenn.,  June  20,  1824;  pur- 
sued an  academic  course;  located  in  Ala.  in 
1833;  studied  law  and  admitted  to  bar,  1845; 
joined  the  Confederate  Army  in  1861;  commd. 
col.,  1862;  apptd.  brig.  gen.  in  1863;  after  war 
resumed  practice  in  Ala.;  elected  as  a  Dem.  to 
U.  S.  Senate,  1877;  reelected,  1882,  1888,  1894, 
1900,  1906,  and  served  from  Mar.  4,  1907,  until 
his  death  in  Washington,  June  n,  1907;  mem- 
ber Com.  on  Interoceanic  Canals,  advocate  of 
Nicaragua  route. 

MORRIS,  R.  K.,  storekeeper,  The  Panama  Canal, 
since  May  I,  1914;  add.  Balboa,  Canal  Zone. 

MOTSETT,  C.  H.,  supt.  Panama  Railroad;  add. 
Cristobal,  Canal  Zone. 


N 


NELSON,  HORATIO,  British  admiral;  born 
Sept.  29,  1758,  died  Trafalgar,  Oct.  21,  1805; 
organized  a  force  at  Jamaica  for  invasion  of 
Nicaragua,  and  seized  that  territory  on  Atlantic 
side,  which  was  held  by  Great  Britain,  under 
guise  of  a  protectorate  over  the  Mosquito  king- 
dom, until  1860. 

NICHOLS,  A.  B.,  office  engr.,  dept.  Operation  and 
Maintenance,  The  Panama  Canal;  add.,  Culebra, 
Canal  Zone. 

NICUESA,  DIEGO  de,  Spanish  commander; 
born  at  Baeza,  1465;  apptd.  gov.  of  Castilla  del 
Oro,  1508;  left  Santo  Domingo  early  in  1510 
with  five  ships  and  about  700  men ;  suffered  ship- 
wreck and  great  hardships;  founded  Nombre  de 
Dios;  was  called  to  Antigua  as  governor,  but 
colonists  rebelled  against  him  and  set  him  adrift 


BIOGRAPHICAL 


479 


in  a  leaky  boat;  reported  to  have  been  eaten  by 
Indians,  1511. 

NINO,  PEDRO  ALONSO,  Spanish  navigator; 
born  in  Moguer,  Spain,  1455;  accompanied 
Columbus  on  his  third  voyage,  1498;  later  was 
associated  with  Cristobal  Guerra  in  an  expedition 
to  the  pearl  coast  (Venezuela),  leaving  Spain  in 
June,  1499,  and  returning  with  a  rich  cargo  in 
April  1500;  died,  1505. 

NIXON,  COURTLAND,  maj.  soth  inf.  U.  S.  A., 
dept.  qmr.  Mount  Hope,  Canal  Zone,  and  pur- 
chasing officer  on  the  Isthmus,  1908-14;  born 
Ft.  Brown,  army  post  in  Dept.  of  Texas;  ed.  pub. 
and  priv.  schs.,  N.  Y.  and  N.  J.;  grad.  Princeton 
Univ.,  1895  (C.  E.);  apptd.  2d  It.  1st  Inf.,  July 
9,  1898;  saw  service  in  Cuba  and  later  in  Philip- 
pines; apptd.  capt.  Apr.  1904;  maj.,  1915; 
married  in  1905;  add.  Plattsburg  Bks.,  N.  Y. 

NOBLE,  ALFRED,  canal  commissioner;  born 
Michigan,  1844;  C.  E.  univ.  of  Mich.,  1870; 
married  Georgia  Speechly,  of  Ann  Arbor,  May  31, 
1 87 1 ;  supervisor  const,  various  ry.  bridges  across 
Mississippi  river,  1886-1904;  mem.  Nicaragua 
Canal  Bd.,  1895;  mem.  Isthmian  Canal  Comn., 
1899-1903;  mem.  bd.  consulting  engineers,  Panama 
Canal,  1905. 

NOBLE,  ROBERT  E.,  It.  col.  med.  corps,  U.  S.  A., 
gen.  inspr.,  health  dept.,  Canal  Zone,  until  March 
31,  1914;  born  Nov.  5,  1870;  apptd.  asst.  surg., 
June  29,  1901;  capt.  asst.  surg.  June  29,  1906; 
maj.  med.  corps,  Jan.  I,  1910;  It.  col.  1915;  add. 
Surg.  Gen.,  War  Dept.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

NUTTING,  DANIEL  C.,  nava!  constr.  U.  S.  N., 
supt.  mech.  div.,  dept.  Operations  and  Main- 
tenance, The  Panama  Canal  since  Jan.  26,  1914; 
born  Aug.  17,  1869;  grad.  U.  S.  Naval  Acad.; 
add.  Balboa,  Canal  Zone. 

o 

OBALDIA,  JOSE  DOMINGO  de,  pres.  of  Panama, 
1908-10;  born  David,  Panama,  July  30,  1845; 
ed.  Bogota,  Col.,  and  New  Haven,  Conn.;  en- 
gaged in  business  in  Panama;  his  father,  Jose 
de  Obaldia,  was  President  of  Colombia;  served 
as  Minister  to  Washington;  died  Panama  City, 
March  I,  1910. 

OBARRIO,  NICANOR  A.  de,  first  Minister  of 
War  and  Marine  of  Panama;  born  New  York, 
June  3,  1873;  apptd.  secy,  office  Register,  Dept. 
of  Panama,  1896;  apptd.  Registrar  of  Public 
and  Private  documents,  Dept.  Panama,  Repub.  of 
Colombia;  apptd.  prefect  prov.  Panama,  1902; 
Minister  to  Peru,  1908-9;  elec.  to  nat.  assembly. 

O'GORM  AN,  JAMES  A.,  U.  S.  Senator  from  N.  Y., 
term  1911-17;  born  N.  Y.,  May  5,  1860;  ed. 
Col.  City  of  N.  Y.  and  N.  Y.  Univ.  (LL.D. 
Villanova,  Fordham,  N.  Y.  Univ.,  Georgetown 
Univ.);  mar.  Anne  M.  Leslie,  of  N.  Y.,  1884; 
justice  Dist.  Court,  N.  Y.,  1893-1900;  justice 
Sup.  Court,  N.  Y.,  1900-11;  chm.  Senate  Com. 
on  Interoceanic  Canals,  opposed  repeal  of  tolls 
exemption;  add.  318  W.  io8th  st.,  N.  Y.,  and 
Wash.,  D.  C. 

OJEDA,  ALONSO  de,  Spanish  adventurer;  born 
in  Cuenca,  Spain,  in  1465;  joined  Columbus  on 
his  first  voyage;  returning  to  Spain  he  interested 


capitalists  in  financing  a  new  expedition;  on 
May  20,  1499,  accompanied  by  Americus  Ves- 
pucci, he  sailed  with  four  ships  on  a  voyage  of 
discovery  along  the  coast  of  South  America, 
and  visited  Darien,  which  had  already  been  vis- 
ited by  Bastidas.  The  Spanish  monarch  divided 
Central  America  into  two  provinces,  making 
Ojeda  governor  of  one,  and  Nicuesa  governor 
of  the  other.  This  was  the  first  attempt  to 
take  possession  of  the  mainland  in  America. 
In  one  of  his  wars  with  the  natives  in  1515  he 
was  wounded  by  a  poisoned  arrow,  and  died  in 
Hispaniola. 

ORAM,  H.  P.,  supt.  northern  div.,  permanent 
buildings  div.  since  Feb.  18,  1914;  add.  Culebra, 
Canal  Zone. 

OWEN,  WESLEY  M.,  judge;  born  Covell,  111., 
1869;  grad.  111.  Wesleyan Univ.  1894; practiced  law, 
member  legis.;  raised  company  and  was  elected 
captain  Sp.-Am.  War;  married  Ora  M.Augustine, 
Normal,  111.,  1904;  apptd.  judge  supreme  court, 
Canal  Zone,  1909,  served  till  March  1911. 


PALMER,  AARON  H.,  American  contractor;  in 
1826  contracted  with  Republic  of  Central  America 
to  build  canal  through  Nicaragua;  failed  to 
raise  capital  and  project  was  abandoned. 

PARKER,  CHARLES  LIBERMANN,  quarter- 
master; born  Wash.,  D.  C.;  grad.  Corcoran 
Scientific  School,  1897;  officer  Chinese  Imperial 
Maritime  Customs,  1901-03;  went  to  Isthmus 
1904;  chief  clerk  quartermaster's  dept. ;  supt.  labor 
quarters  and  subsistence  Gorgona  dist.;  inspr. 
quartermaster's  dept.;  asst.  depot  qtrm.,  Mount 
Hope,  1909. 

PARSONS,  VVILLIAM  BARCLAY,  civil  engr., 
mem.  Isthmian  Canal  Comn.,  1904;  mem.  bd. 
consulting  engineers,  Panama  Canal,  1905;  born 
New  York,  April  15,  1859;  son  of  William  Barclay 
and  Eliza  Glass  (Livingston)  Parsons;  A.  B., 
Columbia,  1879,  C.  E.,  1882;  (LL.D.,  St.  Johns, 
Md.,  1909);  married  Anna  DeWitt  Reed,  of 
New  York,  May  20,  1884;  in  gen.  practice  as 
engr.,  chief  engr.,  Rapid  Transit  Comn.  of  New. 
York,  1894-1905;  advisory  engr.  Royal  Comn. 
London  Traffic,  1904;  brig,  gen.,  Chief  of  Engrs., 
N.  G.  S.  N.  Y.;  trustee  Columbia  Univ.  since 
1897;  mem.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Instn.  Civ.  Engrs., 
Great  Britain;  author,  Track,  1885;  Turnouts, 
1885;  An  American  Engineer  in  China,  1900; 
add.,  60  Wall  St.,  New  York. 

PASCO,  SAMUEL,  canal  commissioner;  born  Lon- 
don, Eng.,  June  28,  1834;  removed  to  Mass.; 
A. B.,  Harvard,  1858,  A.  M.,  1872;  taught  school; 
non-commd.  officer  C.  S.  A.,  1861-65;  married 
Jessie  Denham  of  Monticello,  Fla.,  Oct.  28,  1869; 
practiced  law;  mem.  Florida  Ho.  of  Rep.,  1886- 
87;  U.  S.  Senator,  2  terms,  1887-99;  mem.  Isth- 
mian Canal  Comn.,  1899-1904. 

PATERSON,  WILLIAM,  Scottish  adventurer; 
born  in  Dumfriesshire,  April  1658;  in  1695 
Scottish  Parliament  authorized  Paterson  to  plant 
colonies.  A  charter  was  obtained  from  William 
III,  and  a  company  formed  to  settle  a  colony  on 
Isthmus  of  Darien,  to  which  was  given  the  name 


480 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


of  New  Caledonia.  On  July  26,  1698,  Paterson 
sailed  with  1500  colonists,  and  founded  a  settle- 
ment called  New  Edinburgh  in  the  port  of  Acla. 
After  experiencing  most  terrible  suffering  the 
colony  was  abandoned  in  1699.  Paterson  was  the 
originator  of  the  plan  of  the  Bank  of  England; 
died,  1719. 

PAUNCEFOTE,  Sir  JULIAN,  Lord  Pauncefote, 
British  diplomat;  born  Sept.  13,  1828;  died 
Washington,  May  24,  1902;  knighted,  1874, 
raised  to  peerage  as  Baron  Pauncefote,  1899; 
Brit.  Min.  to  U.  S.,  1889-93;  ambass.  1893-1902; 
conducted  negotiations  for  settlement  of  Behring 
Sea  controversy,  Anglo-Venezuelan  boundary 
question,  etc.;  signed  Hay-Pauncefote  treaty; 
participated  in  negotiations  for  neutralization  of 
Suez  Canal,  1885. 

PEDRARIAS  DAVILA  (real  name  Pedro  Arias 
de  Avila);  born  in  Segovia,  Spain,  in  1440.  He 
distinguished  himself  in  the  conquest  of  Granada; 
in  1514  apptd.  gov.  of  Panama,  and  on  arrival 
found  a  rival  in  Balboa,  who  had  recently  dis- 
covered the  Pacific  Ocean.  At  first  made  friends 
with  Balboa,  but  later  accused  him  of  plotting 
against  him  and  the  Spanish  crown,  and  caused 
him  to  be  executed  in  1517.  This  execution 
caused  him  to  lose  favor  in  Spain,  and  not  long 
afterwards  he  was  removed  from  the  governor- 
ship; died  in  Nicaragua  in  1530. 

PEPPERMAN,  W.  LEON,  chief  of  administration, 
Canal  Zone,  under  Chm.  Shonts;  active  in  secur- 
ing labor  for  canal;  formerly  asst.  chief  insular 
bureau,  War  dept.;  now  asst.  to  Pres.,  Inter- 
borough  R.  T.  Co.,  N.  Y. 

PERRY,  JAMES  CLIFFORD,  surg.,  U.  S.  M. 
Hosp.  Ser.,  ch.  quarantine  officer  since  1905; 
born  N.  C. ;  ed.  Univ.  of  N.  C.  and  Univ.  of  Md. ; 
pres.  Canal  Zone  Med.  Assn. 

PEYNADO,  FRANCISCO  J.,  late  minister  of  the 
Dominican  Republic  to  the  U.  S. ;  born  Puerto 
Plata,  Oct.  4,  1867;  son  of  Gen.  Jacinto  and 
Carolina  (Huttlinger)  Peynado;  married  1893, 
Carmen  Gonzalez;  for  twenty  years  was  in 
active  practice  of  law,  and  during  that  time  wrote 
several  works  connected  with  Dominican  affairs; 
was  three  times  president  of  city  council  of  Santo 
Domingo,  and  three  times  president  of  National 
Bar  Association  of  Dominican  Republic;  member 
of  National  Board  of  Education,  counsellor  of 
Public  Works,  etc.;  editor  and  prop.  Las 
Novedades,  New  York  City. 

PHILLIPS,  JOHN  L.,  brig.  gen.  med.  corps., 
U.  S.  A.,  supt.  Ancon  hosp.,  1905-07;  asst.  ch. 
sanitary  officer  until  March  31,  1914;  born 
April  I,  1859;  apptd.,  asst.  surg.,  Dec.  3,  1883; 
capt.  asst.  surg.,  Dec.  3,  1888;  maj.  med.  corps, 
Oct.  8,  1900;  It.  col.,  Dec.  12,  1908;  col.  April  13, 
1912;  brig,  gen.,  1915;  commdg.  Walter  Reed 
Gen.  Hosp.,  Takoma  Park,  D.  C. 

PIERCE,  CLAUDE  CONNOR,  surg.,  Marine 
Hosp.  Ser.,  quarantine  officer,  Colon,  since  1905; 
born  Chattanooga,  Tenn.,  1878;  ed.  Chat.  Med. 
Col.;  priv.  and  1st  It.,  hosp.  corps,  Sp.-Am.  War; 
in  charge  Tampa  Bay  quar.  sta.,  1901-03;  went 
to  Isthmus  Jan.  1904,  and  took  charge  quar. 
work,  Panama;  exec,  officer  for  chief  sanitary 
officer,  1905. 


PINZON,  MARTIN  ALONSO,  shipbuilder  and 
navigator  of  Palos  Spain;  born  there,  1441; 
commanded  the  Pinta,  one  of  Columbus's  car- 
avels,  in  voyage  of  1492;  discovered  Haiti;  was 
separated  from  Columbus  by  a  storm,  and 
reached  Bayona,  in  Galicia,  whence  he  despatched 
a  letter  to  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  announcing 
his  discovery;  proceeded  to  Palos,  arriving  on 
same  day  as  Columbus,  March  15,  1493;  died 
Palos,  1493. 

PINZON,  VICENTE  YANEZ,  brother  of  Martin 
Alonso  Pinzon,  born  at  Palos,  1460;  commanded 
the  Nina  in  Columbus's  first  voyage;  com- 
manded four  ships  sailing  from  Palos,  Dec.  1499, 
and  was  first  Spanish  navigator  to  cross  the 
equator,  reaching  Brazil  and  discovering  the 
mouth  of  the  Amazon;  associated  with  Juan 
Diaz  de  Solis  in  exploring  Gulf  of  Honduras,  1506; 
died  Palos,  1524. 

PIZARRO,  FRANCISCO,  Spanish  adventurer; 
born  at  Trujillo,  Estremadura,  Spain,  1470; 
in  1509,  with  other  adventurers  he  sailed  for 
America;  joined  Balboa  in  his  expedition  to  dis- 
cover the  South  Sea,  and  was  one  of  his  trusted 
lieutenants;  was  engaged  in  several  other  expedi- 
tions, and  in  1519  settled  at  the  new  city  of 
Panama.  There  he  organized  and  conducted  a 
number  of  expeditions  searching  for  gold,  and 
in  1528,  Charles  V.  gave  him  authority  to  con- 
quer and  govern  Peru.  His  cruelty  and  rapacity 
made  him  many  enemies,  and  on  Sunday,  June  26, 
1541,  he  was  assassinated  while  eating  his  dinner. 

PORRAS,  BELISARIO,  President  Republic  of 
Panama  since  Oct.  I,  1912;  born  Las  Tablas, 
Prov.  of  Las  Santos,  Panama;  married  Alicia 
Castro,  of  San  Jose,  Costa  Rica,  1911;  received 
early  education  in  private  school  at  Las  Tablas; 
graduated  in  law  from  Nat.  Univ.  of  Bogota, 
Colombia,  and  pursued  further  course  of  study 
at  Free  Univ.  of  Brussels;  practiced  law  in 
Panama,  1885-96;  secy,  to  Circuit  Judge  of 
Panama;  Consul  Gen.  of  Colombia  at  Brussels, 
and  later  attache  of  legation  of  Colombia  at  the 
Quirinal;  counsellor  of  Nicaragua;  pres.  Munic- 
ipal Council  in  Panama  City,  1905-6;  delegate 
to  Nat.  Assembly  of  Panama;  delegate  of  Panama 
to  The  Hague  Conference,  1907;  served  as 
Minister  of  Panama  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Minister 
at  San  Jose,  Costa  Rica,  Minister  on  Special 
Mission  to  Washington,  D.  C.;  delegate  of 
Panama  to  International  Sanitary  Conference  at 
Buenos  Aires,  1910;  Minister  to  the  U.  S.,  1911. 

PRICE,  WILLIAM  JENNINGS,  diplomat;  born 
Lancaster,  Ky.,  1873;  home,  Danville,  Ky.; 
grad.  Centre  Col.,  1895;  pros.  atty.  Boyle  Co., 
Ky.,  1901-09;  apptd.  U.  S.  Minister  to  Panama, 
Aug.  20,  1913;  add.,  Panama. 

Q 

QUALQUOJOU,  CAMILO,  born  David,  Chiriqui, 
Republic  of  Panama,  May  9,  1866;  son  of  Adolfo 
and  Antonina  Arauz  de  Qualquojou;  ed.  East- 
man Col.,  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y.;  married,  Jan.  10, 
I^95,  Julia  de  Roux;  1885-95  clerked  for  the 
firm  of  Guardia  6  Qualquojou;  1895-1900 partner 
of  firm;  1901  founded  firm  of  C.  Qualquojou  £ 


BIOGRAPHICAL 


481 


Co.,  firm  dissolving  in  1912,  when  he  continued 
business  under  his  own  name. 

R 

RANDOLPH,  ISHAM,  civil  engineer;  born  New 
Market,  Va.,  Mar.  25,  1848;  ed.  private  schools; 
engineering  acquired  by  study  and  actual  work; 
engineer  various  railroads,  1882-1907;  mem.  In- 
ternat.  Bd.  of  Consulting  Engrs.  for  Panama 
Canal,  1905-06;  Advisory  Bd.  Engrs.  Panama 
Canal,  1907;  res.,  Chicago,  111. 

REDFERN,  SAMUEL  EDWARD,  temp,  secy., 
Chief  Clerk,  Disburs.  Off.,  and  purchasing  agent, 
Isthmian  Canal  Comn.;born  Washington,  D.  C., 
Oct.  14,  1865;  son  of  Joseph  and  Josephine  Red- 
fern;  ed.  Georgetown  Univ.;  married  Marie 
Holcombe  Moore,  Aug.  1899;  apptd.  chief  elk. 
Nicaragua  Canal  Comn.,  under  Rear  Admiral 
Walker,  later  chief  elk.,  Isthmian  Canal  Comn.; 
afterwards  apptd.  U.  S.  Comr.  Immigration, 
New  Orleans,  La. 

REEDER,  D.  F.,  physician;  born  Ky.;  grad. 
Univ.  of  Louisville,  1905,  as  M.D.;  went  to 
Isthmus,  1906,  as  asst.  to  chief  of  eye,  ear,  nose 
and  throat  clinic;  apptd.  chief,  1909. 

RERDELL,  MONTFORT  C.,  Sr.  Dist.  Judge, 
Canal  Zone;  born  Ala.;  went  to  Canal  Zone, 
Aug.  1904;  on  staff  of  Gov.  George  W.  Davis; 
apptd.  Sr.  Dist.  Judge,  1907. 

REYNOLDS,  WILLIAM  T.,  constructor;  born 
Elk  Ridge,  Md.;  went  to  Isthmus,  1906,  as  asst. 
supervisor;  apptd.  supervisor  and  asst.  supt.  of 
construction;  apptd.  supt.  of  construction,  1908. 

RIPLEY,  JOSEPH,  mem.  International  bd.  of  con- 
sulting engrs.  of  Panama  Canal;  born  St.  Clair, 
Mich.,  1854;  pub.  sch.  ed.;  U.  S.  asst.  engr. 
Sault  St.  Marie  canal,  1877;  consulting  engr. 
various  canal  projects  in  U.  S.,  1877-1906;  mem. 
int.  bd.  consulting  engrs.  of  Panama  Canal,  1905; 
prin.  asst.  engr.  Panama  Canal  in  charge  of 
designing  locks,  dams,  and  regulating  works,  and 
asst.  chief  engr.  Panama  Canal,  1906-1907. 

ROBINSON,  ARTHUR  L.,  elec.  eng.,  Canal  Zone, 
1905-14;  supt.  mech.  div.,  dept.  constrn.  and 
engrg.,  Gorgona,  1910-13;  born  in  Ky. ;  ed.  pub. 
sch.;  grad.  Rose  Poly.  Inst.,  Terre  Haute,  Ind., 
1895;  entered  employ  Southern  Ry.  and  at  time 
of  appt.  to  Canal  Zone  was  electrical  engr.  for 
entire  Southern  Ry.  system. 

RODMAN,  HUGH,  capt.  U.  S.  N.,  supt.  trans- 
portation, Div.  Canal  Transportation,  The 
Panama  Canal,  since  April  i,  1914;  born  Jan.  6, 
1859;  add.,  Ancon,  Canal  Zone. 

ROGERS,  RICHARD  REID,  apptd.  general 
counsel  Isthmian  Canal  Comn.,  July  i,  1906. 

ROOSEVELT,  THEODORE,  twenty-sixth  pres.  of 
U.  S.;  born  New  York,  Oct.  27,  1858;  son  of 
Theodore  and  Martha  (Bulloch)  Roosevelt; 
A.  B.  Harvard,  1880;  (LL.D.  Columbia,  1899, 
Hope  Coll.,  1901;  Yale,  1901;  Harvard,  1902; 
Northwestern,  1903;  Univ.  of  Chicago,  1903; 
Univ.  of  Cal.,  1903;  Univ.  of  Pa.,  1905;  Clark 
Univ.,  1905;  George  Washington  Univ.,  1909; 
Cambridge  Univ.,  1910;  D.C.L.,  Oxford  Univ., 
1910;  Ph.D.,  Univ.  of  Berlin,  1910);  married 
Alice  Hathaway  Lee,  Oct.  27,  1880  (died  Feb. 


14,  1884);  married  Edith  Kermit  Carew,  of 
New  York,  Dec.  2,  1886;  mem.  N.  Y.  Legis., 
1882-4;  del.  Rep.  Nat.  Conv.,  1884;  U.  S.  Civil 
Service  Commr.,  1889-95;  pres.  N.  Y.  Police 
Bd.,  1895-7;  asst-  secy,  navy,  1897-8;  resigned 
to  organize  with  Surg.  (now  Maj.  Gen.)  Leonard 
Wood,  1st  U.  S.  Cav. ;  promoted  colonel  for 
gallantry  at  battle  of  Las  Guasimas;  mustered 
out  Sept.  1898;  Gov.  New  York,  Jan.  i,  1899- 
Dec.  31,  1900;  elected  V.  P.  of  U.  S.,  Nov.  4, 
1900,  succeeded  to  Presidency  on  death  of 
William  McKinley,  Sept.  14,  1901;  elec.  Presi- 
dent of  the  U.  S.,  Nov.  8,  1904;  Progressive  Party 
candidate  for  President,  1912;  contributor  to 
magazines  and  reviews;  add.,  Oyster  Bay,  N.  Y. 

ROOT,ELIHU,  some  time  Secretary  of  War,  Secre- 
tary of  State,  and  U.  S.  Senator;  born  Clinton, 
N.  Y.,  Feb.  15, 1845;  son  of  Prof.  Oren  and  Nancy 
Whitney  (Butterick)  Root;  A.  B.,  Hamilton  Col., 
1864,  A.  M.,  1867;  taught  at  Rome  Acad.,  1865; 
LL.B.,  New  York  Univ.,  1867;  (LL.D.,  Hamilton, 
1894;  Yale,  1900;  Columbia,  1904;  New  York 
Univ.,  1904;  Williams,  1905;  Princeton,  1906; 
Univ.  of  Buenos  Aires,  1906;  Harvard,  1907; 
Wesleyan,  1909;  McGill,  1913);  married  Clara 
Wales,  of  New  York,  Jan.  8,  1878;  U.  S.  Dist. 
Atty.  for  Southern  Dist.  of  New  York,  1883-5; 
mem.  Alaskan  Boundary  Comn,  1903;  apptd. 
Secy,  of  War,  Aug.  i,  1899;  apptd.  Secy,  of 
State,  July  7,  1905,  and  negotiated  and  signed 
Root -Cortes  and  Root-Arosemena  treaties;  U.  S. 
Senator,  1909  to  1915;  apptd.  mem.  Permanent 
Bd.  of  Arbitration  at  The  Hague,  1910;  add., 
New  York  City. 

ROSE,  WILLIAM  H.,  maj.  Corps  of  Engrs., 
U.  S.  A.,  elec.  engr.,  dept.  Operation  and  Main- 
tenance, The  Panama  Canal;  born  Oct.  24,  1881; 
grad.  U.  S.  Mil.  Acad.,  2d  It.  eng.,  June  II,  1903; 
ist  It.,  June  13,  1904;  grad.  Engineer  Sch.,  1907; 
capt.  Feb.  27,  1911;  maj.,  1915;  add.,  Balboa, 
Canal  Zone. 

ROSS,  DAVID  W.,  chief  purchasing  dept.,  Isthmian 
Canal  Comn.,  1906;  vice -p.  Interborough  Rapid 
Transit  Co.,  N.  Y.;  add.,  165  Broadway,  New 
York. 

ROSS,  JOHN  W.,  med.  dir.,  U.  S.  N.t  dir.  of  hos- 
pitals, stationed  at  Ancon,  1904;  retired  from 
active  service,  Jan.  II,  1905. 

ROURKE,  LOUIS  KEEGAN,  commissioner  of 
Public  Works,  Boston,  Mass.,  since  Feb.  1911; 
born  Abington,  Mass.,  Nov.  23,  1873;  son  of 
Peter  and  Margaret  Rourke;  married  Teresa 
M.  Ryan,  Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  May  1907;  grad. 
Abington  pub.  sch.  and  Mass.  Inst.  of  Tech. 
(bachelor  of  science  and  civil  engineer),  1895; 
with  Boston  &  Maine  R.  R.,  1895-7;  supervisor 
of  tracks  Panama  railroad,  1897-9;  supt.  constrn. 
and  contractor  Guayaquil  &  Quito  R.  R.,  Ecuador, 
1899-1903;  contr.  for  Mass,  highway  comn., 
1903-5;  supt.  tracks  and  dumps,  asst.  div.  engr., 
div.  engr.,  all  on  Culebra  div.,  Panama  Canal; 
organized  central  div.  by  combining  Culebra  and 
Chagres,  and  at  time  of  resignation  was  asst.  div. 
engr.,  central  div.,  in  charge  of  construction, 
1905-10;  supt.  of  streets,  Boston,  1910;  Clubs — 
University,  Panama;  Boston  City,  Dorchester, 
Technology  of  New  York;  mem.  Am.  Soc.  Civil 


482 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


Engrs.,  Boston  Soc.  Civil  Engrs.;  add.,  City  Hall, 
Boston,  Mass. 

ROUSSEAU,  HARRY  H.,  civ.  engr.,  U.  S.  N.,  engr 
of  Terminal  Construction,  The  Panama  Canal, 
since  April  I,  1914;  born  Troy,  N.  Y.,  April  19, 
1870;  son  of  William  White  and  Jeanette 
Parker  Rousseau;  married  Gladys  Fargo  Squires, 
New  York,  1908;  C.  E.,  Rensselaer  Poly.  Inst., 
1891;  draftsman  and  engr.  for  pvt.  cos.,  1891-8; 
apptd.  after  competitive  exam.,  civ.  engr.,  U.S.  N., 
rank  of  It.,  1898;  engr.  Bureau  Yards  &  Docks, 
Washington,  1899-03;  engr.  pub.  improvements, 
Mare  Island  navy  yard,  Cal.,  1903-7;  apptd. 
chief  Bureau  Yards  and  Docks,  with  rank  of  rear 
admiral,  Jan.,  1907;  mem.  Isthmian  Canal  Comn., 
March  16,  i9O7-March  31,  1914;  dir.  Panama 
R.  R.  Co.;  apptd.  civil  eng.  in  navy  with  rank  of 
rear  admiral  of  the  lower  nine,  March  4,  1915; 
mem.  Rensselaer  Soc.  of  Engrs.,  Engrs.  Soc.  of 
Western  Pa. ;  asso.  mem.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E. ;  Clubs — 
Army  and  Navy,  Metropolitan,  Chevy  Chase 
(Washington);  add.,  Culebra,  Canal  Zone. 

RUGGLES,  GEORGE  H.,  apptd.  to  civil  admin- 
istration dept.,  Cent.  Div.,  Canal  Zone,  1909; 
grade  changed  to  supt.  of  municipal  work,  Centl. 
Div.,  Canal  Zone,  Sept.  I,  1909;  began  canal 
service,  1904,  as  instrument  man  with  survey 
party;  born  Bloomingdale,  Mich.;  ed.  Lehigh 
Univ. 

RUGGLES,  W.  B.,  asst.  engr.  La  Boca  dams  div., 
since  1904. 


SANDS,  ROBERT  MARCENA,  chief  elk.  Atlantic 
div.,  Canal  Zone;  born  Ala.,  1876;  apptd.  secy. 
to  chief  of  dept.  Lock  and  Dam  Const.,  April,  1907; 
apptd.  chief  clerk  Atlantic  div.,  July,  1908. 

SAUNDERS,  WILLIAM  LAWRENCE,  engineer, 
president,  and  director  The  Ingersoll-Rand  Co., 
New  York,  N.  Y.;  Ingersoll-Sergeant  Drill  Co.; 
Rand  Drill  Co.;  New  York  Imperial  Tool  Co.; 
director  of  A.  S.  Cameron  Steam  Pump  Works; 
Edison -Saunders  Compressed  Air  Co.;  Inter- 
national Harvester  Co.;  International  Pneumatic 
Tube  Co.;  born  Nov.  I,  1856,  Columbus,  Ga.; 
son  of  Rev.  Dr.  W.  T.  and  Eliza  Morton  Saunders; 
married  Bertha  Louise  Gaston  at  Narragansett 
Pier,  R.  I.,  Aug.  4,  1886  (died  1906);  ed.  Univ.  of 
Pa.  (B.  S.  Univ.  of  Pa.,  1876;  D.Sc.,  Univ.  of  Pa., 
1911);  in  charge  of  hydrographic  work,  1878; 
and  subaqueous  rock  excavation,  1879-81; 
National  Storage  Co.,  Communipaw,  N.  J.; 
invented  apparatus  for  drilling  rock  under  water, 
Ingersoll  track  and  bar  channelers  and  gadders 
for  quarrying  stone;  twice  elected  mayor  of 
North  Plainfield,  N.  J.;  mem.  Am.  Inst.  Mining 
Engrs.;  Am.  Soc.  Civil  Engrs.;  Am.  Soc.  Mech. 
Engrs.;  Nat.  Civic  Federation;  N.  Y.  Chamb. 
Com.;  Nat.  Geog.  Soc.;  ed.  Compressed  Air 
Magazine;  author  "Compressed  Air  Informa- 
tion," "Compressed  Air  Production;"  co-author 
"The  Subways,  and  Tunnels  of  N.  Y.;"  "Dana 
and  Saunders'  Rock  Drilling;"  Clubs — Engineers', 
Machinery,  Economic,  Aero  of  America;  add., 
1 1  Broadway,  New  York. 

SAVILLE,  CALEB  MILLS,  civil  engineer;  born 
Melrose,  Mass.;  grad.  Harvard;  married  Eliza- 


beth Thorndike,  1891;  asst.  city  engr.  Maiden, 
Mass.,  1891-95;  div.  engr.,  Mass.  met.  water 
comn.,  1895-96;  helped  to  build  Wachusett  dam; 
went  to  Isthmus,  Aug.,  1907,  in  charge  of  investi- 
gation for  foundation  and  methods  of  construction 
of  dams  at  Gatun  and  other  places;  in  charge  of 
questions  of  seepage  and  matters  connected  with 
water  supply  of  Gatun  lake;  investigator  of 
meteorology  and  hydrology  in  connection  with 
canal  work;  surveyed  drainage  basin  Chagres 
river  and  Canal  Zone  lands. 

SCHAFER,  GEORGE  C.,  paym.  U.  S.  N.,  dis- 
bursing officer  on  Isthmus,  1904;  apptd.  treas. 
of  Zone,  1905;  add.,  Norfolk,  Va. 

SCHIAVONI,  MARIO  J.,  architect,  permanent 
building  div.,  Supply  Dept.,  The  Panama  Canal, 
until  Dec.  5,  1913. 

SCHILDHAUER,  EDWARD,  electrical  and  mech. 
engr.;  born  New  Holstein,  Wis.;  grad.,  1897, 
Univ.  of  Wis.;  apptd.  elec.  and  mech.  engr.  to 
Isthmian  Canal  Comn.,  Nov.  1906;  invented 
special  devices  in  connection  with  miter  gates; 
designed  "electric  mule"  to  convey  ships  through 
locks;  designed  system  for  controlling  all  lock 
machinery  from  central  station;  designed  Gatun 
and  Miraflores  power  plants;  made  special 
investigations  of  principal  canals  in  England, 
France,  Belgium,  Holland,  and  Germany. 

SESSIONS,  ARTHUR,  apptd.  supt.  of  trans- 
portation, Central  div.,  July  li,  1908;  had  charge 
of  all  trains  moving  dirt  from  Culebra  Cut;  born 
Macon,  Miss.;  went  to  Isthmus  as  trainmaster, 
1905;  asst.  supt.,  1906. 

SHANTON,  GEORGE  R.,  apptd.  chief  of  police, 
Canal  Zone,  1905. 

SHARP,  BARTHOLOMEW,  English  buccaneer; 
in  1680  endeavored,  with  a  large  force,  to  swoop 
down  on  Panama  and  capture  the  gold  fleet,  but 
was  induced  by  a  native  cacique  to  attempt  a 
raid  on  Santa  Maria.  The  raid  was  successful 
in  capturing  the  town  and  the  garrison,  but  they 
found  little  booty.  This  so  enraged  the  free- 
booters that  they  slaughtered  their  prisoners. 
Sharp  pushed  on  to  Panama,  where  he  was 
attacked  by  three  Spanish  war  vessels.  He 
captured  all  three,  but  was  finally  driven  off. 
Later  he  was  tried  in  London  for  piracy  and 
acquitted. 

SHERMAN,  EDWARD  C.,  civil  engr.;  born 
Kingston,  Mass.,  1877;  grad.  Mass.  Inst.  Tech., 
1898;  engaged  in  designing  Cambridge  bridge, 
Cambridge-Boston,  1900-3;  designed  river  im- 
provements vicinity  of  Boston,  1905-9;  went  to 
Isthmus,  1909,  engaged  in  designing  dams  and 
spillways;  married  Kathrine  Buck,  1907. 

SHONTS,  THEODORE  P.,  chairman  Isthmian 
Canal  Commission,  1905-7;  president  Inter- 
borough  Rapid  Transit  Co.,  N.  Y.;  born  Craw- 
ford Co.,  Pa.,  May  5,  1856;  son  of  Dr.  Henry 
Daniels  and  Margaret  Nevin  Marshall  Shonts; 
removed  with  parents  in  boyhood  to  la. ;  married 
Harriet  Amelia,  daughter  of  Gen.  (afterwards 
Gov.)  Francis  M.  Drake,  of  Centerville,  la.,  1882; 
A.  B.,  Monmouth  (111.)  Col.,  1876;  after  gradua- 
tion became  an  accountant  and  employed  by 
nat.  banks  in  la.  to  standardize  and  simplify 
methods  of  bookkeeping;  studied  law  and  prac- 


BIOGRAPHICAL 


483 


ticed  a  short  time  at  Centerville;  became  asso- 
ciated with  Gen.  Drake,  who  had  large  financial 
and  railroad  interests,  and  who  placed  much  of 
the  work  of  management  and  constrn.  in  his 
hands;  had  charge  of  constrn.  of  la.  Cent.  R.  R., 
afterwards  built  the  Mo.,  la.  &  Neb.  R.  R.,  and 
later  the  Ind.,  111.  and  la.  R.  R.  and  was 
its  controlling  owner,  later  selling  it  to  the 
L.  S.  &  M.  S.  R.  R.  Co.;  with  others  se- 
cured control  of  Toledo,  St.  Louis  and  Western 
R.  R.,  which  he  rehabilitated  and  made  suc- 
cessful; selected  by  Pres.  Roosevelt  as  chmn. 
of  Isthmian  Canal  Comn.;  pres.  Interborough 
Met.  Co.,  Toledo,  St.  Louis  and  Western  R.  R. 
Co.,  C.  &  A.  R.  R.  Co.,  Minneapolis  &  St. 
Louis  R.  R.  Co.,  la.  Central  R.  R.  Co.,  since  Feb. 
1907;  add.,  165  Broadway,  New  York. 

SHONTZ,  G.  M.,  pros,  atty.,  Canal  Zone,  until 
April,  1910. 

SIBERT,  WILLIAM  LUTHER,  brig.  gen.  Corps 
of  Engrs.,  U.  S.  A.,  mem.  Isthmian  Canal  Comn., 
and  div.  engr.  Atlantic  div.  Isthmian  Canal  Comn. 
in  charge  of  constrn.  Gatun  Locks  and  Dam, 
Breakwaters,  Colon  Harbor,  etc.,  April  i,  1907- 
April  i,  1914;  born  Gadsden,  Ala.,  Oct.  12,  1860; 
son  of  William  J.  and  Marietta  Ward  Sibert; 
married  Mary  Margaret  Cummings  of  Browns- 
ville, Tex.,  Sept.,  1887;  ed.  Univ.  of  Ala.,  1878-80; 
grad.  U.  S.  Mil.  Acad.,  1884;  apptd.  2d  It.  of 
engrs.,  June  15,  1884;  grad.  Engr.  Sch.  of  Appli- 
cation, 1887;  1st  It.,  April  7,  1888;  capt.,  March 
31,  1896;  maj.,  April  23,  1904;  It.  col.,  1909; 
brig,  gen.,  March  4,  1915;  asst.  engr.  river  work 
in  Ky.,  1887-92;  in  charge  of  constrn.  ship  channel 
connecting  Great  Lakes,  1892-4;  in  charge  en- 
gring.  river  and  harbor  dist.  (Ark.),  1894-8;  instr. 
civ.  engring.,  Engr.  Sch.  of  Application,  1898-9; 
chief  engr.  8th  Army  Corps,  and  chief  engr.  and 
gen.  mgr.  Manila  &  Dagupan  R.  R.,  1899-1900; 
in  charge  engring.  river  and  harbor  dists.  (head- 
quarters Louisville  and  Pittsburgh)  1900-7; 
mem.  Engrs.  Soc.  of  Western  Pa.,  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.; 
comdg.  Pacific  coast  artillery  dist.;  add.  Ft. 
Miley,  Cal. 

SLIFER,  H.  J.,  gen.  mgr.,  P.  R.  R.  Co.,  1908-9. 

SMITH,  H.  A.  A.,  auditor,  The  Panama  Canal, 
since  April  i,  1914;  apptd.  exam,  accounts, 
Canal  Zone,  May  12,  1911;  add.  Empire, 
Canal  Zone. 

SMITH,  J.  A.,  supt.  P.  R.  R.  Co.  beginning  1909; 
began  railroading  on  Penna.  R.  R.  as  teleg.  opr. 
at  Mill  Creek,  Pa.,  1881;  pres.  Colon  Club. 

SMITH,  JACKSON,  mem.  Isthmian  Canal  Comn., 
March  i,  i9O7~Sept.  15,  1908;  in  charge  of  labor 
recruiting  under  Chm.  Shonts  and  Ch.  Eng. 
Stevens;  chief  dept.  labor  and  quarters. 

SMITH,  RAY  LOW,  chf.  appt.  div.,  The  Panama 
Canal,  since  1904;  born  Braidwood,  111.,  Jan.  5, 
1877;  son  of  Theodore  T.  and  Lucy  O.  Smith; 
married  Alice  Bates,  BraceviHe,  111.,  Dec.  31, 
1901;  grad.  scientific  course  Valparaiso  (Ind.) 
Col.,  1899;  Ind.  Univ.,  1899-1900;  supt. 
schools,  BraceviHe,  111.,  three  years;  elk.  U.  S. 
Govt.  service,  1903;  add.,  The  Panama  Canal, 
Washington,  D.  C. 

SNEED,  J.  W.,  supt.  Chagres  section  P.  R.  R.  to 
Aug.  19,  1912;  born  Memphis,  Tenn.;  went  to 


Isthmus,  1906,  as  conductor;  promoted  to  supt. 
Bas  Obispo  dist.,  1907,  Chagres  section,  1910. 

SOLIS,  JUAN  DIAZ  de,  Spanish  navigator;  born 
at  Lebrija,  Spain,  1470;  associated  with  Vicente 
Pinzon  in  explorations  of  Honduras,  Yucatan 
and  South  American  coast;  apptd.  chief  pilot  of 
Spain,  1512;  sailed  in  1515  to  seek  southwestern 
route  to  the  Pacific;  entered  Rio  de  la  Plata  and 
was  killed  by  Indians,  1516. 

SPOONER,  JOHN  COIT,  author  of  act  of  Congress 
under  which  Panama  Canal  was  acquired  and 
constructed;  born  Lawrenceburg,  Ind.,  Jan.  6, 
1843;  son  of  Judge  Philip  L.  and  Lydia  Coit 
Spooner;  married  Annie  E.  Main,  of  Madison, 
Wis.,  Sept.  10,  1868;  removed  to  Madison,  Wis., 
1859;  A.  B.,  Univ.  of  Wis.,  1864;  (hon.  Ph.B., 
A.M.,  1869,  LL.D.,  1895;  LL.D.,  Yale,  1908; 
Columbia,  1909);  served  pvt.  Co.  A.,  Wis.  Inf.; 
pvt.  and  mil.  secy,  to  Gov.  Lucius  Fairchild,  of 
Wis.,  1866-7;  admitted  to  bar,  1867;  asst. 
atty.  gen.  of  Wis.,  and  in  general  practice  at 
Madison,  1867-70;  practiced  at  Hudson,  Wis., 
1870-84;  regent  of  Univ.  of  Wis.,  1882-5;  mem. 
Wis.  Assembly,  1872;  U.  S.  Senate,  1885-91, 
and  1897-1907;  resigned  March  3,  to  take  effect 
May  i,  1907;  since  in  law  practice  at  New  York; 
chm.  Wis.  delegation  Rep.  Nat.  convs.,  1888, 
1892;  candidate  for  gov.  of  Wis.,  1892;  tendered 
portfolio  of  Sec.  of  the  Interior  by  Pres.  McKinley, 
1898;  Brit.-Am.  Joint  High  Comn.,  1898,  and 
Atty.  Gen.  of  U.  S.,  1901,  but  declined;  add., 
14  Wall  st.,  New  York. 

SPRATLING,  L.  W.,  med.  inspr.,  U.  S.  N.,  supt. 
Colon  hosp.,  1904;  add.  Navy  Recruiting  Sta., 
Atlanta,  Ga. 

STANTON,  F.  C.,  asst.  engr.,  Chagres  div.,  since 
Sept.  25,  1907. 

STEARNS,  FREDERICK  PIKE,  mem.  inter- 
national board  consulting  engineers  on  Panama 
Canal;  born  Calais,  Maine,  1851;  hon.  A.  M., 
Harvard,  1905;  D.  Sc.,  Univ.  of  Pa.,  1906;  married 
Addie  C.  Richardson,  of  Framingham,  Mass., 
June  21,  1876;  chief  engr.  Mass.  Met.  water 
works,  1895-1907;  mem.  bd.  of  consulting  engrs. 
Panama  Canal,  1907-1909. 

STEPHENS,  JOHN  LLOYD,  organized  Panama 
Railroad  Company  with  Wm.  H.  Aspinwall  and 
Henry  Chauncey,  and  was  first  v.  p.,  and  later 
pres.  of  co.;  born  Shrewsbury,  N.  J.,  Nov.  28, 
1805;  ed.  Columbia  Col.;  practiced  law  in  New 
York;  1839  apptd.  special  agent  of  U.  S.  to  Cen- 
tral America  by  Pres.  Van  Buren;  assisted  in 
establishing  first  line  of  steamers  between  New 
York  and  Bremen;  died  in  New  York  City 
Oct.  10,  1852;  monument  erected  to  him  on 
highest  point  of  Panama  Railroad. 

STERNS,  F.  E.,  asst.  engr.,  lock  gates  and  pro- 
tective works;  mem.  staff  Washington  Off., 
Isthmian  Canal  Comn.,  until  Oct.  1908,  then 
transferred  to  Canal  Zone. 

STEVENS,  JOHN  F.,  chief  engr.,  Panama  Canal, 
i9O5~April  I,  1907,  and  chm.  Isthmian  Canal 
Comn.,  Feb.-March,  1907;  born  Gardiner, 
Maine,  April  25,  1853;  son  of  John  and  Harriet 
Stevens;  married  Harriet  T.  O'Brien,  Dallas, 
Tex.,  Jan.  6,  1887;  asst.  engr.,  City  of  Min- 
neapolis, 1874-6;  ch.  engr.,  Sabine  Pass  and 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


Northwestern  Ry.,  1876-9;  asst.  engr.,  D.  & 
R.  G.  Ry.,  1879-80;  C,  M.  &  St.  P.  Ry.,  1880-2; 
div.  engr.,  Canadian  Pac.  Ry.,  1882-6;  asst. 
engr.,  C.,  M.  &.  St.  P.  Ry.,  1886;  prin.  asst.  engr., 
Duluth,  South  Shore  &  Atlantic  Ry.,  1887-9; 
asst.  engr.  Spokane  Falls  &  Northern  Ry.,  1889; 
prin.  asst.  engr.,  1889-93;  asst-  chief  engr., 
1 893-5,  chief  engr.,  1895-1902;  gen.  mgr., 
1902-3,  G.  N.  Ry.;  chief  engr.,  1903-4;  2d  v.  p. 
1904-5,  C.,  R.  I.  &  P.  Ry.  Co.;  v.  p.,  N.  Y., 
N.  H.,  &  H.  R.  R.,  in  charge  operation,  1907-9; 
pres.  Spokane,  Portland  &  Seattle  Ry.,  Ore. 
Electric  Ry.,  Oregon  Trunk  Ry.,  Pacific  &  Eastern 
Ry.,  1909-11;  mem.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.;  add.,  45 
Wall  st.,  New  York. 

STICKLE,  H.  W.,  maj.  Corps  of  Engrs.,  U.  S.  A.; 
born  Anamosa,  Iowa;  grad.  West  Point,  1899; 
apptd.  asst.  div.  engr.  Gatun  locks  div.,  1907; 
asst.  engr.,  Atlantic  div.,  1909. 

STIMSON,  HENRY  L.,  born  New  York,  Sept  21, 
1867;  son  of  Lewis  Atterbury  and  Candace 
(Wheeler)  Stimson;  A.B.,  Yale,  1888;  A.M., 
Harvard,  1889;  Harvard  Law  Sch.,  1889-90; 
married  Mabel  Wellington  White  of  New  Haven, 
1893;  admitted  to  bar,  1891 ;  U.  S.  atty.  Southern 
Dist.,  N.  Y.,  1906-9;  Rep.  candidate  for  Gov. 
N.  Y.,  1910;  Secy,  of  War  in  Cabinet  of  Pres.  Taft, 
May,  ign-March  5,  1913,  and  active  in  super- 
vising affairs  of  Panama  Canal;  add.  32  Liberty 
st.,  New  York. 

STONE,  A.  K.,  railroad  man;  born  Ind.;  common 
sch.  ed.;  brakeman,  conductor,  train  master,  etc., 
on  various  railroads;  went  to  Isthmus,  1905,  as 
train  master  central  div.,  1910;  master  of  trans- 
portation, Panama  R.  R. 

STRICKLAND,  G.  B.,  res.  engr.,  1st  dist.,  dept. 
of  Constrn.  and  Eng.,  Corozal,  until  April  i, 
1909. 

STROM,  CARL  E.,  ch.  mech.  engr.,  Canal  Zone, 
1904;  apptd.  supt.  motive  power  and  machinery, 
Canal  Zone,  1905. 

SULLIVAN,  J.  G.,  first  asst.  engr.  under  Ch.  Eng. 
Stevens;  chief  engr.  Canadian  Pacific  Ry. 


TAFT,  WILLIAM  HOWARD,  twenty-sevenih 
President  of  United  States;  official  head  of 
Isthmian  affairs  as  Secy,  of  War  under  Pres. 
Roosevelt;  born  Cincinnati,  Ohio,  Sept.  15,  1857; 
son  of  Alphonso  and  Louisa  Maria  (Torrey) 
Taft;  grad.  Woodward  High  Sch.,  Cincinnati, 
1874;  B.A.,  Yale,  1878;  LL.B.,  Cincinnati  Law 
Sch.,  1880;  (LL.D.,  Yale,  1893;  Univ.  of  Pa., 
1902;  Harvard,  1905;  Miami  Univ.,  1905;  State 
Univ.  of  la.,  1907;  Wesleyan,  1909;  Princeton, 
1912;  McGill  Univ.,  1913;  D.C.L.,  Hamilton, 
1913);  married  Helen  Herron,  Cincinnati,  June 
19,  1886;  admitted  to  Ohio  bar,  1880;  law 
reporter,  Cincinnati  Times,  and  later  of  Cin- 
cinnati Commercial,  1880;  asst.  pros,  atty., 
Hamilton  Co.,  O.,  1881-3;  practiced  law  at 
Cincinnati,  1883-7;  judge,  Superior  Ct.,  Cin- 
cinnati, 1887-90;  sol.  gen.  of  U.  S.,  1890-2; 
U.  S.  circuit  judge,  6th  circuit,  1892-1900; 
pres.  U.  S.  Philippine  Comn.,  1900-1;  first  civ. 
gov.  P.  I.,  1901-4;  sent  to  Cuba  by  Pres.  Roose- 


velt to  adjust  insurrection  there,  1906,  and  acted 
for  short  time  as  prov.  gov.;  elec.  President  of 
U.  S.,  for  term  1909-13;  professor  of  law,  Yale 
Univ.;  add.  New  Haven,  Conn. 

TENNEY,  M.  W.,  asst.  engr.,  supt.  constrn. 
Culebra,  Canal  Zone,  since  Feb.  3,  1913. 

THATCHER,  MAURICE  HUDSON,  mem.  Isth- 
mian  Canal  Comn.,  April  12,  igio-Aug.  8,  1913; 
head  dept.  civil  administration,  Canal  Zone, 
May  13,  igio-Aug.  8,  1913;  born  Chicago,  111., 
Aug.  15,  1870;  son  of  John  C.  and  Mary  T. 
(Graves)  Thatcher;  ed.  pub.  and  pvt.  schools, 
Ky.;  studied  law  at  Frankfort,  Ky.,  1896-8; 
married  Annie  Bell  Chinn,  of  Frankfort,  May  4, 
1910;  admitted  to  Ky.  bar,  1898;  asst.  atty. 
gen.  of  Ky.,  1898-1900;  asst.  U.  S.  Atty.  for 
Western  Dist.  of  Ky.,  1901-6;  in  gen.  practice, 
Louisville,  1906-10;  state  inspr.  and  examr.  for 
Ky.,  1908-10;  practicing  law  at  Louisville; 
add.,  Paul  Jones  Bldg.,  Louisville,  Ky. 

THOM,  LESLIE  GRANT,  civil  engr.;  connected 
with  municipal  improvements,  Colon  and  Pana- 
ma; supt.  municip.  eng.,  Atlantic  div.,  Gatun. 

THOMPSON,  JOHN  W.,  magistrate,  The  Panama 
Canal,  since  April  I,  1914;  add.,  Cristobal, 
Canal  Zone. 

THOMSON,  THADDEUS  AUSTIN,  diplomat; 
born  Burleson  Co.,  Tex.,  1853;  home,  Austin, 
Tex.;  ed.  Salado  Col.,  Tex.  Mil.  Inst.;  ad.  to 
bar,  1883;  planter,  ranch  owner;  apptd.  Min- 
ister to  Colombia,  June  10,  1913;  negotiated  and 
signed  treaty  with  Colombia. 

THURSTON,  LORRIN  ANDREWS,  lawyer; 
born  Honolulu,  H.  T.,  1858;  grad.  Columbia 
Law  Sch.,  N.  Y.;  married  Harriet  Potter,  St. 
Joseph,  Mich.,  1894;  Min.  Interior,  Kingdom  of 
Hawaii,  1887-90;  mem.  House  of  Nobles,  1892; 
Mem.  Com.  of  Safety,  1893;  mem.  Advisory 
Council,  prov.  govt.,  1893;  Spl.  Comr.  to  U.  S 
to  negotiate  annex.,  1893;  Min.  to  U.  S.,  1893; 
Min.  of  Haw.  Republic  to  U.  S.,  1894;  to  Por- 
tugal, 1894;  Spl.  Comr.  to  U.  S.  to  negotiate 
treaty  of  annex.,  1897;  pres.  Hawaiian  Gazette 
Co.,  Olaa  Sugar  Co.;  int.  in  other  companies; 
author;  res.,  Honolulu,  H.  T. 

TOBEY,  E.  C.,  paym.,  U.  S.  N.,  apptd.  ch.  dept. 
material  and  supplies,  Canal  Zone,  1904-07; 
later  in  Bu.  Supplies  and  Accounts,  Navy  Dept., 
Washington,  D.  C. 

TUCKER,  HERMAN  FRANKLIN,  apptd.  de- 
signing engr.  dept.  of  lock  and  gate  and  dam 
constrn.,  Culebra,  1907;  apptd.  designing  engr. 
masonry  and  lock  design,  at  Culebra,  1908; 
born  Weston,  Mass.,  1878;  grad.  Harvard,  1901; 
engr.  for  Dominion  Eng.  &  Constrn.  Co.,  Mon- 
treal, 1906. 

V 

VALDES,  RAMON  M.,  late  Minister  of  Panama 
to  Washington;  ed.  at  Cartagena;  rep.  of 
Panama  in  Colombian  Cong.;  later  secy,  of 
Public  Education;  practiced  law;  apptd.  Secy, 
of  State  and  of  Justice  by  Pres.  Obaldia,  and 
continued  during  interim  term  of  Pres.  Mendoza; 
apptd.  Panama's  spec.  del.  to  the  Hudson  and 
Fulton  Centennial  Celebration  at  New  York, 
1909;  apptd.  Minister  to  Washington  by  Pres. 


BUILDINGS  OF  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA,  WHERE  MANY  MEN  WHO  WORKED  ON  THE 
CANAL  AND  WHO  SUPPLIED  EQUIPMENT,  RECEIVED  THEIR  SCIENTIFIC  TRAINING 

1.  Provost  Edgar  F.  Smith. 

2.  Engineering  building. 

3.  Harrison  laboratory  of  chemistry. 


BIOGRAPHICAL 


485 


Porras,  but  was  forced  to  resign  on  account  of 
ill  health. 

VERNON,  EDWARD,  British  admiral;  born 
Westminster,  Nov.  12,  1684;  entered  British 
navy  in  1700,  and  served  during  war  of  Spanish 
Succession,  1701-13;  entered  Parliament  in  1722, 
retaining  his  position  in  the  navy;  bombarded 
and  took  Porto  Bello,  1739;  repulsed  from  Car- 
tagena in  1741,  and  in  1746  was  stricken  from 
the  list  of  admirals  for  publishing  pamphlets 
reflecting  on  the  admiralty;  died  at  Nacton, 
Suffolk,  Eng.,  Oct.  30,  1751. 

w 

WALKER,  J.  A.,  supt.  dept.  Operation  and  Main- 
tenance, The  Panama  Canal,  since  April  i,  1914; 
add.,  Balboa,  Canal  Zone. 

WALKER,  JOHN  G.,  rear  adm.,  U.  S.  N.;  chmn. 
Nicaragua  Canal  Comn.;  chmn.  Isthmian  Canal 
Comn.  March  8,  roxH-March  3 1,1905;  bornHills- 
boro,  N.  H.,  March  25,  1835;  son  of  Alden  and 
Susan  (Grimes)  Walker;  married  Rebecca  White 
in  Sept.  1866;  apptd.  to  U.  S.  Nav.  Acad.  from 
Iowa,  1850;  grad.  at  head  of  his  class  in  1856; 
apptd.  It.,  1858;  instr.  of  math,  at  Annapolis, 
1859-60;  served  in  Civil  War  under  Farragut 
and  Porter;  1866  specially  promoted  to  comdr.; 
ch.  Bu.  Nav.,  1881;  made  acting  rear  adml.  and 
given  command  of  the  White  Squadron,  1889; 
ch.  of  Pacific  Squadron,  and  apptd.  full  rear 
adml.,  1894;  retired  in  1897;  died,  1907. 

WALLACE,  JOHN  FINDLEY,  first  chief  engr., 
Panama  Canal;  conducted  extensive  surveys  and 
examinations  and  created  the  initial  organiza- 
tion; born  Fall  River,  Mass.,  Sept.  10,  1852; 
son  of  David  A.  and  Martha  Findley  Wallace; 
married  Sarah  E.  Ulmer,  of  Monmouth,  111.; 
student  Monmouth  (111.)  Col.;  C.  E.  of  Wooster, 
1882;  (LL.D.  Monmouth  Col.,  1904;  Sc.  D., 
Armour  Inst.,  Chicago);  asst.  U.  S.  engr.  on 
upper  Mississippi  River  and  improvements  of 
Rock  Island  Rapids,  1871-6;  co.  surveyor  and 
city  engr.,  1876-8;  chief  engr.  and  supt.  Peoria 
&  Farmington  R.  R.,  1878-81;  Central  la.  Ry.  in 
111.,  1881-3;  constrn.  engr.  and  master  of  trans- 
portation Central  la.  Ry.,  1883-6;  bridge  engr. 
A.  T.  &  S.  F.  R.  R.,  1886-9;  res.  engr.,  Chicago, 
Madison  &  Northern  R.  R.,  1889-91;  with 
L.  C.  R.  R.,  1891-4,  as  engr.  of  constrn.  1891-2; 
chief  engr.,  1892-7;  asst.  to  2d  v.  p.,  1897-1900; 
asst.  gen.  mgr.,  1900-1;  gen.  mgr.,  1901-4;  first 
chief  engr.  Panama  Canal,  1904;  Isthmian  Canal 
Comnr.  and  v.p.  and  gen.  mgr.  Panama  Rail- 
road and  Steamship  Co.,  1905;  designed  and 
constructed  World's  Fair  terminals,  Chicago, 
1892;  also  new  pass,  terminals  for  C.  &  N.  W. 
R.  R.,  Chicago;  pres.  of  Electric  Properties  Co., 
New  York,  since  1906;  also  chmn.  Bd.  Dirs. 
Westinghouse,  Church,  Kerr  &  Co.;  past  pres. 
Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Am.  Ry.  Engrg.  Assn.,  Western 
Soc.  Engrs.;  mem.  Instn.  Civ.  Engrs.,  Great 
Britain;  clubs — Century,  Railroad,  Engineers, 
Sleepy  Hollow  Country  (New  York),  Metro- 
politan, Cosmos,  (Washington),  Chicago,  Union 
League  (Chicago);  add.,  37  Wall  St.,  New  York. 

WARDLAW,  R.  H.,  gen.  cashier  P.  R.  R.;    born 


S.  C.;  went  to  Isthmus,  1889,  as  freight  agent 
Panama;  apptd.  gen.  cashier,  1897. 

WARREN,  H.  P.,  engr.  of  constrn.,  Panama 
Railroad  relocation,  until  1911. 

WARWICK,  WALTER  W.,  exam,  accts.  and  aud. 
Canal  Zone,  since  June,  1908;  native  of  Lucas- 
ville,  Ohio;  ed.  pub.  sch.,  Cincinnati;  grad. 
Law  Sch.  Cin.  Col.,  1890;  practiced  in  Cin- 
cinnati, later  went  to  Washington  to  enter  govt. 
employ;  chief  law  elk.  U.  S.  Treasury,  1904; 
apptd.  to  Wash.  Off.  Isthmian  Canal  Comn., 
1904,  and  June  1908,  transferred  to  Isthmus; 
asso.  jus.  Supreme  Court,  Canal  Zone,  March 
ign-May  1911;  transferred  to  Washington  as 
mem.  President's  Com.  on  Economy  and  Effi- 
ciency; married  Minnie  McCormick,  1906. 

WATT,  JOHN  M.  G.,  apptd.  asst.  office  engr., 
dept.  of  constrn.  and  engrg.,  Canal  Zone,  Feb. 
I,  1909. 

WEAVER,  JOHN  HEISLEY,  pres.  J.  H.  Weaver 
&  Co.,  Phila. ;  son  of  George  Weaver;  ed.  pub. 
schs.  and  at  Dickinson  Sem.,  Williamsport,  Pa.; 
entered  service  of  P.  R.  R.  Co.,  as  messenger  boy, 
and  later  became  clerk;  employed  by  Williams- 
port  Iron  &  Nail  Co.,  as  mgr.,  and  subsequently 
engaged  with  Donaldson  &  Thomas,  Phila.,  as 
salesman;  1887  embarked  in  business  for  him- 
self; one  of  the  pioneers  in  development  of  coal 
areas  in  Indiana  Co.,  Pa.;  mem.  Pa.  Soc.,  Union 
League,  Phila. 

WEIDMAN,  CHARLES  E.,  chief,  Fire  Dept.,  Ca- 
nal Zone;  born  Illinois;  ed.  pub.  schools;  went  to 
Isthmus,  1905;  made  fire  chief,  Dec.,  1905. 

WELLS,  GEORGE  M.,  res.  engr.,  dept.  Operation 
and  Maintenance,  The  Panama  Canal,  since 
April  I,  1914;  office  engr.  in  local  chg.  municipal 
engrg.,  Gatun,  June,  1912 ; add.  Culebra,  Canal  Zone. 

WHITE,  HENRY,  diplomatist;  born  Baltimore, 
March  29,  1850;  ed.  priv.  schs.,  U.  S.  and  France; 
(LL.D.  St.  Andrew's,  Scot.);  married  Margaret 
Stuyvesant  Rutherfurd,  N.  Y.,  1879;  secy, 
legation,  Vienna,  London,  1883-86;  secy, 
embassy,  London,  1897-05,  frequently  chargi 
d'affaires,  participating  in  negotiation  of  Hay- 
Pauncefote  treaty;  del.  to  conf.  at  Algeciras, 
1906;  ambass.  to  Italy,  1905-7,  to  France, 
1907-09;  del.  to  Pan-Am,  conf.,  Buenos  Aires, 
spl.  ambass.  to  Chile,  1910;  add.,  1624  Crescent 
PL,  N.  W.,  Washington,  D.  C. 

WHITMER,  ROBERT  FOSTER,  pres.  William 
Whitmer  &  Sons,  Inc.,  Phila.,  contractors  with 
Panama  Canal;  born  Hartleton,  Pa.,  Jan.  25, 
1864;  son  of  William  and  Catharine  A.  Whitmer; 
ed.  State  Col.,  and  Lafayette  (B.  A.,  Lafayette); 
married  Mary  Packer  at  Sunbury,  Pa.,  April, 
1891;  clubs — University,  Union  League,  Rac- 
quet; add.,  Franklin  Bank  Bldg.,  Phila.,  Pa. 

WHITMORE,  SAMUEL  WASHINGTON,  pres. 
The  Whitmore  Mfg.  Co.,  Cleveland,  O.,  contrac- 
tors with  Panama  Canal;  born  Llewellyn  Park, 
Orange,  N.  J.;  son  of  Samuel  McCready  and 
Lavinia  A.  Whitmore;  ed.  Geneva,  N.  Y.; 
married  Ethlinda  Stuckenholt  at  Cleveland,  O., 
Aug.  5,  1884;  clubs — Cleveland  Athletic;  add., 
Erie  Railroad  and  E.  37th  St.,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

WIGGINS,  P.  R.,  gen.  engr.,  in  charge  of  field  work, 
3d  div.,  Chagres  div.,  Culebra,  1910-11. 


486 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


WILLIAMS,  EDWARD  J.,  apptd.  disbursing 
officer,  Isthmian  Canal  Comn.,  Nov.  21,  1905, 
serving  until  canal  was  completed;  native  of 
West  Salem,  Wis.;  ed.  pub.  sen.,  LaCrosse,  Wis., 
grad.,  1889,  West  Salem  High  Sch.;  grad.  North- 
western Univ.,  1895;  1897-1905  paym.  and 
traveling  auditor  C.  &  N.  W.  Py.;  married 
Helen  Mary  Burton,  Dec.  7,  1907. 

WILLIAMSON,  S.  B.,  div.  engr.,  Pacific  div., 
until  Dec.  n,  1912. 

WILLSON,  F.  D.,  ch.  hydrographer,  The  Panama 
Canal,  since  April  I,  1914;  apptd.  inspr. 
meteorological  and  hydrographic  work  under 
3d.  div.  dept.  constrn.  and  engrg,  Canal  Zone. 
1907;  add.,  Culebra,  Canal  Zone. 

WILSON,  EUGENE  TRIMBLE,  It.  col.  Coast 
Art.  Corps,  U.  S.  A.,  ret.,  served  in  charge  of 
subsistence  dept.,  Canal  Zone;  born  May  28, 
1867;  grad.  U.  S.  Mil.  Acad.  and  add.  2d  It., 
art.  corps.,  June  II,  1888;  2d  It.,  Dec.  4,  1888; 
1st  It.,  Feb.  12,  1895;  capt.,  Feb.  2,  1901;  maj., 
Jan.  25,  1907;  It.  col.  Coast  Art.  Corps.,  Dec.  5, 
1911;  grad.  Sch.  of  Submarine  Defence,  1906; 
Army  War  Col.,  1907;  apptd.  to  charge  of  sub- 
sistence dept.,  Canal  Zone,  June  30,  1908;  add., 
R.  F.  D.  7,  London,  Ohio. 

WILSON,  WOODROW,  twenty-eighth  President 
of  the  United  States;  born  Staunton,  Va., 
Dec.  28,  1856;  son  of  Rev.  Joseph  R.  and  Jessie 
(Woodrow)  Wilson;  ed.  Davidson  Col.,  1874-5; 
A.B.,  Princeton,  1879,  A.M.,  1882;  grad.  in  law, 
Univ.  of  Va.,  1881;  prac.  law  at  Atlanta,  Ga.f 
1882-3;  post  grad.  work  at  Johns  Hopkins, 
1883-5;  Ph.D.,  1886;  (LL.D.,  Wake  Forest, 
1887;  Tulane,  1898;  Johns  Hopkins,  1902; 
Rutgers,  1902;  Univ.  of  Pa.,  1903;  Brown,  1903; 
Harvard,  1907;  Williams,  1908;  Dartmouth, 
1909;  Litt.  D.,  Yale,  1909);  married  Ellen  Louise 
Axson,  of  Savannah,  Ga.,  June  24,  1885  (died 
1914);  pres.  1902-10,  Princeton  Univ.;  gov.  of 
N.  J.,  1911-13  (resigned);  elec.  President  for 
term  1913-17. 

WOOD,  LEONARD,  maj.  gen.,  U.  S.  A.;  born 
Winchester,  N.  H.,  Oct.  9,  1860;  son  of  Charles 
Jewett  and  Caroline  E.  (Hagar);  grad.  Harvard 
(M.D.)  1884;  (LL.D.,  Harvard,  Williams,  Univ. 
of  Pa.);  married  Louisa  Condit  Smith,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  Nov.  1 8,  1890;  apptd.  asst.  surg. 
U.  S.  A.,  Jan.  5,  1886;  capt.,  asst.  surg.,  Jan.  5, 
1891;  colonel  1st  U.  S.  Vol.  Cav.,  1898;  brig, 
gen.,  July  8,  1898,  for  services  at  Las  Guasimas 
and  San  Juan  Hill;  maj.  gen.,  Dec.  7,  1898; 


hon.  disch.  from  vol.  service,  1899;  brig,  gen., 
U.  S.  A.,  1899;  maj.  gen.  1903;  awarded  Cong, 
med.  honor,  1898,  for  disting.  conduct  in  cam- 
paign agt.  Apaches  1886;  mil.  gov.  Cuba,  1899- 
1902;  gov.  MoroProv.,  P.  I.,  1903-6;  commander 
Phil,  div.,  1906-8;  com.  Dept.  of  East,  1908-9; 
spl.  ambass.  Argentina,  1910;  chief  of  staff, 
U.  S.  A.,  1910-14,  and  had  supervision  of  plans 
for  fortification  of  Panama  Canal;  com.  Dept.  of 
East;  add.  Governors  Island,  N.  Y. 

WOOD,  ROBERT  E.,  maj.  3d  Cav.,  U.  S.  A.,  ch. 
qmr.,  The  Panama  Canal;  born  Kansas  City, 
Mo.,  June  10,  1879;  ed.  Put>-  sch.;  grad.  U.  S. 
Mil.  Acad.,  1900;  1st  It.,  Feb.  2,  1909;  capt., 
May  3,  1911;  maj.,  1915;  ordered  to  Isthmus 
qmr.  dept.,  1905;  add.  Culebra,  Canal  Zone. 

WOOD,  WILLIAM  M.;  born  Spring  Valley,  N.  Y.; 
grad.  Agric.  and  Mech.  Col.,  Texas,  as  civil 
engr.;  went  to  Isthmus,  1904,  as  chief  clerk  dis- 
bursing dept.;  apptd.  asst.  disbursing  officer, 
Aug.  10,  1910. 

WRIGHT,  DANIEL  E.,  supt.  municipal  work  and 
pipe  lines,  The  Panama  Canal;  apptd.  asst.  engr. 
Central  Div.,  Canal  Zone,  Aug.  9,  1909. 

WRIGHT,  LUKE  E.,  ex-Secretary  of  War;  born 
in  Tenn.,  1846;  son  of  Archibald  W.,  chief  justice 
of  Tenn.;  admitted  to  Tenn.  bar;  (LL.D., 
Hamilton,  1903);  married  Kate,  daughter  of 
Admiral  Semmes,  C.  S.  N.;  had  three  sons  in 
service,  Span.-Am.  War;  atty.-gen.  Tenn.,  mem. 
Philippine  Com.,  1900-4  (pres.  1903-4);  civil 
gov.  P.  I.,  1904;  gov.  gen.  until  1906;  ambas- 
sador to  Japan,  1906-7;  Secretary  of  War  in 
Roosevelt  cabinet,  1908-9,  with  supervision  of 
Panama  Canal;  add.,  Memphis,  Tenn. 

WYSE,  LUCIEN  NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE, 
French  naval  officer;  obtained  concession  from 
Colombia  for  Isthmian  Canal  across  Panama, 
1878;  sold  concession  in  1879  to  de  Lesseps. 


ZINN,  A.  S.,  res.  engr.  Central  Div.,  The  Panama 
Canal,  since  Oct.  1906;  born  Logansport,  Ind.; 
ed.  country  sch.;  grad.  Logansport  H.  S.,  1884; 
three  years  study  Rose  Poly.  Inst.,  Terre  Haute, 
Ind.;  asst.  engr.  track  elevation,  Chicago  Belt 
Ry. ;  div.  engr.  and  prin.  asst.  engr.  for  R.  I.  Ry. 
and  later  engr.  of  constrn.  for  Mich.  Cent.  Ry.; 
mem.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Western  Soc.  Engrs.,  Am. 
Eng.  and  Maintenance  of  Way  Assn.;  married 
June,  1897,  to  Mabel  Gray  Cooper  at  Joliet,  111. 


APPENDIX 


APPENDIX 


TREATIES  BETWEEN  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES 
RELATING  TO  INTEROCEANIC  COMMUNICATIONS 

NEW  GRANADA  (COLOMBIA) 

DECEMBER  12,  1846 
TREATY  OF  PEACE,  AMITY,  NAVIGATION,  AND  COMMERCE 


This  treaty  was  signed  at  Bogota  by 
Benjamin  A.  Bidlack,  United  States  Charge 
d'Affaires,  and  Manuel  Maria  Mallarino, 
Secretary  of  State  and  Foreign  Relations 
of  New  Granada.  Ratifications  were 
exchanged  June  10,  1848.  Articles  I  to 
XXXIV  inclusive  provide  for  reciprocal 
trade  relations,  define  the  duties  of  each 
country  in  the  treatment  of  vessels  and 
cargoes  during  war,  etc.  The  essential 
part  of  the  treaty  as  affecting  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama  is  Article  XXXV,  reading 
literally  as  follows: 

The  United  States  of  America  and  the  Republic 
of  New  Granada  desiring  to  make  as  durable  as 
possible,  the  relations  which  are  to  be  established 
between  the  two  parties  by  virtue  of  this  treaty, 
have  declared  solemnly,  and  do  agree  to  the  fol- 
lowing points: 

I.  For  the  better  understanding  of  the  preced- 
ing articles,  it  is,  and  has  been  stipulated,  between 
the  high  contracting  parties,  that  the  citizens, 
vessels  and  merchandise  of  the  United  States  shall 
enjoy  in  the  ports  of  New  Granada,  including  those 
of  the  part  of  the  Granadian  territory  generally 
denominated  Isthmus  of  Panamd,  from  its  southern- 
most extremity  until  the  boundary  of  Costa  Rica, 
all  the  exemptions,  privileges  and  immunities,  con- 
cerning commerce  and  navigation,  which  are  now, 
or  may  hereafter  be  enjoyed  by  Granadian  citizens, 
their  vessels  and  merchandise;  and  that  this  equal- 
ity of  favors  shall  be  made  to  extend  to  the  pas- 
sengers, correspondence  and  merchandise  of  the 
United  States  in  their  transit  across  the  said  terri- 
tory, from  one  sea  to  the  other.  The  Government 
of  New  Granada  guarantees  to  the  Government  of 
the  United  States,  that  the  right  of  way  or  transit 
across  the  Isthmus  of  Panamd  upon  any  modes  of 
communication  that  now  exist,  or  that  may  be, 
hereafter,  constructed,  shall  be  open  and  free  to  the 
Government  and  citizens  of  the  United  States,  and 
for  the  transportation  of  any  articles  of  produce, 
manufactures  or  merchandise,  of  lawful  commerce, 
belonging  to  the  citizens  of  the  United  States;  that 
no  other  tolls  or  charges  shall  be  levied  or  collected 


upon  the  citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  their 
said  merchandise  thus  passing  over  any  road  or  canal 
that  may  be  made  by  the  Government  of  New 
Granada,  or  by  the  authority  of  the  same,  than  is 
under  like  circumstances  levied  upon  and  collected 
from  the  Granadian  citizens:  that  any  lawful  prod- 
uce, manufactures  or  merchandise  belonging  to 
citizens  of  the  United  States,  thus  passing  from  one 
sea  to  the  other,  in  either  direction,  for  the  purpose  of 
exportation  to  any  other  foreign  country,  shall  not 
be  liable  to  any  import  duties  whatever;  or  having 
paid  such  duties,  they  shall  be  entitled  to  drawback 
upon  their  exportation:  nor  shall  the  citizens  of 
the  United  States  be  liable  to  any  duties,  tolls,  or 
charges  of  any  kind  to  which  native  citizens  are  not 
subjected  for  thus  passing  the  said  Isthmus.  And, 
in  order  to  secure  to  themselves  the  tranquil  and 
constant  enjoyment  of  these  advantages,  and  as  an 
especial  compensation  for  the  said  advantages  and 
for  the  favours  they  have  acquired  by  the  4th,  5th 
and  6th  articles  of  this  Treaty,  the  United  States 
guarantee  positively  and  efficaciously  to  New 
Granada,  by  the  present  stipulation,  the  perfect 
neutrality  of  the  beforementioned  Isthmus,  with 
the  view  that  the  free  transit  from  the  one  to  the 
other  sea,  may  not  be  interrupted  or  embarrassed 
in  any  future  time  while  this  Treaty  exists;  and  in 
consequence,  the  United  States  also  guarantee,  in 
the  same  manner,  the  rights  of  sovereignty  and 
property  which  New  Granada  has  and  possesses  over 

the  said  territory. 

*  *  *  * 

5.  If,  unfortunately,    any    of    the  articles   con- 
tained in  this  treaty  should  be  violated  or  infringed 
in  any  way  whatever,  it  is  expressly  stipulated  that 
neither  of  the  two  contracting  parties  shall  ordain 
or  authorize  any  acts  of  reprisal,  nor  shall  declare 
war  against  the  other  on  complaints  of  injuries  or 
damages,    until   the  said   party   considering   itself 
offended  shall  have  laid  before  the  other  a  statement 
of  such  injuries  or  damages,  verified  by  competent 
proofs,   demanding   justice    and    satisfaction,   and 
the  same  shall  have  been  denied,  in  violation  of  the 
laws  and  of  international  right. 

6.  Any    special   or   remarkable   advantage   that 
one  or  the  other  power  may  enjoy,  from  the  foregoing 
stipulations,  are  and  ought  to  be  always  understood 
in  virtue  and  as  in  compensation  of  the  obligations 
they  have  just  contracted  and  which  have  been 
specified  in  the  first  number  of  this  article. 


489 


490 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


GREAT  BRITAIN 

APRIL  19,  1850 
CLAYTON-BULWER  TREATY 


The  United  States  of  America  and  Her  Britannic 
Majesty,  being  desirous  of  consolidating  the  rela- 
tions of  amity  which  so  happily  subsist  between  them, 
by  setting  forth  and  fixing  in  a  Convention  their 
views  and  intentions  with  reference  to  any  means  of 
communication  by  Ship  Canal,  which  may  be  con- 
structed between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans, 
by  the  way  of  the  River  San  Juan  de  Nicaragua  and 
either  or  both  of  the  Lakes  of  Nicaragua  or  Mana- 
gua, to  any  port  or  place  on  the  Pacific  Ocean, — 
The  President  of  the  United  States  has  conferred 
full  powers  on  John  M.  Clayton,  Secretary  of  State  of 
the  United  States;  and  Her  Britannic  Majesty  on 
the  Right  Honourable  Sir  Henry  Lytton  Bulwer,  a 
Member  of  Her  Majesty's  Most  Honourable  Privy 
Council,  Knight  Commander  of  the  Most  Hon- 
ourable Order  of  the  Bath,  and  Envoy  Extraordi- 
nary and  Minister  Plenipotentiary  of  Her  Britannic 
Majesty  to  the  United  States,  for  the  aforesaid  pur- 
pose; and  the  said  Plenipotentiaries  having  ex- 
changed their  full  powers,  which  were  found  to  be 
in  proper  form,  have  agreed  to  the  following  articles: 

ARTICLE  I. 

The  Governments  of  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain  hereby  declare,  that  neither  the  one  nor 
the  other  will  ever  obtain  or  maintain  for  itself 
any  exclusive  control  over  the  said  Ship  Canal; 
agreeing,  that  neither  will  ever  erect  or  maintain 
any  fortifications  commanding  the  same,  or  in  the 
vicinity  thereof,  or  occupy,  or  fortify,  or  colonize,  or 
assume,  or  exercise  any  dominion  over  Nicaragua, 
Costa  Rica,  the  Mosquito  coast,  or  any  part  of 
Central  America;  nor  will  either  make  use  of  any 
protection  which  either  affords  or  may  afford,  or 
any  alliance  which  either  has  or  may  have  to  or 
with  any  state  or  people,  for  the  purpose  of  erecting 
or  maintaining  any  such  fortifications,  or  of  occupy- 
ing, fortifying,  or  colonizing  Nicaragua,  Costa  Rica, 
the  Mosquito  coast,  or  any  part  of  Central  America, 
or  of  assuming  or  exercising  dominion  over  the  same; 
nor  will  the  United  States  or  Great  Britain  take  ad- 
vantage of  any  intimacy,  or  use  any  alliance,  con- 
nection, or  influence  that  either  may  possess  with  any 
state  or  government  through  whose  territory  the 
said  canal  may  pass,  for  the  purpose  of  acquiring 
or  holding,  directly  or  indirectly,  for  the  citizens  or 
subjects  of  the  one,  any  rights  or  advantages  in  re- 
gard to  commerce  or  navigation  through  the  said 
canal  which  shall  not  be  offered  on  the  same  terms 
to  the  citizens  or  subjects  of  the  other. 

ARTICLE  II. 

Vessels  of  the  United  States  or  Great  Britain 
traversing  the  said  canal  shall,  in  case  of  war  between 
the  contracting  parties,  be  exempted  from  blockade, 
detention,  or  capture  by  either  of  the  belligerents; 
and  this  provision  shall  extend  to  such  a  distance 
from  the  two  ends  of  the  said  canal  as  may  hereafter 
be  found  expedient  to  establish. 


ARTICLE  III. 


In  order  to  secure  the  construction  of  the  said 
canal,  the  contracting  parties  engage  that  if  any 
such  canal  shall  be  undertaken  upon  fair  and  equi- 
table terms  by  any  parties  having  the  authority  of 
the  local  government  or  governments  through  whose 
territory  the  same  may  pass,  then  the  persons  em- 
ployed in  making  the  said  canal,  and  their  property 
used,  or  to  be  used,  for  that  object,  shall  be  pro- 
tected, from  the  commencement  of  the  said  canal 
to  its  completion,  by  the  Governments  of  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain,  from  unjust  detention, 
confiscation,  seizure,  or  any  violence  whatsoever. 

ARTICLE  IV. 

The  contracting  parties  will  use  whatever  in- 
fluence they  respectively  exercise  with  any  state, 
states,  or  governments  possessing  or  claiming  to 
possess  any  jurisdiction  or  right  over  the  territory 
which  the  said  canal  shall  traverse,  or  which  shall 
be  near  the  waters  applicable  thereto,  in  order  to 
induce  such  states  or  governments  to  facilitate  the 
construction  of  the  said  canal  by  every  means  in 
their  power.  And,  furthermore,  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain  agree  to  use  their  good  offices, 
wherever  or  however  it  may  be  most  expedient,  in 
order  to  procure  the  establishment  of  two  free  ports, 
one  at  each  end  of  the  said  canal. 

ARTICLE  V. 

The  contracting  parties  further  engage,  that  when 
the  said  canal  shall  have  been  completed,  they 
will  protect  it  from  interruption,  seizure,  or  unjust 
confiscation,  and  that  they  will  guarantee  the 
neutrality  thereof,  so  that  the  said  canal  may  for- 
ever be  open  and  free,  and  the  capital  invested 
therein  secure.  Nevertheless,  the  Governments  of 
the  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  in  according 
their  protection  to  the  construction  of  the  said 
canal,  and  guaranteeing  its  neutrality  and  security 
when  completed,  always  understand  that  this  pro- 
tection and  guarantee  are  granted  conditionally,  and 
may  be  withdrawn  by  both  governments,  or  either 
government,  if  both  governments,  or  either  govern- 
ment, should  deem  that  the  persons  or  company 
undertaking  or  managing  the  same  adopt  or  estab- 
lish such  regulations  concerning  the  traffic  thereupon 
as  are  contrary  to  the  spirit  and  intention  of  this 
convention,  either  by  making  unfair  discrimination 
in  favor  of  the  commerce  of  one  of  the  contracting 
parties  over  the  commerce  of  the  other,  or  by  im- 
posing oppressive  exactions  or  unreasonable  tolls 
upon  the  passengers,  vessels,  goods,  wares,  mer- 
chandise, or  other  articles.  Neither  party,  however, 
shall  withdraw  the  aforesaid  protection  and  guar- 
antee without  first  giving  six  months'  notice  to  the 
other. 

ARTICLE  VI. 

The  contracting  parties  in  this  convention  en- 
gage to  invite  every  state  with  which  both  or  either 


APPENDIX 


491 


have  friendly  intercourse  to  enter  into  stipulations 
with  them  similar  to  those  which  they  have  entered 
into  with  each  other,  to  the  end  that  all  other  states 
may  share  in  the  honor  and  advantage  of  having 
contributed  to  a  work  of  such  general  interest  and 
importance  as  the  canal  herein  contemplated.  And 
the  contracting  parties  likewise  agree  that  each  shall 
enter  into  treaty  stipulations  with  such  of  the  Cen- 
tral American  states  as  they  may  deem  advisable, 
for  the  purpose  of  more  effectually  carrying  out 
the  great  design  of  this  convention,  namely,  that  of 
constructing  and  maintaining  the  said  canal  as  a 
ship  communication  between  the  two  oceans  for 
the  benefit  of  mankind,  on  equal  terms  to  all,  and 
of  protecting  the  same;  and  they  also  agree,  that 
the  good  offices  of  either  shall  be  employed,  when 
requested  by  the  other,  in  aiding  and  assisting  the 
negotiation  of  such  treaty  stipulations;  and  should 
any  differences  arise  as  to  right  or  property  over  the 
territory  through  which  the  said  canal  shall  pass 
between  the  states  or  governments  of  Central 
America,  and  such  differences  should  in  any  way  im- 
pede or  obstruct  the  execution  of  the  said  canal,  the 
Governments  of  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain 
will  use  their  good  offices  to  settle  such  differences 
in  the  manner  best  suited  to  promote  the  interests 
of  the  said  canal,  and  to  strengthen  the  bonds  of 
friendship  and  alliance  which  exist  between  the  con- 
tracting parties. 

ARTICLE  VII. 

It  being  desirable  that  no  time  should  be  un- 
necessarily lost  in  commencing  and  constructing 
the  said  canal,  the  Governments  of  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  determine  to  give  their 
support  and  encouragement  to  such  persons  or 
company  as  may  first  offer  to  commence  the  same, 
with  the  necessary  capital,  the  consent  of  the  local 
authorities,  and  on  such  principles  as  accord  with 
the  spirit  and  intention  of  this  convention;  and,  if 
any  persons  or  company  should  already  have,  with 
any  state  through  which  the  proposed  ship  canal 
may  pass,  a  contract  for  the  construction  of  such 
canal  as  that  specified  in  this  convention,  to  the 
stipulations  of  which  contract  neither  of  the  con- 
tracting parties  in  this  convention  have  any  just 
cause  to  object,  and  the  said  persons  or  company 
shall  moreover  have  made  preparations,  and  ex- 
pended time,  money,  and  trouble,  on  the  faith  of 
such  contract,  it  is  hereby  agreed  that  such  persons 
or  company  shall  have  a  priority  of  claim  over  every 
other  person,  persons,  or  company  to  the  protection 
of  the  Governments  of  the  United  States  and  Great 


Britain,  and  be  allowed  a  year  from  the  date  of  the 
exchange  of  the  ratifications  of  this  convention 
for  concluding  their  arrangements,  and  presenting 
evidence  of  sufficient  capital  subscribed  to  accom- 
plish the  contemplated  undertaking;  it  being  under- 
stood that  if,  at  the  expiration  of  the  aforesaid 
period,  such  persons  or  company  be  not  able  to 
commence  and  carry  out  the  proposed  enterprise, 
then  the  Governments  of  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain  shall  be  free  to  afford  their  protection 
to  any  other  persons  or  company  that  shall  be  pre- 
pared to  commence  and  proceed  with  the  construc- 
tion of  the  canal  in  question. 

ARTICLE  VIII. 

The  Governments  of  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain  having  not  only  desired,  in  entering  into 
this  convention,  to  accomplish  a  particular  object, 
but  also  to  establish  a  general  principle,  they  hereby 
agree  to  extend  their  protection,  by  treaty  stipula- 
tions, to  any  other  practicable  communications, 
whether  by  canal  or  railway,  across  the  isthmus 
which  connects  North  and  South  America,  and 
especially  to  the  interoceanic  communications, 
should  the  same  prove  to  be  practicable,  whether 
by  canal  or  railway,  which  are  now  proposed  to 
be  established  by  the  way  of  Tehuantepec  or  Pan- 
ama. In  granting,  however,  their  joint  protection 
to  any  such  canals  or  railways  as  are  by  this  article 
specified,  it  is  always  understood  by  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  that  the  parties  construct- 
ing or  owning  the  same  shall  impose  no  other  charges 
or  conditions  of  traffic  thereupon,  than  the  afore- 
said governments  shall  approve  of,  as  just  and 
equitable;  and,  that  the  same  canals,  or  railways, 
being  open  to  the  citizens  and  subjects  of  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  on  equal  terms,  shall,  also, 
be  open  on  like  terms  to  the  citizens  and  subjects 
of  every  other  State  which  is  willing  to  grant  thereto, 
such  protection  as  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain  engage  to  afford. 

ARTICLE  IX. 

The  ratifications  of  this  Convention  shall  be 
exchanged  at  Washington,  within  six  months  from 
this  day,  or  sooner,  if  possible. 

In  faith  whereof,  we,  the  respective  Plenipoten- 
tiaries, have  signed  this  Convention,  and  have 
hereunto  affixed  our  seals. 

Done,  at  Washington,  the  nineteenth  day  of 
April,  Anno  Domini,  one  thousand  eight  hundred 
and  fifty. 

JOHN  M.  CLAYTON 
HENRY  LYTTON  BULWER. 


GREAT  BRITAIN 

FEBRUARY  5,  1900 

FIRST  HAY-PAUNCEFOTE  TREATY 


This  treaty  was  ratified  by  the  Senate, 
with  amendments,  but  was  rejected  by 
Great  Britain. 


The  first  reference  to  the  exemption  of 
American  coastwise  shipping  from  canal 
tolls  appears  in  the  discussion  of  this  treaty 


492 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


by  the  Senate.  Senator  Thomas  R.  Bard, 
of  California,  moved  to  strike  out  Article 
III  and  substitute  the  following: 

"Art.  III.  The  United  States  reserves  the  right 
in  the  regulation  and  management  of  the  canal 
to  discriminate  in  respect  of  the  charges  of  traffic 
in  favor  of  vessels  of  its  own  citizens  engaged  in 
the  coastwise  trade." 

This  amendment  was  rejected  by  a  vote 
of  forty-three  to  twenty-seven.  Senator 
Bard,  referring  later  to  the  proposed 
amendment,  said: 

"When  my  amendment  was  under  consideration 
it  was  generally  conceded  by  Senators  that  even 
without  that  specific  provision  the  rules  of  the  treaty 
would  not  prevent  our  Government  from  treating 
the  canal  as  part  of  our  coast  line,  and  consequently 
could  not  be  construed  as  a  restriction  of  our 
interstate  commerce,  forbidding  the  discrimination 
in  charges  for  tolls  in  favor  of  our  coastwise  trade, 
and  this  conviction  contributed  to  the  defeat  of 
the  amendment." 

In  the  appended  copy  of  the  treaty  as 
ratified  by  the  Senate,  the  Senate  amend- 
ments are  printed  in  italics,  and  the  por- 
tions stricken  out  by  the  Senate  are  printed 
in  brackets. 

The  United  States  of  America  and  Her  Majesty 
the  Queen  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  Empress  of  India,  being  desirous 
to  facilitate  the  construction  of  a  ship  canal  to  con- 
nect the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans,  and  to  that 
end  to  remove  any  objection  which  may  arise  out 
of  the  Convention  of  April  19,  1850,  commonly 
called  the  Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty,  to  the  construc- 
tion of  such  canal  under  the  auspices  of  the  United 
States,  without  impairing  the  "general  principle"  of 
neutralization  established  in  Article  VIII  of  that 
Convention,  have  for  that  purpose  appointed  as 
their  Plenipotentiaries:  The  President  of  the 
United  States,  John  Hay,  Secretary  of  State  of  the 
United  States  of  America,  and  Her  Majesty  the 
Queen  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  Empress  of 
India,  The  Right  Honble.  Lord  Pauncefote,  G.C.B., 
G.C.M.G.,  Her  Majesty's  Ambassador  Extraordi- 
nary and  Plenipotentiary  to  the  United  States; 
who,  having  communicated  to  each  other  their  full 
powers,  which  were  found  to  be  in  due  and  proper 
form,  have  agreed  upon  the  following  articles 

ARTICLE  I. 

It  is  agreed  that  the  canal  may  be  constructed 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Government  of  the 
United  States,  either  directly  at  its  own  cost  or  by 
gift  or  loan  of  money  to  individuals  or  corporations 
or  through  subscription  to  or  purchase  of  stock 
or  shares,  and  that,  subject  to  the  provisions  of  the 
present  Convention,  the  said  Government  shall 
have  and  enjoy  all  the  rights  incident  to  such  con- 


struction, as  well  as  the  exclusive  right  of  providing 
for  the  regulation  and  management  of  the  canal. 

ARTICLE  II. 

The  High  Contracting  Parties,  desiring  to  pre- 
serve and  maintain  the  "general  principle"  of 
neutralization  established  in  Article  VIII  of  the 
Clayton-Bulwer  Convention,  which  Convention  is 
hereby  superseded,  adopt,  as  the  basis  of  such  neutral- 
ization, the  following  rules,  substantially  as  em- 
bodied in  the  Convention  between  Great  Britain 
and  certain  other  Powers,  signed  at  Constantinople 
October  29,  1888,  for  the  Free  Navigation  of  the 
Suez  Maritime  Canal,  that  is  to  say: 

1.  The  canal  shall  be  free  and  open,  in  time  of 
war  as  in  time  of  peace,  to  the  vessels  of  commerce 
and  of  war  of  all  nations,  on  terms  of  entire  equality, 
so  that  there  shall  be  no  discrimination  against  any 
nation  or  its  citizens  or  subjects  in  respect  of  the 
conditions  or  charges  of  traffic,  or  otherwise. 

2.  The  canal  shall  never  be  blockaded,  nor  shall 
any  right  of  war  be  exercised  nor  any  act  of  hos- 
tility be  committed  within  it. 

3.  Vessels  of  war  of  a  belligerent  shall  not  revict- 
ual  nor  take  any  stores  in  the  canal  except  so  far 
as  may  be  strictly  necessary;  and  the  transit  of  such 
vessels  through  the  canal  shall  be  effected  with  the 
least  possible  delay,  in  accordance  with  the  regula- 
tions in  force,  and  with  only  such  intermission  as 
may  result  from  the  necessities  of  the  service. 

Prizes  shall  be  in  all  respects  subject  to  the  same 
rules  as  vessels  of  war  of  the  belligerents. 

4.  No    belligerent    shall    embark    or    disembark 
troops,  munitions  of  war  or  warlike  materials  in 
the  canal  except  in  case  of  accidental  hindrance  of 
the  transit,  and  in  such  case  the  transit  shall  be  re- 
sumed with  all  possible  despatch. 

5.  The  provisions  of  this  article  shall  apply  to 
waters  adjacent  to  the  canal,  within  three  marine 
miles  of  either  end.     Vessels  of  war  of  a  belligerent 
shall  not  remain  in  such  waters  longer  than  twenty- 
four  hours  at  any  one  time  except  in  case  of  distress, 
and  in  such  case  shall  depart  as  soon  as  possible;  but 
a  vessel  of  war  of  one  belligerent  shall  not  depart 
within  twenty-four  hours  from  the  departure  of  a 
vessel  of  war  of  the  other  belligerent. 

//  is  agreed,  however,  that  none  of  the  immediate 
foregoing  conditions  and  stipulations  in  sections 
numbered  one,  two,  three,  four,  and  five  of  this  article 
shall  apply  to  measures  which  the  United  States 
may  find  it  necessary  to  take  for  securing  by  its  own 
forces  the  defense  of  the  United  States  and  the  main- 
tenance of  public  order. 

6.  The  plant,  establishments,  buildings,  and  all 
works  necessary  to  the  construction,  maintenance 
and  operation  of  the  canal  shall   be  deemed   to 
be  part  thereof,  for  the  purposes  of  this  convention, 
and  in  time  of  war  as  in  time  of  peace  shall  enjoy 
complete  immunity  from  attack  or  injury  by  bellig- 
erents and  from  acts  calculated  to  impair  their  use- 
fulness as  part  of  the  canal. 

7.  No  fortifications  shall  be  erected  commanding 
the   canal   or   the   waters  adjacent.     The    United 
States,  however,  shall  be  at  liberty  to  maintain  such 
military  police  along  the  canal  as  may  be  necessary 
to  protect  it  against  lawlessness  and  disorder. 


APPENDIX 


493 


[ARTICLE  III.] 

[The  High  Contracting  Parties  will,  immediately 
upon  the  exchange  of  the  ratifications  of  this  Con- 
vention, bring  it  to  the  notice  of  the  other  Powers 
and  invite  them  to  adhere  to  it.] 

ARTICLE  IV. 

The  present  Convention  shall  be  ratified  by  the 
President  of  the  United  States,  by  and  with  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate  thereof,  and  by 


Her  Britannic  Majesty;  and  the  ratifications  shall 
be  exchanged  at  Washington  or  at  London  within 
six  months  from  the  date  hereof,  or  earlier  if  possible. 

In  faith  whereof  the  respective  Plenipotentiaries 
have  signed  this  Convention  and  thereunto  affixed 
their  seals. 

Done  in  duplicate  at  Washington  the  fifth  day  of 
February  in  the  year  of  Our  Lord  one  thousand 
nine  hundred. 

JOHN  HAY. 
PAUNCEFOTE. 


GREAT  BRITAIN 

NOVEMBER  18,  1901 
HAY-PAUNCEFOTE  TREATY 


Ratifications  of  this  treaty  were  ex- 
changed on  Feb.  21,  1902,  and  it  was  pro- 
claimed on  Feb.  22,  1902. 

The  United  States  of  America  and  His  Majesty 
Edward  the  Seventh,  of  the  United  Kingdom  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  of  the  British  Domin- 
ions beyond  the  Seas,  King,  and  Emperor  of  India 
being  desirous  to  facilitate  the  construction  of  a 
ship  canal  to  connect  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans, 
by  whatever  route  may  be  considered  expedient, 
and  to  that  end  to  remove  any  objection  which 
may  arise  out  of  the  Convention  of  the  igth  April, 
1850,  commonly  called  the  Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty, 
to  the  construction  of  such  canal  under  the  auspices 
of  the  Government  of  the  United  States,  without 
impairing  the  "general  principle"  of  neutralization 
established  in  Article  VIII  of  that  Convention, 
have  for  that  purpose  appointed  as  their  Plenipo- 
tentiaries: The  President  of  the  United  States, 
John  Hay,  Secretary  of  State  of  the  United  States 
of  America;  and  His  Majesty  Edward  the  Seventh, 
of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land, and  of  the  British  Dominions  beyond  the 
Seas,  King,  and  Emperor  of  India,  the  Right  Hon- 
ourable Lord  Pauncefote,  G.C.B.,  G.C.M.G., 
His  Majesty's  Ambassador  Extraordinary  and 
Plenipotentiary  to  the  United  States;  who,  having 
communicated  to  each  other  their  full  powers  which 
were  found  to  be  in  due  and  proper  form,  have 
agreed  upon  the  following  Articles: 

ARTICLE  I. 

The  High  Contracting  Parties  agree  that  the 
present  Treaty  shall  supersede  the  afore-mentioned 
Convention  of  the  iQth  April,  1850. 

ARTICLE  II. 

It  is  agreed  that  the  canal  may  be  constructed 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Government  of  the  United 
States,  either  directly  at  its  own  cost,  or  by  gift 
or  loan  of  money  to  individuals  or  corporations,  or 
through  subscription  to  or  purchase  of  stock  or 
shares,  and  that,  subject  to  the  provisions  of  the 
present  Treaty,  the  said  Government  shall  have  and 
enjoy  all  the  rights  incident  to  such  construction, 
as  well  as  the  exclusive  right  of  providing  for  the 
regulation  and  management  of  the  canal. 


ARTICLE  III. 


The  United  States  adopts,  as  the  basis  of  the 
neutralization  of  such  ship  canal,  the  following 
Rules,  substantially  as  embodied  in  the  Convention 
of  Constantinople,  signed  the  28th  October,  1888, 
for  the  free  navigation  of  the  Suez  Canal,  that  is  to 
say: 

1.  The  canal  shall  be  free  and  open  to  the  vessels 
of  commerce  and  of  war  of  all  nations  observing 
these  Rules,  on  terms  of  entire  equality,  so  that 
there  shall  be  no  discrimination  against  any  such 
nation,  or  its  citizens  or  subjects,  in  respect  of  the 
conditions  or  charges  of  traffic,  or  otherwise.     Such 
conditions  and  charges  of  traffic  shall  be  just  and 
equitable. 

2.  The  canal  shall  never  be  blockaded,  nor  shall 
any  right  of  war  be  exercised  nor  any  act  of  hostility 
be  committed  within  it.     The  United  States,  how- 
ever, shall  be  at  liberty  to  maintain  such  military 
police  along  the  canal  as  may  be  necessary  to  pro- 
tect it  against  lawlessness  and  disorder. 

3.  Vessels  of  war  of  a  belligerent  shall  not  re- 
victual  nor  take  any  stores  in  the  canal  except  so 
far  as  may  be  strictly  necessary;    and  the  transit 
of  such  vessels  through  the  canal  shall  be  effected 
with  the  least  possible  delay  in  accordance  with  the 
Regulations  in  force,  with  and  only  such  intermis- 
sion as  may  result  from  the  necessities  of  the  service. 

Prizes  shall  be  in  all  respects  subject  to  the  same 
Rules  as  vessels  of  war  of  the  belligerents. 

4.  No    belligerent    shall    embark    or    disembark 
troops,  munitions  of  war,  or  warlike  materials  in  the 
canal,  except  in  case  of  accidental  hindrance  of  the 
transit,  and  in  such  case  the  transit  shall  be  resumed 
with  all  possible  dispatch. 

5.  The  provisions  of  this  Article  shall  apply  to 
waters  adjacent  to  the  canal,  within  3  marine  miles 
of  either  end.     Vessels  of  war  of  a  belligerent  shall 
not  remain  in  such  waters  longer  than  twenty-four 
hours  at  any  one  time,  except  in  case  of  distress, 
and  in  such  case  shall  depart  as  soon  as  possible; 
but  a  vessel  of  war  of  one  belligerent  shall  not  de- 
part within  twenty-four  hours  from  the  departure 
of  a  vessel  of  war  of  the  other  belligerent. 

6.  The  plant,  establishments,  buildings,  and  all 
works  necessary  to  the  construction,  maintenance, 
and  operation  of  the  canal  shall  be  deemed  to  be 
part  thereof,  for  the  purposes  of  this  Treaty,  and 


494 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


in  time  of  war,  as  in  time  of  peace,  shall  enjoy  com- 
plete immunity  from  attack  or  injury  by  belligerents, 
and  from  acts  calculated  to  impair  their  usefulness 
as  part  of  the  canal. 

ARTICLE  IV. 

It  is  agreed  that  no  change  of  territorial  sover- 
eignty or  of  the  international  relations  of  the  coun- 
try or  countries  traversed  by  the  before-mentioned 
canal  shall  affect  the  general  principle  of  neutrali- 
zation or  the  obligation  of  the  High  Contracting 
Parties  under  the  present  Treaty. 

ARTICLE  V. 
The  present  Treaty  shall  be  ratified  by  the  Presi- 


dent of  the  United  States,  by  and  with  the  advice 
and  consent  of  the  Senate  thereof,  and  by  His 
Britannic  Majesty;  and  the  ratifications  shall  be 
exchanged  at  Washington  or  at  London  at  the  earli- 
est possible  time  within  six  months  from  the  date 
hereof. 

In  faith  whereof  the  respective  Plenipoten- 
tiaries have  signed  this  Treaty  and  thereunto 
affixed  their  seals. 

Done  in  duplicate  at  Washington,  the  i8th  day 
of  November,  in  the  year  of  Our  Lord  one  thous- 
and nine  hundred  and  one. 

JOHN  HAY. 

PAUNCEFOTE. 


HAY-CONCHA  AGREEMENT 

MEMORANDUM  OF  POINTS  TO  BE  EMBODIED  IN  A  TREATY  BETWEEN  COLOMBIA  AND 

THE  UNITED  STATES 


Early  in  1902,  after  the  House  of 
Representatives  had  passed  the  bill  pro- 
viding for  a  Nicaragua  canal,  and  the 
canal  commission  had  reported  in  favor  of 
accepting  the  offer  of  the  New  Panama 
Canal  Company  to  sell  its  properties  for 
$40,000,000,  assurance  was  demanded  that 
Colombia  would  consent  to  the  transfer 
of  the  French  company's  concession  and 
grant  to  the  United  States  the  right  of  way 
for  a  canal.  Mr.  Jose  Vicente  Concha, 
formerly  Colombian  Secretary  of  War, 
was  sent  to  the  United  States  as  minister 
to  negotiate  a  treaty  which  would  bring 
about  the  construction  of  the  canal  at 
Panama.  After  repeated  conferences  with 
William  Nelson  Cromwell,  general  counsel 
in  America  for  the  New  Panama  Canal 
Company,  Mr.  Concha  submitted  a  draft 
of  a  treaty  to  Secretary  Hay,  in  the  fol- 
lowing letter: 

LEGACION  DE  COLOMBIA, 
Washington,  D.  C.,  March  31,  1902. 

HON.  JOHN  HAY, 

Secretary  of  State  of  the  United  Stales: 

I  have  the  honor  to  hand  to  your  excellency  the 
proposal  of  the  Republic  of  Colombia  for  a  con- 
cessionary convention  or  treaty  between  the  Re- 
public of  Colombia  and  the  United  States  of 
America,  respecting  the  completion,  maintenance, 
operation,  control,  and  protection  of  the  inter- 
oceanic  canal  over  the  Isthmus  of  Panama 

I  soon  shall  hand  you  a  letter  of  exposition,  and 
also  have  requested  Mr.  William  Nelson  Cromwell, 
general  counsel  of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Com- 
pany, to  present  you  a  statement  which  I  have 
approved. 


Please  accept  these  additional  communications 
in  connection  with  the  proposed  treaty. 

I  avail  myself  of  this  opportunity  to  renew  to 
your  excellency  the  assurance  of  my  high  con- 
sideration. 

JOSE  VICENTE  CONCHA. 

Mr.  Concha's  letter  of  exposition  and 
Mr.  Cromwell's  letter  were  sent  to  Secre- 
tary Hay  on  the  same  date,  March  31, 
and  on  April  18,  after  a  conference  between 
Mr.  Hay  and  Mr.  Cromwell,  certain 
changes  were  made  in  the  proposed  treaty 
and  agreed  upon  by  both  sides.  The  re- 
vised draft  was  then  sent  to  Secretary  Hay 
by  Mr.  Concha  with  the  assurance  that 
he  was  ready  to  sign  the  treaty  in  behalf 
of  Colombia. 

The  draft  of  the  treaty  is  summarized 
as  follows: 

Columbia  authorizes  the  New  Panama  Canal 
Company  to  sell  its  concessions  and  properties, 
including  the  Panama  Railroad,  to  the  United 
States. 

The  United  States  is  given  the  exclusive  right  to 
construct  the  Panama  Canal  across  the  territory 
of  Colombia,  and  for  that  purpose  Colombia 
grants  the  use  of  a  zone  ten  kilometers  in  width, 
exclusive  of  the  cities  of  Panama  and  Colon,  for  a 
term  of  100  years,  renewable  for  like  periods  at  the 
option  of  the  United  States.  The  stipulations  of 
Article  35  of  the  treaty  of  1846*  between  the  United 
States  and  New  Granada  shall  continue  and  apply 
in  full  force. 

The  rights  granted  to  the  United  States  shall 
not  affect  the  sovereignty  of  Colombia.  The 
United  States  recognizes  this  sovereignty. 

Colombia  authorizes  the  United  States  to  con- 
struct a  port  at  each  terminus  of  the  canal.  The 
United  States  will  take  charge  of  sanitary  questions 
and  provide  hospitals,  water  systems,  etc. 


APPENDIX 


495 


Colombia  agrees  that  it  will  not  cede  or  lease  to 
any  other  foreign  government  any  islands  or  harbors 
adjacent  to  Panama. 

Colombia  grants  the  free  use  of  the  Chagres  River 
and  other  waterways,  declares  the  ports  free,  ex- 
empts vessels  of  the  United  States  from  taxation, 
exempts  the  canal  and  railroad  from  taxation,  and 
authorizes  the  construction  of  telegraph  and  tele- 
phone lines;  grants  free  immigration  of  canal 
laborers,  and  the  free  importation  of  canal  ma- 
chinery and  equipment  of  all  kinds;  authorizes 
the  expropriation  of  necessary  lands;  grants  the 
free  use  of  ports  for  places  of  refuge;  and  authorizes 
the  United  States  to  establish  and  enforce  regu- 
lations regarding  the  preservation  of  order  and  the 
operation  of  the  canal. 

It  is  agreed  that  the  canal  shall  be  neutral  in 
perpetuity,  and  shall  be  opened  upon  equal  terms 
to  the  vessels  of  all  nations  at  uniform  tonnage  and 
other  rates,  in  conformity  with  the  Hay-Pauncefote 
treaty. 

Colombia  agrees  to  cancel  or  modify  any  treaties 
with  other  nations  which  may  be  incompatible 
with  the  present  convention.  It  also  renounces 
participation  in  the  future  earnings  of  the  canal 
under  the  concessions  to  the  French  company. 
It  agrees  to  provide  armed  forces  for  the  protection 
of  the  canal,  and  to  permit  the  United  States  to 
use  its  forces  if  necessary. 

The  United  States  agrees  to  begin  construction 
within  two  years  and  complete  the  canal  in  twelve 
years;  and  in  case  of  unforeseen  obstacles  Colombia 
agrees  that  the  term  of  completion  may  be 
prolonged  for  twelve  years  more. 

In  consideration  of  the  right  to  use  the  Canal 
zone,  and  the  proprietary  right  over  the  Panama 
Railroad,  and  for  the  annuity  of  $250,000  which 
Colombia  ceases  to  receive  from  the  railroad,  the 
United  States  agrees  to  pay  Colombia  $7,000,000 
in  gold,  and  an  annuity,  to  begin  fourteen  years 
after  ratification  of  the  treaty,  the  amount  of  the 
annuity  to  be  agreed  upon.  In  case  they  cannot 
agree,  each  shall  appoint  two  commissioners,  and 
the  president  of  the  International  Peace  Tribunal 
at  The  Hague  shall  constitute  the  fifth;  and  the 
determination  of  said  commission  shall  be  binding 
as  to  the  amount  of  the  annuity. 

If  after  five  years  from  the  date  of  the  treaty  the 
work  shall  not  have  been  commenced,  or  if  after 
the  expiration  of  twelve  years  and  the  extension 
of  twelve  years  thereafter  the  canal  shall  not  have 
been  completed,  all  the  concessions  granted  and 
the  machinery  and  works  shall  be  forfeited  to 
Colombia,  together  with  any  money  paid. 

The  treaty  shall  be  ratified  within  eight  months 
from  this  date. 


This  draft  of  the  treaty  summarized 
above  was  accepted  by  the  United  States 
in  the  following  letter : 

DEPARTMENT  OF  STATE, 
Washington,  April  21,  1902 

SIR: — I  have  the  honor  to  acknowledge  receipt 
at  your  hands  of  a  communication  dated  the  3ist  of 
March,  1902,  and  another  of  the  i8th  of  April,  in- 
closing a  proposal  of  the  Republic  of  Colombia  for 
a  concessionary  convention  or  treaty  between  the 
Republic  of  Colombia  and  the  United  States  of 
America  respecting  the  completion,  maintenance, 
operation,  control,  and  protection  of  an  inter- 
oceanic  canal  over  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 

I  am  directed  by  the  President  to  inform  you  that 
I  shall  be  ready  to  sign  with  you  the  proposed 
convention  as  soon  as — 

First.  The  Congress  of  the  United  States  shall 
have  authorized  the  President  to  enter  into  such 
an  arrangement;  and 

Second.  As  soon  as  the  law  officers  of  this 
Government  shall  have  decided  upon  the  question 
of  the  title  which  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company 
is  able  to  give  of  all  the  properties  and  rights  claimed 
by  it  and  pertaining  to  a  canal  across  the  Isthmus 
and  covered  by  the  pending  proposal. 

Accept,  sir,  the  renewed  assurance  of  my  highest 
consideration. 

JOHN  HAY. 

Sefior  Don  JOSE  VICENTE  CONCHA. 

Minister  Concha  replied,  under  date  of 
April  23,  1902,  acknowledging  receipt  of 
the  notification  that  the  United  States  was 
ready  under  certain  contingencies  to  sign 
the  treaty.  He  added:  "When  the  occa- 
sion to  sign  the  above-mentioned  treaty 
shall  arise  I  will  present,  according  to 
usage,  the  full  powers  authorizing  me  to 
do  so." 

It  was  upon  this  agreement  between 
Secretary  Hay  and  Minister  Concha  that 
the  United  States  proceeded  to  enter  into 
the  Hay-Herran  treaty,  and  the  United 
States  insisted  that  Colombia  should  ratify 
the  treaty  in  compliance  with  its  promise 
made  through  Mr.  Concha. 


COLOMBIA 
JANUARY  22,  1903 
HAY-HERRAN  TREATY 


This  treaty  was  ratified  by  the  United 
States  Senate  March  17,  1903,  but  was 
rejected  by  the  Senate  of  Colombia.  Fol- 


lowing the  rejection  of  the  treaty  occurred 
the  revolution  at  Panama  and  the  creation 
of  the  Panama  Republic. 


496 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


The  United  States  of  America  and  the  Republic 
of  Colombia,  being  desirous  to  assure  the  construc- 
tion of  a  ship  canal  to  connect  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  Oceans  and  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States  of  America  having  passed  an  Act  approved 
June  28,  1902,  in  furtherance  of  that  object,  a  copy 
of  which  is  hereunto  annexed,  the  High  Contracting 
Parties  have  resolved,  for  that  purpose,  to  conclude 
a  Convention  and  have  accordingly  appointed  as 
their  Plenipotentiaries:  The  President  of  the 
United  States  of  America,  John  Hay,  Secretary  of 
State,  and  the  President  of  the  Republic  of  Colom- 
bia, Thomas  Herran,  Charge  d'Affaires,  thereunto 
specially  empowered  by  said  government  who, 
after  communicating  to  each  other  their  respective 
full  powers,  found  in  good  and  due  form,  have  agreed 
upon  and  concluded  the  following  Articles: 

ARTICLE  I. 

The  Government  of  Colombia  authorizes  the  New 
Panama  Canal  Company  to  sell  and  transfer  to  the 
United  States  its  rights,  privileges,  properties, 
and  concessions,  as  well  as  the  Panama  Railroad 
and  all  the  shares  or  part  of  the  shares  of  that  com- 
pany; but  the  public  lands  situated  outside  of  the 
zone  hereinafter  specified,  now  corresponding  to 
the  concessions  to  both  said  enterprises  shall  revert 
to  the  Republic  of  Colombia,  except  any  property 
now  owned  by  or  in  the  possession  of  the  said  com- 
panies within  Panama  or  Colon,  or  the  ports  and 
terminals  thereof. 

But  it  is  understood  that  Colombia  reserves  all 
its  rights  to  the  special  shares  in  the  capital  of  the 
New  Panama  Canal  Company  to  which  reference 
is  made  in  Article  IV  of  the  contract  of  December 
10,  1890,  which  shares  shall  be  paid  their  full  nomi- 
nal value  at  least;  but  as  such  right  of  Colombia 
exists  solely  in  its  character  of  stockholder  in  said 
Company,  no  obligation  under  this  provision  is 
imposed  upon  or  assumed  by  the  United  States. 

The  Railroad  Company  (and  the  United  States  as 
owner  of  the  enterprise)  shall  be  free  from  the 
obligations  imposed  by  the  railroad  concession,  ex- 
cepting as  to  the  payment  at  maturity  by  the  Rail- 
road Company  of  the  outstanding  bonds  issued  by 
said  Railroad  Company. 

ARTICLE  II. 

The  United  States  shall  have  the  exclusive  right 
for  the  term  of  one  hundred  years,  renewable  at  the 
sole  and  absolute  option  of  the  United  States,  for 
periods  of  similar  duration  so  long  as  the  United 
States  may  desire,  to  excavate,  construct,  maintain, 
operate,  control,  and  protect  the  Maritime  Canal 
with  or  without  locks  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  to  and  across  the  territory  of  Colombia,  such 
canal  to  be  of  sufficient  depth  and  capacity  for  ves- 
sels of  the  largest  tonnage  and  greatest  draft  now 
engaged  in  commerce,  and  such  as  may  be  reasonably 
anticipated,  and  also  the  same  rights  for  the  con- 
struction, maintenance,  operation,  control,  and  pro- 
tection of  the  Panama  Railroad  and  of  railway, 
telegraph  and  telephone  lines,  canals,  dikes,  dams, 
and  reservoirs,  and  such  other  auxiliary  works  as 
may  be  necessary  and  convenient  for  the  construc- 
tion, maintenance,  protection,  and  operation  of  the 
canal  and  railroads. 


ARTICLE  III. 

To  enable  the  United  States  to  exercise  the  rights 
and  privileges  granted  by  this  Treaty  the  Republic 
of  Colombia  grants  to  that  Government  the  use  and 
control  for  the  term  of  one  hundred  years,  renew- 
able at  the  sole  and  absolute  option  of  the  United 
States,  for  periods  of  similar  duration  so  long  as  the 
United  States  may  desire,  of  a  zone  of  territory 
along  the  route  of  the  canal  to  be  constructed  five 
kilometers  in  width  on  either  side  thereof  measured 
from  its  center  line  including  therein  the  necessary 
auxiliary  canals  not  exceeding  in  any  case  fifteen 
miles  from  the  main  canal  and  other  works,  together 
with  ten  fathoms  of  water  in  the  Bay  of  Limon  in 
extension  of  the  canal,  and  at  least  three  marine 
miles  from  mean  low  water  mark  from  each  termi- 
nus of  the  canal  into  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the 
Pacific  Ocean  respectively.  So  far  as  necessary  for 
the  construction,  maintenance  and  operation  of  the 
canal,  the  United  States  shall  have  the  use  and 
occupation  of  the  group  of  small  islands  in  the 
Bay  of  Panama  named  Perico,  Naos,  Culebra  and 
Flamenco,  but  the  same  shall  not  be  construed  as 
being  within  the  zone  herein  defined  nor  governed 
by  the  special  provisions  applicable  to  the  same. 

This  grant  shall  in  no  manner  invalidate  the  titles 
or  rights  of  private  land  owners  in  the  said  zone  of 
territory,  nor  shall  it  interfere  with  the  rights  of 
way  over  the  public  roads  of  the  Department;  pro- 
vided, however,  that  nothing  herein  contained  shall 
operate  to  diminish,  impair  or  restrict  the  rights 
elsewhere  herein  granted  to  the  United  States. 

This  grant  shall  not  include  the  cities  of  Panama 
and  Colon,  except  so  far  as  lands  and  other  property 
therein  are  now  owned  by  or  in  possession  of  the 
said  Canal  Company  or  the  said  Railroad  Company ; 
but  all  the  stipulations  contained  in  Article  35  of 
the  Treaty  of  1846-48  between  the  contracting  par- 
ties shall  continue  and  apply  in  full  force  to  the  cities 
of  Panama  and  Colon  and  to  the  accessory  com- 
munity lands  and  other  property  within  the  said 
zone,  and  the  territory  thereon  shall  be  neutral  terri- 
tory, and  the  United  States  shall  continue  to 
guarantee  the  neutrality  thereof  and  the  sovereignty 
of  Colombia  thereover,  in  conformity  with  the 
above-mentioned  Article  35  of  said  Treaty. 

In  furtherance  of  this  last  provision  there  shall  be 
created  a  Joint  Commission  by  the  Governments  of 
Colombia  and  the  United  States  that  shall  establish 
and  enforce  sanitary  and  police  regulations. 

ARTICLE  IV. 

The  rights  and  privileges  granted  to  the  United 
States  by  the  terms  of  this  Convention  shall  not  affect 
the  sovereignty  of  the  Republic  of  Colombia  over 
the  territory  within  whose  boundaries  such  rights 
and  privileges  are  to  be  exercised. 

The  United  States  freely  acknowledges  and  recog- 
nizes this  sovereignty  and  disavows  any  intention 
to  impair  it  in  any  way  whatever  or  to  increase 
its  territory  at  the  expense  of  Colombia  or  of  any 
of  the  sister  republics  in  Central  or  South  America, 
but  on  the  contrary,  it  desires  to  strengthen  the 
power  of  the  republics  on  this  continent,  and  to 
promote,  develop  and  maintain  their  prosperity 
and  independence. 


APPENDIX 


497 


ARTICLE  V. 

The  Republic  of  Colombia  authorizes  the  United 
States  to  construct  and  maintain  at  each  entrance 
and  terminus  of  the  proposed  canal  a  port  for  ves- 
sels using  the  same,  with  suitable  light  houses  and 
other  aids  to  navigation,  and  the  United  States  is 
authorized  to  use  and  occupy  within  the  limits  of 
the  zone  fixed  by  this  convention,  such  parts  of  the 
coast  line  and  of  the  lands  and  islands  adjacent 
thereto  as  are  necessary  for  this  purpose,  including 
the  construction  and  maintenance  of  breakwaters, 
dikes,  jetties,  embankments,  coaling  stations,  docks 
and  other  appropriate  works,  and  the  United  States 
undertakes  the  construction  and  maintenance  of 
such  works  and  will  bear  all  expense  thereof.  The 
ports  when  established  are  declared  free,  and  their 
demarcations  shall  be  clearly  and  definitely  defined. 
To  give  effect  to  this  Article,  the  United  States 
will  give  special  attention  and  care  to  the  main- 
tenance of  works  for  drainage,  sanitary  and  health- 
ful purposes  along  the  line  of  the  canal,  and  its  de- 
pendencies, in  order  to  prevent  the  invasion  of  epi- 
demics or  of  securing  their  prompt  suppression 
should  they  appear.  With  this  end  in  view  the 
United  States  will  organize  hospitals  along  the  line  of 
the  canal,  and  will  suitably  supply  or  cause  to  be 
supplied  the  towns  of  Panama  and  Colon  with  the 
necessary  aqueducts  and  drainage  works,  in  order 
to  prevent  their  becoming  centers  of  infection  on 
account  of  their  proximity  to  the  canal. 

The  Government  of  Colombia  will  secure  for  the 
United  States  or  its  nominees  the  lands  and  rights 
that  may  be  required  in  the  towns  of  Panama 
and  Colon  to  effect  the  improvements  above  re- 
ferred to,  and  the  Government  of  the  United  States 
or  its  nominees  shall  be  authorized  to  impose  and 
collect  equitable  water  rates,  during  fifty  years  for 
the  service  rendered;  but  on  the  expiration  of  said 
term  the  use  of  the  water  shall  be  free  for  the  in- 
habitants of  Panama  and  Colon,  except  to  the  ex- 
tent that  may  be  necessary  for  the  operation  and 
maintenance  of  said  water  system,  including  reser- 
voirs, aqueducts,  hydrants,  supply  service,  drainage 
and  other  works. 

ARTICLE  VI. 

The  Republic  of  Colombia  agrees  that  it  will  not 
cede  or  lease  to  any  foreign  Government  any  of  its 
islands  or  harbors  within  or  adjacent  to  the  Bay  of 
Panama,  nor  on  the  Atlantic  Coast  of  Colombia, 
between  the  Atrato  River  and  the  western  boundary 
of  the  Department  of  Panama,  for  the  purpose  of 
establishing  fortifications,  naval  or  coaling  stations, 
military  posts,  docks  or  other  works  that  might  in- 
terfere with  the  construction,  maintenance,  opera- 
tion, protection,  safety,  and  free  use  of  the  canal 
and  auxiliary  works.  In  order  to  enable  Colombia 
to  comply  with  this  stipulation,  the  Government  of 
the  United  States  agrees  to  give  Colombia  the  ma- 
terial support  that  may  be  required  in  order  to  pre- 
vent the  occupation  of  said  islands  and  ports, 
guaranteeing  there  the  sovereignty,  independence 
and  integrity  of  Colombia. 

ARTICLE  VII. 

The  Republic  of  Colombia  includes  in  the  fore- 
going grant  the  right  without  obstacle,  cost,  or 


impediment,  to  such  control,  consumption  and 
general  utilization  in  any  manner  found  necessary 
by  the  United  States  to  the  exercise  by  it  of  the 
grants  to,  and  rights  conferred  upon  it  by  this 
Treaty,  the  waters  of  the  Chagres  River  and  other 
streams,  lakes  and  lagoons,  of  all  non-navigable 
waters,  natural  and  artificial,  and  also  to  navigate 
all  rivers,  streams,  lakes  and  other  navigable  water- 
ways, within  the  jurisdiction  and  under  the  dominion 
of  the  Republic  of  Colombia,  in  the  Department 
of  Panama,  within  or  without  said  zone,  as  may  be 
necessary  or  desirable  for  the  construction,  main- 
tenance and  operation  of  the  canal  and  its  auxiliary 
canals  and  other  works,  and  without  tolls  or  charges 
of  any  kind ;  and  to  raise  and  lower  the  levels  of  the 
waters,  and  to  deflect  them,  and  to  impound  any 
such  waters  and  to  overflow  any  lands  necessary 
for  the  due  exercise  of  such  grants  and  rights  to  the 
United  States;  and  to  rectify,  construct  and  im- 
prove the  navigation  of  any  such  rivers,  streams, 
lakes  and  lagoons  at  the  sole  cost  of  the  United 
States;  but  any  such  water  ways  so  made  by  the 
United  States  may  be  used  by  citizens  of  Colombia 
free  of  tolls  or  other  charges.  And  the  United 
States  shall  have  the  right  to  use  without  cost, 
any  water,  stone,  clay,  earth  or  other  minerals  be- 
longing to  Colombia  on  the  public  domain  that  may 
be  needed  by  it. 

All  damages  caused  to  private  land  owners  by 
inundation  or  by  the  deviation  of  water  courses,  or 
in  other  ways,  arising  out  of  the  construction  or 
operation  of  the  canal,  shall  in  each  case  be  appraised 
and  settled  by  a  joint  commission  appointed  by  the 
Governments  of  the  United  States  and  Colombia, 
but  the  cost  of  the  indemnities  so  agreed  upon  shall 
be  borne  solely  by  the  United  States. 

ARTICLE  VIII. 

The  Government  of  Colombia  declares  free  for 
all  time  the  ports  at  either  entrance  of  the  Canal, 
including  Panama  and  Colon  and  the  waters  thereof 
in  such  manner  that  there  shall  not  be  collected 
by  the  Government  of  Colombia  custom  house  tolls, 
tonnage,  anchorage,  light-house,  wharf,  pilot,  or 
quarantine  dues,  nor  any  other  charges  or  taxes 
of  any  kind  shall  be  levied  or  imposed  by  the  Govern- 
ment of  Colombia  upon  any  vessel  using  or  passing 
through  the  canal  or  belonging  to  or  employed  by 
the  United  States,  directly  or  indirectly,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  construction,  maintenance  and  oper- 
ation of  the  main  work  or  its  auxiliaries,  or  upon 
the  cargo,  officers,  crew,  or  passengers  of  any  such 
vessels;  it  being  the  intent  of  this  Convention  that 
all  vessels  and  their  cargoes,  crews,  and  passengers, 
shall  be  permitted  to  use  and  pass  through  the  canal 
and  the  ports  leading  thereto,  subject  to  no  other 
demands  or  impositions  than  such  tolls  and  charges 
as  may  be  imposed  by  the  United  States  for  the 
use  of  the  canal  and  other  works.  It  being  under- 
stood that  such  tolls  and  charges  shall  be  governed 
by  the  provisions  of  Article  XVI. 

The  ports  leading  to  the  canal,  including  Panama 
and  Colon,  also  shall  be  free  to  the  commerce  of 
the  world,  and  no  duties  or  taxes  shall  be  imposed, 
except  upon  merchandise  destined  to  be  intro- 
duced for  the  consumption  of  the  rest  of  the  Re- 


498 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


public  of  Colombia,  or  the  Department  of  Panama, 
and  upon  vessels  touching  at  the  ports  of  Colon 
and  Panama  and  which  do  not  cross  the  Canal. 

Though  the  said  ports  shall  be  free  and  open  to 
all,  the  Government  of  Colombia  may  establish 
in  them  such  custom  houses  and  guards  as  Colombia 
may  deem  necessary  to  collect  duties  on  importa- 
tions destined  to  other  portions  of  Colombia  and 
to  prevent  contraband  trade.  The  United  States 
shall  have  the  right  to  make  use  of  the  ports  at  the 
two  extremities  of  the  canal  including  Panama  and 
Colon  as  places  of  anchorage,  in  order  to  make  re- 
pairs for  loading,  unloading,  depositing,  or  trans- 
shipping cargoes  either  in  transit  or  destined  for 
the  service  of  the  canal  and  other  works. 

Any  concessions  or  privileges  granted  by  Colombia 
for  the  operation  of  light  houses  at  Colon  and  Pan- 
ama shall  be  subject  to  expropriation,  indemnifica- 
tion and  payment  in  the  same  manner  as  is  provided 
by  Article  XIV  in  respect  to  the  property  therein 
mentioned;  but  Colombia  shall  make  no  additional 
grant  of  any  such  privilege  nor  change  the  status  of 
any  existing  concession. 

ARTICLE  IX. 

There  shall  not  be  imposed  any  taxes,  national, 
municipal,  departmental,  or  of  any  other  class, 
upon  the  canal,  the  vessels  that  may  use  it,  tugs  and 
other  vessels  employed  in  the  service  of  the  canal, 
the  railways  and  auxiliary  works,  store  houses,  work 
shops,  offices,  quarters  for  laborers,  factories  of  all 
kinds,  warehouses,  wharves,  machinery  and  other 
works,  property,  and  effects  appertaining  to  the 
canal  or  railroad  or  that  may  be  necessary  for  the 
service  of  the  canal  or  railroad  and  their  depend- 
encies, whether  situated  within  the  cities  of  Panama 
and  Colon,  or  any  other  place  authorized  by  the 
provisions  of  this  Convention. 

Nor  shall  there  be  imposed  contributions  or 
charges  of  a  personal  character  of  whatever  species 
upon  officers,  employees,  laborers,  and  other  individ- 
uals in  the  service  of  the  canal  and  its  dependencies. 

ARTICLE  X. 

It  is  agreed  that  telegraph  and  telephone  lines, 
when  established  for  canal  purposes,  may  also,  under 
suitable  regulations,  be  used  for  public  and  private 
business  in  connection  with  the  systems  of  Colombia 
and  the  other  American  Republics  and  with  the 
lines  of  cable  companies  authorized  to  enter  the  ports 
and  territories  of  these  Republics;  but  the  official 
dispatches  of  the  Government  of  Colombia  and 
the  authorities  of  the  Department  of  Panama  shall 
not  pay  for  such  service  higher  tolls  than  those  re- 
quired from  the  officials  in  the  service  of  the  United 
States. 

ARTICLE  XI. 

The  Government  of  Colombia  shall  permit  the 
immigration  and  free  access  to  the  lands  and  work 
shops  of  the  canal  and  its  dependencies  of  all  em- 
ployees and  workmen  of  whatever  nationality  under 
contract  to  work  upon  or  seeking  employment  or  in 
any  wise  connected  with  the  said  canal  and  its  de- 
pendencies, with  their  respective  families,  and  all 
such  persons  shall  be  free  and  exempt  from  the 
military  service  of  the  Republic  of  Colombia. 


ARTICLE  XII. 

The  United  States  may  import  at  any  time  into 
the  said  zone,  free  customs  duties,  imposts,  taxes, 
or  other  charges,  and  without  any  restriction,  any 
and  all  vessels,  dredges,  engines,  cars,  machinery, 
tools,  explosives,  materials,  supplies,  and  other 
articles  necessary  and  convenient  in  the  construction, 
maintenance  and  operation  of  the  canal  and  auxiliary 
works,  also  all  provisions,  medicines,  clothing, 
supplies  and  other  things  necessary  and  convenient 
for  the  officers,  employees,  workmen  and  laborers  in 
the  service  and  employ  of  the  United  States  and  for 
their  families.  If  any  such  articles  are  disposed 
of  for  use  without  the  zone  excepting  Panama  and 
Colon  and  within  the  territory  of  the  Republic, 
they  shall  be  subject  to  the  same  import  or  other 
duties  as  like  articles  under  the  laws  of  Colombia 
or  the  ordinances  of  the  Department  of  Panama. 

ARTICLE  XIII. 

The  United  States  shall  have  authority  to  protect 
and  make  secure  the  canal,  as  well  as  railways  and 
other  auxiliary  works  and  dependencies,  and  to  pre- 
serve order  and  discipline  among  the  laborers  and 
other  persons  who  may  congregate  in  that  region 
and  to  make  and  enforce  such  police  and  sanitary 
regulations  as  it  may  deem  necessary  to  preserve 
order  and  public  health  thereon,  and  to  protect 
navigation  and  commerce  through  and  over  said 
canal,  railways  and  other  works  and  dependencies 
from  interruption  or  damage. 

I.  The    Republic    of    Colombia    may    establish 
judicial  tribunals  within  said  zone,  for  the  determi- 
nation, according  to  its  laws  and  judicial  procedure, 
of  certain  controversies  hereinafter  mentioned. 

Such  judicial  tribunal  or  tribunals  so  established 
by  the  Republic  of  Colombia  shall  have  exclusive 
jurisdiction  in  said  zone  of  all  controversies  between 
citizens  of  the  Republic  of  Colombia,  or  between 
citizens  of  the  Republic  of  Colombia  and  citizens 
of  any  foreign  nation  other  than  the  United  States. 

II.  Subject  to  the   general   sovereignty  of    Co- 
lombia   over    said    zone,  the  United    States    may 
establish    judicial    tribunals   thereon,    which    shall 
have  jurisdiction  of  certain  controversies  hereinafter 
mentioned  to  be  determined  according  to  the  laws 
and  judicial  procedure  of  the  United  States. 

Such  judicial  tribunal  or  tribunals  so  established 
by  the  United  States  shall  have  exclusive  jurisdiction 
in  said  zone  of  all  controversies  between  citizens 
of  the  United  States,  and  between  citizens  of  the 
United  States  and  citizens  of  any  foreign  nation  other 
than  the  Republic  of  Colombia;  and  of  all  contro- 
versies in  any  wise  growing  out  of  or  relating  to 
the  construction,  maintenance  or  operation  of  the 
canal,  railway  and  other  properties  and  works. 

III.  The   United   States  and   Colombia   engage 
jointly  to  establish  and  maintain  upon  said  zone, 
judicial  tribunals  having  civil,  criminal  and  admir- 
alty jurisdiction  and  to  be  composed  of  jurists  ap- 
pointed by  the  Governments  of  the  United  States 
and  Colombia  in  a  manner  hereafter  to  be  agreed 
upon  between  said  Governments,  and  which  tribu- 
nals shall  have  jurisdiction  of  certain  controversies 
hereinafter  mentioned,  and  of  all  crimes,  felonies 
and    misdemeanors   committed    within   said    zone, 


APPENDIX 


499 


and  of  all  cases  arising  in  admiralty,  according  to 
such  laws  and  procedure  as  shall  be  hereafter  agreed 
upon  and  declared  by  the  two  governments. 

Such  joint  judicial  tribunal  shall  have  exclusive 
jurisdiction  in  said  zone  of  all  controversies  be- 
tween citizens  of  the  United  States  and  citizens  of 
Colombia,  and  between  citizens  of  nations  other 
than  Colombia  or  the  United  States;  and  also  of 
all  crimes,  felonies  and  misdemeanors  committed 
within  said  zone,  and  of  all  questions  of  admiralty 
arising  therein. 

IV.  The  two  Governments  hereafter,  and  from 
time  to  time  as  occasion  arises,  shall  agree  upon 
and  establish  the  laws  and  procedures  which  shall 
govern  such  joint  judicial  tribunal  and  which  shall 
be  applicable  to  the  persons  and  cases  over  which 
such  tribunal  shall  have  jurisdiction,  and  also  shall 
likewise  create  the  requisite  officers  and  employees 
of  such  court  and  establish  their  powers  and  duties; 
and  further  shall  make  adequate  provision  by  like 
agreement  for  the  pursuit,  capture,  imprisonment, 
detention,  and  delivery  within  said  zone  of  persons 
charged  with  the  commitment  of  crimes,  felonies  or 
misdemeanors  without  said  zone;  and  for  the  pur- 
suit, capture,  imprisonment,  detention  and  delivery 
without  said  zone  of  persons  charged  with  the  com- 
mitment of  crimes,  felonies  and  misdemeanors 
within  said  zone. 

ARTICLE  XIV. 

The  works  of  the  canal,  the  railways  and  their 
auxiliaries  are  declared  of  public  utility,  and  in  con- 
sequence all  areas  of  land  and  water  necessary  for 
the  construction,  maintenance,  and  operation  of 
the  canal  and  the  other  specified  works  may  be  ex- 
propriated in  conformity  with  the  laws  of  Colombia, 
except  that  the  indemnity  shall  be  conclusively 
determined  without  appeal,  by  a  joint  commission 
appointed  by  the  Governments  of  Colombia  and 
the  United  States. 

The  indemnities  awarded  by  the  Commission  for 
such  expropriation  shall  be  borne  by  the  United 
States,  but  the  appraisal  of  said  lands  and  the 
assessment  of  damages  shall  be  based  upon  their 
value  before  the  commencement  of  the  work  upon 
the  canal. 

ARTICLE  XV. 

The  Republic  of  Colombia  grants  to  the  United 
States  the  use  of  all  the  ports  of  the  Republic  open 
to  commerce  as  places  of  refuge  for  any  vessels 
employed  in  the  canal  enterprise,  and  for  all  vessels 
in  distress  having  the  right  to  pass  through  the  canal 
and  wishing  to  anchor  in  said  ports.  Such  vessels 
shall  be  exempt  from  anchorage  and  tonnage  dues 
on  the  part  of  Colombia. 

ARTICLE  XVI. 

The  canal,  when  constructed,  and  the  entrance 
thereto  shall  be  neutral  in  perpetuity,  and  shall  be 
opened  upon  the  terms  provided  for  by  Section  I 
of  Article  three  of,  and  in  conformity  with  all  the 
stipulations  of,  the  treaty  entered  into  by  the 
Governments  of  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain  on  November  18,  1901. 


ARTICLE  XVII. 

The  Government  of  Colombia  shall  have  the  right 
to  transport  over  the  canal  its  vessels,  troops,  and 
munitions  of  war  at  all  times  without  paying  charges 
of  any  kind.  This  exemption  is  to  be  extended  to 
the  auxiliary  railway  for  the  transportation  of  per- 
sons in  the  service  of  the  Republic  of  Colombia  or  of 
the  Department  of  Panama,  or  of  the  police  force 
charged  with  the  preservation  of  public  order  outside 
of  said  zone,  as  well  as  to  their  baggage,  munitions 
of  war  and  supplies. 

ARTICLE  XVIII. 

The  United  States  shall  have  full  power  and  au- 
thority to  establish  and  enforce  regulations  for  the 
use  of  the  canal,  railways,  and  the  entering  ports 
and  auxiliary  works,  and  to  fix  rates  of  tolls  and 
charges  thereof,  subject  to  the  limitations  stated 
in  Article  XVI. 

ARTICLE  XIX. 

The  rights  and  privileges  granted  to  the  United 
States  by  this  convention  shall  not  affect  thk,  sov- 
ereignty of  the  Republic  of  Colombia  over  the  real 
estate  that  may  be  acquired  by  the  United  States 
by  reason  of  the  transfer  of  the  rights  of  the  New 
Panama  Canal  Company  and  the  Panama  Rail- 
road Company  lying  outside  of  the  said  canal 
zone. 

ARTICLE  XX. 

If  by  virtue  of  any  existing  treaty  between  the 
Republic  of  Colombia  and  any  third  power,  there 
may  be  any  privilege  or  concession  relative  to  an 
interoceanic  means  of  communication  which  es- 
pecially favors  such  third  power,  and  which  in  any 
of  its  terms  may  be  incompatible  with  the  terms  of 
the  present  convention,  the  Republic  of  Colombia 
agrees  to  cancel  or  modify  such  treaty  in  due  form, 
for  which  purpose  it  shall  give  to  the  said  third 
power  the  requisite  notification  within  the  term  of 
four  months  from  the  date  of  the  present  conven- 
tion, and  in  case  the  existing  treaty  contains  no 
clause  permitting  its  modification  or  annulment, 
the  Republic  of  Colombia  agrees  to  procure  its 
modification  or  annulment  in  such  form  that  there 
shall  not  exist  any  conflict  with  the  stipulations  of 
the  present  convention. 

ARTICLE  XXI. 

The  rights  and  privileges  granted  by  the  Republic 
of  Colombia  to  the  United  States  in  the  preceding 
Articles  are  understood  to  be  free  of  all  anterior 
concessions  or  privileges  to  other  Governments, 
corporations,  syndicates  or  individuals,  and  conse- 
quently, if  there  should  arise  any  claims  on  account 
of  the  present  concessions  and  privileges  or  otherwise 
the  claimants  shall  resort  to  the  Government  of 
Colombia  and  not  to  the  United  States  for  any  in- 
demnity or  compromise  which  may  be  required. 

ARTICLE  XXII. 

The  Republic  of  Colombia  renounces  and  grants 
to  the  United  States  the  participation  to  which  it 
might  be  entitled  in  the  future  earnings  of  the  canal 
under  Article  XV  of  the  concessionary  contract 
with  Lucien  N.  B.  Wyse  now  owned  by  the  New 


500 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


Panama  Canal  Company  and  any  and  all  other 
rights  or  claims  of  a  pecuniary  nature  arising  under 
or  relating  to  said  concession,  or  arising  under  or 
relating  to  the  concessions  to  the  Panama  Railroad 
Company  or  any  extension  or  modification  thereof; 
and  it  likewise  renounces,  confirms  and  grants  to 
the  United  States,  now  and  hereafter,  all  the  rights 
and  property  reserved  in  the  said  concessions  which 
otherwise  would  belong  to  Colombia  at  or  before  the 
expiration  of  the  terms  of  ninety-nine  years  of  the 
concessions  granted  to  or  held  by  the  above  men- 
tioned party  and  companies,  and  all  right,  title  and 
interest  which  it  now  has  or  may  hereafter  have, 
in  and  to  the  lands,  canal,  works,  property  and 
rights  held  by  the  said  companies  under  said  con- 
cessions or  otherwise,  and  acquired  or  to  be  ac- 
quired by  the  United  States  from  or  through  the 
New  Panama  Canal  Company,  including  any  prop- 
erty and  rights  which  might  or  may  in  the  future 
either  by  lapse  of  time,  forfeiture  or  otherwise, 
revert  to  the  Republic  of  Colombia  under  any  con- 
tracts of  concessions,  with  said  Wyse,  the  Universal 
Panama  Canal  Company,  the  Panama  Railroad 
Company  and  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company. 

The  aforesaid  rights  and  property  shall  be  and  are 
free  and  released  from  any  present  or  reversionary 
interest  in  or  claims  of  Colombia  and  the  title  of  the 
United  States  thereto  upon  consummation  of  the 
contemplated  purchase  by  the  United  States  from 
the  New  Panama  Canal  Company,  shall  be  absolute, 
so  far  as  concerns  the  Republic  of  Colombia,  except- 
ing always  the  rights  of  Colombia  specifically  secured 
under  this  treaty. 

ARTICLE  XXIII. 

If  it  should  become  necessary  at  any  time  to 
employ  armed  forces  for  the  safety  or  protection 
of  the  canal,  or  of  the  ships  that  make  use  of  the 
same,  or  the  railways  and  other  works,  the  Republic 
of  Colombia  agrees  to  provide  the  forces  necessary 
for  such  purpose,  according  to  the  circumstances  of 
the  case,  but  if  the  Government  of  Colombia  can- 
not effectively  comply  with  this  obligation,  then, 
with  the  consent  of  or  at  the  request  of  Colombia, 
or  of  her  Minister  at  Washington,  or  of  the  local 
authorities,  civil  or  military,  the  United  States  shall 
employ  such  force  as  may  be  necessary  for  that 
sole  purpose;  and  as  soon  as  the  necessity  shall 
have  ceased  will  withdraw  the  forces  so  employed. 
Under  exceptional  circumstances,  however,  on  ac- 
count of  unforeseen  or  imminent  danger  to  said  canal, 
railways  and  other  works,  or  to  the  lives  and  property 
of  the  persons  employed  upon  the  canal,  railways, 
and  other  works,  the  Government  of  the  United 
States  is  authorized  to  act  in  the  interest  of  their 
protection,  without  the  necessity  of  obtaining  the 
consent  beforehand  of  the  Government  of  Colom- 
bia; and  it  shall  give  immediate  advice  of  the  meas- 
ures adopted  for  the  purpose  stated;  and  as  soon  as 
sufficient  Colombian  forces  shall  arrive  to  attend 
to  the  indicated  purpose,  those  of  the  United  States 
shall  retire.  . 

ARTICLE  XXIV. 

The  Government  of  the  United  States  agrees  to 
complete  the  construction  of  the  preliminary  works 
necessary,  together  with  all  the  auxiliary  works, 


in  the  shortest  time  possible;  and  within  two  years 
from  the  date  of  the  exchange  of  ratification  of  this 
convention  the  main  works  of  the  canal  proper 
shall  be  commenced,  and  it  shall  be  opened  to  the 
traffic  between  the  two  oceans  within  twelve  years 
after  such  period  of  two  years.  In  case,  however, 
that  any  difficulties  or  obstacles  should  arise  in 
the  construction  of  the  canal  which  are  at  present 
impossible  to  foresee,  in  consideration  of  the  good 
faith  with  which  the  Government  of  the  United 
States  shall  have  proceeded,  and  the  large  amount 
of  money  expended  so  far  on  the  works  and  the 
nature  of  the  difficulties  which  may  have  arisen, 
the  Government  of  Colombia  will  prolong  the  terms 
stipulated  in  this  Article  up  to  twelve  years  more 
for  the  completion  of  the  work  of  the  canal. 

But  in  case  the  United  States  should,  at  any 
time,  determine  to  make  such  canal  practically 
a  sea  level  canal,  then  such  period  shall  be  extended 
for  ten  years  further. 

ARTICLE  XXV. 

As  the  price  or  compensation  for  the  right  to 
use  the  zone  granted  in  this  convention  by  Colom- 
bia to  the  United  States  for  the  construction  of  a 
canal,  together  with  the  proprietary  right  over  the 
Panama  Railroad,  and  for  the  annuity  of  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  thousand  dollars  gold,  which  Colombia 
ceases  to  receive  from  the  said  railroad,  as  well  as  in 
compensation  for  other  rights,  privileges  and  ex- 
emptions granted  to  the  United  States,  and  in  con- 
sideration of  the  increase  in  the  administrative  ex- 
penses of  the  Department  of  Panama  consequent 
upon  the  construction  of  the  said  canal,  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  binds  itself  to  pay  Co- 
lombia the  sum  of  ten  million  dollars  in  gold  coin 
of  the  United  States  on  the  exchange  of  the  ratifi- 
cation of  this  convention  after  its  approval  accord- 
ing to  the  laws  of  the  respective  countries,  and  also 
an  annual  payment  during  the  life  of  this  conven- 
tion of  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars  in 
like  gold  coin,  beginning  nine  years  after  the  date 
aforesaid. 

The  provisions  of  this  Article  shall  be  in  addition 
to  all  other  benefits  assured  to  Colombia  under  this 
convention. 

But  no  delay  nor  difference  of  opinion  under  this 
Article  shall  affect  nor  interrupt  the  full  operation 
and  effect  of  this  convention  in  all  other  respects: 

ARTICLE  XXVI. 

No  change  either  in  the  Government  or  in  the 
laws  and  treaties  of  Colombia,  shall,  without  the 
consent  of  the  United  States,  affect  any  right  of  the 
United  States  under  the  present  convention,  or 
under  any  treaty  stipulation  between  the  two  coun- 
tries (that  now  exist  or  may  hereafter  exist)  touch- 
ing the  subject-matter  of  this  convention. 

If  Colombia  shall  hereafter  enter  as  a  constituent 
into  any  other  Government  or  into  any  union  or 
confederation  of  States  so  as  to  merge  her  sovereignty 
or  independence  in  such  Government,  union,  or  con- 
federation, the  rights  of  the  United  States  under 
this  convention  shall  not  be  in  any  respect  lessened 
or  impaired. 


APPENDIX 


5oi 


ARTICLE  XXVII. 

The  joint  commission  referred  to  in  Articles  III, 
VII  and  XIV  shall  be  established  as  follows: 

The  President  of  the  United  States  shall  nominate 
two  persons  and  the  President  of  Colombia  shall 
nominate  two  persons  and  they  shall  proceed  to  a 
decision;  but  in  case  of  disagreement  of  the  Com- 
mission (by  reason  of  their  being  equally  divided  in 
conclusion)  an  umpire  shall  be  appointed  by  the  two 
Governments,  who  shall  render  the  decision.  In 
the  event  of  death,  absence  or  incapacity  of  any 
Commissioner  or  umpire,  or  of  his  omitting,  declin- 
ing or  ceasing  to  act,  his  place  shall  be  filled  by  the 
appointment  of  another  person  in  the  manner  above 
indicated.  All  decisions  by  a  majority  of  the  Com- 
mission or  by  the  umpire  shall  be  final. 


ARTICLE  XXVIII. 

This  convention  when  signed  by  the  contracting 
parties,  shall  be  ratified  according  to  the  laws  of 
the  respective  countries  and  shall  be  exchanged  at 
Washington  within  a  term  of  eight  months  from 
this  date  or  earlier  if  possible. 

In  faith  whereof,  the  respective  plenipotentiaries 
have  signed  the  present  convention  in  duplicate  and 
have  hereunto  affixed  their  respective  seals. 

Done  at  the  City  of  Washington,  the  22d  day  of 
January  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  nineteen  hundred 
and  three. 

JOHN  HAY. 
TOMAS  HERRAN. 


PANAMA  REPUBLIC 

NOVEMBER  18,  1903 
HAY-BUNAU-VARILLA  TREATY 


The  United  States  of  America  and  the  Republic 
of  Panama  being  desirous  to  insure  the  construction 
of  a  ship  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  to 
connect  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  oceans,  and  the 
Congress  of  the  United  States  of  America  having 
passed  an  act  approved  June  28,  1902,  in  further- 
ance of  that  object,  by  which  the  President  of  the 
United  States  is  authorized  to  acquire  within  a  rea- 
sonable time  the  control  of  the  necessary  territory 
of  the  Republic  of  Colombia,  and  the  sovereignty 
of  such  territory  being  actually  vested  in  the  Repub- 
lic of  Panama,  the  high  contracting  parties  have  re- 
solved for  that  purpose  to  conclude  a  convention 
and  have  accordingly  appointed  as  their  plenipo- 
tentiaries,— The  President  of  the  United  States  of 
America,  JOHN  HAY,  Secretary  of  State,  and  The 
Government  of  the  Republic  of  Panama,  PHILIPPE 
BUNAU-VARILLA,  Envoy  Extraordinary  and  Min- 
ister Plenipotentiary  of  the  Republic  of  Panama, 
thereunto  specially  empowered  by  said  government, 
who  after  communicating  with  each  other  their 
respective  full  powers,  found  to  be  in  good  and  due 
form,  have  agreed  upon  and  concluded  the  following 
articles: 

ARTICLE  I. 

The  United  States  guarantees  and  will  maintain 
the  independence  of  the  Republic  of  Panama. 

ARTICLE  II. 

The  Republic  of  Panama  grants  to  the  United 
States  in  perpetuity  the  use,  occupation  and  con- 
trol of  a  zone  of  land  and  land  under  water  for  the 
construction,  maintenance,  operation,  sanitation 
and  protection  of  said  Canal  of  the  width  of  ten 
miles  extending  to  the  distance  of  five  miles  on  each 
side  of  the  center  line  of  the  route  of  the  Canal  to 
be  constructed ;  the  said  zone  beginning  in  the  Car- 
ibbean Sea  three  marine  miles  from  mean  low  water 
mark  and  extending  to  and  across  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama  into  the  Pacific  Ocean  to  a  distance  of  three 
marine  miles  from  mean  low  water  mark  with  the 
proviso  that  the  cities  of  Panama  and  Colon  and 


the  harbors  adjacent  to  said  cities,  which  are  in- 
cluded within  the  boundaries  of  the  zone  above  de- 
scribed, shall  not  be  included  within  this  grant. 
The  republic  of  Panama  further  grants  to  the  United 
States  in  perpetuity  the  use,  occupation  and  control 
of  any  other  lands  and  waters  outside  of  the  zone 
above  described  which  may  be  necessary  and  con- 
venient for  the  construction,  maintenance,  operation, 
sanitation  and  protection  of  the  said  Canal  or  of  any 
auxiliary  canals  or  other  works  necessary  and  con- 
venient for  the  construction,  maintenance,  opera- 
tion, sanitation  and  protection  of  the  said  enter- 
prise. 

The  Republic  of  Panama  further  grants  in  like 
manner  to  the  United  States  in  perpetuity  all  islands 
within  the  limits  of  the  zone  above  described  and  in 
addition  thereto  the  group  of  small  islands  in  the 
Bay  of  Panama,  named  Perico,  Naos,  Culebra  and 
Flamenco. 

ARTICLE  III. 

The  Republic  of  Panama  grants  to  the  United 
States  all  the  rights,  power  and  authority  within 
the  zone  mentioned  and  described  in  Article  II  of 
this  agreement  and  within  the  limits  of  all  auxiliary 
lands  and  waters  mentioned  and  described  in  said 
Article  II  which  the  United  States  would  possess 
and  exercise  if  it  were  the  sovereign  of  the  territory 
within  which  said  lands  and  waters  are  located  to  the 
entire  exclusion  of  the  exercise  by  the  Republic 
of  Panama  of  any  such  sovereign  rights,  power  or 
authority. 

ARTICLE  IV. 

As  rights  subsidiary  to  the  above  grants  the  Re- 
public of  Panama  grants  in  perpetuity  to  the  United 
States  the  right  to  use  the  rivers,  streams,  lakes  and 
other  bodies  of  water  within  its  limits  for  naviga- 
tion, the  supply  of  water  or  water-power  or  other 
purposes,  so  far  as  the  use  of  said  rivers,  streams, 
lakes  and  bodies  of  water  and  the  waters  thereof 
may  be  necessary  and  convenient  for  the  construc- 
tion, maintenance,  operation,  sanitation  and  pro- 
tection of  the  said  Canal. 


502 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


ARTICLE  V. 

The  Republic  of  Panama  grants  to  the  United 
States  in  perpetuity  a  monopoly  for  the  construc- 
tion, maintenance  and  operation  of  any  system  of 
communication  by  means  of  canal  or  railroad 
across  its  territory  between  the  Caribbean  Sea  and 
the  Pacific  Ocean. 

ARTICLE  VI. 

The  grants  herein  contained  shall  in  no  manner 
invalidate  the  titles  or  rights  of  private  land  holders 
or  owners  of  private  property  in  the  said  zone  or 
in  or  to  any  of  the  lands  or  waters  granted  to  the 
United  States  by  the  provisions  of  any  Article  of 
this  Treaty,  nor  shall  they  interfere  with  the  rights 
of  way  over  the  public  roads  passing  through  the 
said  zone  or  over  any  of  the  said  lands  or  waters 
unless  said  rights  of  way  or  private  rights  shall 
conflict  with  rights  herein  granted  to  the  United 
States  in  which  case  the  rights  of  the  United  States 
shall  be  superior.  All  damages  caused  to  the  owners 
in  this  treaty  or  by  reason  of  the  operations  of  the 
United  States,  its  agents  or  employees,  of  private 
lands  or  private  property  of  any  kind  by  reason 
of  the  grants  contained  or  by  reason  of  the  con- 
struction, maintenance,  operation,  sanitation  and 
protection  of  the  said  Canal  or  of  the  works  of 
sanitation  and  protection  herein  provided  for, 
shall  be  appraised  and  settled  by  a  joint  Commis- 
sion appointed  by  the  Governments  of  the  United 
States  and  of  the  Republic  of  Panama,  whose  de- 
cisions as  to  such  damages  shall  be  final  and  whose 
awards  as  to  such  damages  shall  be  paid  solely  by 
the  United  States.  No  part  of  the  work  on  said 
Canal  or  the  Panama  Railroad  or  on  any  auxiliary 
works  relating  thereto  and  authorized  by  the  terms 
of  this  treaty  shall  be  prevented,  delayed  or  im- 
peded by  or  pending  such  proceedings  to  ascertain 
such  damages.  The  appraisal  of  said  private  land 
and  private  property  and  the  assessment  of  damages 
to  them  shall  be  based  upon  their  value  before  the 
date  of  this  convention. 

ARTICLE  VII. 

The  Republic  of  Panama  grants  to  the  United 
States  within  the  limits  of  the  cities  of  Panama  and 
Colon  and  their  adjacent  harbors  and  within  the 
territory  adjacent  thereto  the  right  to  acquire  by 
purchase  or  by  the  exercise  of  the  right  of  eminent 
domain,  any  lands,  buildings,  water  rights  or  other 
properties  necessary  and  convenient  for  the  con- 
struction, maintenance,  operation  and  protection 
of  the  Canal  and  of  any  works  of  sanitation,  such  as 
the  collection  and  disposition  of  sewage  and  the 
distribution  of  water  in  the  said  cities  of  Panama  and 
Colon,  which,  in  the  discretion  of  the  United  States 
may  be  necessary  and  convenient  for  the  construc- 
tion, maintenance,  operation,  sanitation  and  pro- 
tection of  the  said  Canal  and  railroad.  All  such 
works  of  sanitation,  collection  and  disposition  of 
sewage  and  distribution  of  water  in  the  cities  of 
Panama  and  Colon  shall  be  made  at  the  expense  of 
the  United  States,  and  the  Government  of  the 
United  States,  its  agents  or  nominees  shall  be 
authorized  to  impose  and  collect  water  rates  and 
sewerage  rates  which  shall  be  sufficient  to  provide 


for  the  payment  of  interest  and  the  amortization 
of  the  principal  of  the  cost  of  said  works  within 
a  period  of  fifty  years  and  upon  the  expiration  of 
said  term  of  fifty  years  the  system  of  sewers  and 
water  works  shall  revert  to  and  become  the  prop- 
erties of  the  cities  of  Panama  and  Colon  respectively, 
and  the  use  of  the  water  shall  be  free  to  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Panama  and  Colon,  except  to  the  extent 
that  water  rates  may  be  necessary  for  the  operation 
and  maintenance  of  said  system  of  sewers  and  waters. 

The  Republic  of  Panama  agrees  that  the  cities  of 
Panama  and  Colon  shall  comply  in  perpetuity  with 
the  sanitary  ordinances  whether  of  a  preventive  or 
curative  character  prescribed  by  the  United  States 
and  in  case  the  Government  of  Panama  is  unable 
or  fails  in  its  duty  to  enforce  this  compliance  by 
the  cities  of  Panama  and  Colon  with  the  sanitary 
ordinances  of  the  United  States  the  Republic  of 
Panama  grants  to  the  United  States  the  right  and 
authority  to  enforce  the  same. 

The  same  right  and  authority  are  granted  to  the 
United  States  for  the  maintenance  of  public  order 
in  the  cities  of  Panama  and  Colon  and  the  territories 
and  harbors  adjacent  thereto  in  case  the  Republic  of 
Panama  should  not  be,  in  the  judgment  of  the  United 
States,  able  to  maintain  such  order. 

ARTICLE  VIII. 

The  Republic  of  Panama  grants  to  the  United 
States  all  rights  which  it  now  has  or  hereafter 
may  acquire  to  the  property  of  the  New  Panama 
Canal  Company  and  the  Panama  Railroad  Company 
as  a  result  of  the  transfer  of  sovereignty  from  the 
Republic  of  Colombia  to  the  Republic  of  Panama 
over  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  and  authorizes  the 
New  Panama  Canal  Company  to  sell  and  transfer 
to  the  United  States  its  rights,  privileges,  properties, 
and  concessions  as  well  as  the  Panama  Railroad  and 
all  the  shares  or  part  of  the  shares  of  that  company; 
but  the  public  lands  situated  outside  of  the  zone 
described  in  Article  II  of  this  treaty  now  included 
in  the  concessions  to  both  said  enterprises  and  not 
required  in  the  construction  or  operation  of  the  Canal 
shall  revert  to  the  Republic  of  Panama  except 
any  property  now  owned  by  or  in  the  possession  of 
said  companies  within  Panama  or  Colon  or  the 
ports  or  terminals  thereof. 

ARTICLE  IX. 

The  United  States  agrees  that  the  ports  at  either 
entrance  of  the  Canal  and  the  waters  thereof  and 
the  Republic  of  Panama  agrees  that  the  towns  of 
Panama  and  Colon  shall  be  free  for  all  time  so  that 
there  shall  not  be  imposed  or  collected  custom  house 
tolls,  tonnage,  anchorage,  lighthouse,  wharf,  pilot, 
or  quarantine  dues  or  any  other  charges  or  taxes  of 
any  kind  upon  any  vessel  using  or  passing  through 
the  Canal  or  belonging  to  or  employed  by  the  United 
States,  directly  or  indirectly,  in  connection  with  the 
construction,  maintenance,  operation,  sanitation 
and  protection  of  the  main  Canal,  or  auxiliary  works, 
or  upon  the  cargo,  officers,  crew,  or  passengers  of 
any  such  vessels,  except  such  tolls  and  charges  as 
may  be  imposed  by  the  United  States  for  the  use  of 
the  Canal  and  other  works,  and  except  tolls  and 
charges  imposed  by  the  Republic  of  Panama  upon 


APPENDIX 


503 


merchandise  destined  to  be  introduced  for  the  con- 
sumption of  the  rest  of  the  Republic  of  Panama,  and 
upon  vessels  touching  at  the  ports  of  Colon  and 
Panama  and  which  do  not  cross  the  Canal. 

The  Government  of  the  Republic  of  Panama 
shall  have  the  right  to  establish  in  such  ports  and 
in  the  towns  of  Panama  and  Colon  such  houses  and 
guards  as  it  may  deem  necessary  to  collect  duties 
on  importations  destined  to  other  portions  of  Pan- 
ama and  to  prevent  contraband  trade.  The  United 
States  shall  have  the  right  to  make  use  of  the  towns 
and  harbors  of  Panama  and  Colon  as  places  of 
anchorage,  and  for  making  repairs,  for  loading,  un- 
loading, depositing,  or  transshiping  cargoes  either 
in  transit  or  destined  for  the  service  of  the  Canal 
and  for  other  works  pertaining  to  the  Canal. 

ARTICLE  X. 

The  Republic  of  Panama  agrees  that  there  shall 
not  be  imposed  any  taxes,  national,  municipal, 
departmental,  or  of  any  other  class  upon  the  Canal, 
the  railways  and  auxiliary  works,  tugs  and  other 
vessels  employed  in  the  service  of  the  Canal,  store 
houses,  work  shops,  offices,  quarters  for  laborers, 
factories  of  all  kinds,  warehouses,  wharves,  ma- 
chinery and  other  works,  property,  and  effects  ap- 
pertaining to  the  Canal  or  railroad  and  auxiliary 
works,  or  their  officers  or  employees,  situated  within 
the  cities  of  Panama  and  Colon,  and  that  there  shall 
not  be  imposed  contributions  or  charges  of  a  per- 
sonal character  of  any  kind  upon  officers,  employees, 
laborers,  and  other  individuals  in  the  service  of  the 
Canal  and  railroad  and  auxiliary  works. 

ARTICLE  XI. 

The  United  States  agrees  that  the  official  dis- 
patches of  the  Government  of  the  Republic  of 
Panama  shall  be  transmitted  over  any  telegraph  and 
telephone  lines  established  for  canal  purposes  and 
used  for  public  and  private  business  at  rates  not 
higher  than  those  required  from  officials  in  the  serv- 
ice of  the  United  States. 

ARTICLE  XII. 

The  Government  of  the  Republic  of  Panama  shall 
permit  the  immigration  and  free  access  to  the  lands 
and  workshops  of  the  Canal  and  its  auxiliary  works 
of  all  employees  and  workmen  of  whatever  nation- 
ality under  contract  to  work  upon  or  seeking 
employment  upon  or  in  any  wise  connected  with  the 
said  Canal  and  its  auxiliary  works,  with  their 
respective  families  and  all  such  persons  shall  be 
free  and  exempt  from  the  military  service  of  the 
Republic  of  Panama. 

ARTICLE  XIII. 

The  United  States  may  import  at  any  time  into 
the  said  zone  and  auxiliary  lands,  free  of  custom 
duties,  imposts,  taxes,  or  other  charges,  and  with- 
out any  restrictions,  any  and  all  vessels,  dredges, 
engines,  cars,  machinery,  tools,  explosives,  ma- 
terials, supplies,  and  other  articles  necessary  and 
convenient  in  the  construction,  maintenance,  oper- 
ation, sanitation  and  protection  of  the  Canal  and 
auxiliary  works,  and  all  provisions,  medicines, 
clothing,  supplies  and  other  things  necessary  and 
convenient  for  the  officers,  employees,  workmen 


and  laborers  in  the  service  and  employ  of  the  United 
States  and  for  their  families.  If  any  such  articles 
are  disposed  of  for  use  outside  of  the  zone  and 
auxiliary  lands  granted  to  the  United  States  and 
within  the  territory  of  the  Republic;  they  shall 
be  subject  to  the  same  import  or  other  duties  as 
like  articles  imported  under  the  laws  of  the  Repub- 
lic of  Panama. 

ARTICLE  XIV. 

As  the  price  or  compensation  for  the  rights, 
powers  and  privileges  granted  in  this  convention 
by  the  Republic  of  Panama  to  the  United  States, 
the  Government  of  the  United  States  agrees  to  pay 
to  the  Republic  of  Panama  the  sum  of  ten  million 
dollars  ($10,000,000)  in  gold  coin  of  the  United 
States  on  the  exchange  of  the  ratification  of  this 
convention  and  also  an  annual  payment  during  the 
life  of  this  convention  of  two  hundred  and  fifty 
thousand  dollars  ($250,000)  in  like  gold  coin,  be- 
ginning nine  years  after  the  date  aforesaid. 

The  provisions  of  this  Article  shall  be  in  addition 
to  all  other  benefits  assured  to  the  Republic  of 
Panama  under  this  convention. 

But  no  delay  or  difference  of  opinion  under  this 
Article  or  any  other  provisions  of  this  treaty  shall 
affect  or  interrupt  the  full  operation  and  effect 
of  this  convention  in  all  other  respects. 

ARTICLE  XV. 

The  joint  commission  referred  to  in  Article  VI  shall 
be  established  as  follows: 

The  President  of  the  United  States  shall  nominate 
two  persons  and  the  President  of  the  Republic  of 
Panama  shall  nominate  two  persons  and  they  shall 
proceed  to  a  decision;  but  in  case  of  disagreement 
of  the  Commission  (by  reason  of  their  being  equally 
divided  in  conclusion)  an  umpire  shall  be  appointed 
by  the  two  Governments  who  shall  render  the  de- 
cision. In  the  event  of  the  death,  absence,  or  in- 
capacity of  a  Commissioner  or  Umpire,  or  of  his 
omitting,  declining  or  ceasing  to  act,  his  place  shall 
be  filled  by  the  appointment  of  another  person  in 
the  manner  above  indicated.  All  decisions  by  a 
majority  of  the  Commission  or  by  the  umpire  shall 
be  final. 

ARTICLE  XVI. 

The  two  Governments  shall  make  adequate  pro- 
vision by  future  agreement  for  the  pursuit,  capture, 
imprisonment,  detention  and  delivery  within  said 
zone  and  auxiliary  lands  to  the  authorities  of  the 
Republic  of  Panama  of  persons  charged  with  the 
commitment  of  crimes,  felonies  or  misdemeanors 
without  said  zone  and  for  the  pursuit,  capture, 
imprisonment  detention  and  delivery  without  said 
zone  to  the  authorities  of  the  United  States  of  per- 
sons charged  with  the  commitment  of  crimes,  fel- 
onies, and  misdemeanors  within  said  zone  and 
auxiliary  lands. 

ARTICLE  XVII. 

The  Republic  of  Panama  grants  to  the  United 
States  th«  use  of  all  the  ports  of  the  Republic  open 
to  commerce  as  places  of  refuge  for  any  vessels 
employed  in  the  Canal  enterprise,  and  for  all  vessels 
passing  or  bound  to  pass  through  the  Canal  which 
may  be  in  distress  and  be  driven  to  seek  refuge  in 
said  ports.  Such  vessels  shall  be  exempt  from 


504 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


anchorage  and  tonnage  dues  on  the  part  of  the 
Republic  of  Panama. 

ARTICLE  XVIII. 

The  Canal,  when  constructed,  and  the  entrances 
thereto  shall  be  neutral  in  perpetuity,  and  shall  be 
opened  upon  the  terms  provided  for  by  Section  I 
of  Article  three  of,  and  in  conformity  with  all  the 
stipulations  of,  the  treaty  entered  into  by  the  Gov- 
ernments of  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain 
on  November  18,  1901. 

ARTICLE  XIX. 

The  Government  of  the  Republic  of  Panama  shall 
have  the  right  to  transport  over  the  Canal  its  vessels 
and  its  troops  and  munitions  of  war  in  such  vessels 
at  all  times  without  paying  charges  of  any  kind. 
The  exemption  is  to  be  extended  to  the  auxiliary 
railway  for  the  transportation  of  persons  in  the  serv- 
ice of  the  Republic  of  Panama,  or  of  the  police 
force  charged  with  the  preservation  of  public  order 
outside  of  said  zone,  as  well  as  to  their  baggage, 
munitions  of  war  and  supplies. 

ARTICLE  XX. 

If  by  virtue  of  any  existing  treaty  in  relation  to 
the  territory  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  whereof 
the  obligations  shall  descend  or  be  assumed  by  the 
Republic  of  Panama,  there  may  be  any  privilege  or 
concession  in  favor  of  the  Government  or  the  citi- 
zens and  subjects  of  a  third  power  relative  to  an 
interoceanic  means  of  communication  which  in 
any  of  its  terms  may  be  incompatible  with  the  terms 
of  the  present  convention,  the  Republic  of  Panama 
agrees  to  cancel  or  modify  such  treaty  in  due  form, 
for  which  purpose  it  shall  give  to  the  said  third  power 
the  requisite  notification  within  the  term  of  four 
months  from  the  date  of  the  present  convention, 
and  in  case  the  existing  treaty  contains  no  clause 
permitting  its  modifications  or  annulment,  the 
Republic  of  Panama  agrees  to  procure  its  modifica- 
tions or  annulment  in  such  form  that  there  shall  not 
exist  any  conflict  with  the  stipulations  of  the 
present  convention. 

ARTICLE  XXI. 

The  rights  and  privileges  granted  by  the  Republic 
of  Panama  to  the  United  States  in  the  preceding 
Articles  are  understood  to  be  free  of  all  anterior 
debts,  liens,  trusts,  or  liabilities,  or  concessions  or 
privileges  to  other  Governments,  corporations, 
syndicates  or  individuals,  and  consequently,  if  there 
should  arise  any  claims  on  account  of  the  present 
concessions  and  privileges  or  otherwise,  the  claim- 
ants shall  resort  to  the  Government  of  the  Republic 
of  Panama  and  not  to  the  United  States  for  any  in- 
demnity or  compromise  which  may  be  required. 

ARTICLE  XXII. 

The  Republic  of  Panama  renounces  and  grants 
to  the  United  States  the  participation  to  which  it 
might  be  entitled  in  the  future  earnings  of  the  Canal 
under  Article  XV  of  the  concessionary  contract 
with  Lucien  N.  B.  Wyse  now  owned  by  the  New 
Panama  Canal  Company  and  any  and  all  other 
rights  or  claims  of  a  pecuniary  nature  arising  under 


or  relating  to  said  concession,  or  arising  under  or 
relating  to  the  concessions  to  the  Panama  Railroad 
Company  or  any  extension  or  modification  thereof; 
and  it  likewise  renounces,  confirms  and  grants  to 
the  United  States,  now  and  hereafter,  all  the  rights 
and  property  reserved  in  the  said  concessions  which 
otherwise  would  belong  to  Panama  at  or  before 
the  expiration  of  the  terms  of  ninety-nine  years  of 
the  concessions  granted  to  or  held  by  the  above 
mentioned  party  and  companies,  and  all  right, 
title  and  interest  which  it  now  has  or  may  hereafter 
have,  in  and  to  the  lands,  canal,  works,  property 
and  rights  held  by  the  said  companies  under  said 
concessions  or  otherwise,  and  acquired  or  to  be 
acquired  by  the  United  States  from  or  through  the 
New  Panama  Canal  Company,  including  any  prop- 
erty and  rights  which  might  or  may  in  the  future 
either  by  lapse  of  time,  forfeiture  or  otherwise,  re- 
vert to  the  Republic  of  Panama  under  any  contracts 
or  concessions,  with  said  Wyse,  the  Universal  Pan- 
ama Canal  Company,  the  Panama  Railroad  Com- 
pany and  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company. 

The  aforesaid  rights  and  property  shall  be  and 
are  free  and  released  from  any  present  or  reversion- 
ary interest  in  or  claims  of  Panama  and  the  title 
of  the  United  States  thereto  upon  consummation 
of  the  contemplated  purchase  by  the  United  States 
from  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company,  shall  be 
absolute,  so  far  as  concerns  the  Republic  of  Panama, 
excepting  always  the  rights  of  the  Republic  specifi- 
cally secured  under  this  treaty. 

ARTICLE  XXIII. 

If  it  should  become  necessary  at  any  time  to 
employ  armed  forces  for  the  safety  or  protection 
of  the  Canal,  or  of  the  ships  that  make  use  of  the 
same,  or  the  railways  and  auxiliary  works,  the 
United  States  shall  have  the  right,  at  all  times  and 
in  its  discretion,  to  use  its  police  and  its  land  and 
naval  forces  or  to  establish  fortifications  for  these 
purposes. 

ARTICLE  XXIV. 

No  change  either  in  the  Government  or  in  the 
laws  and  treaties  of  the  Republic  of  Panama  shall, 
without  the  consent  of  the  United  States,  affect  any 
right  of  the  United  States  under  the  present  con- 
vention, or  under  any  treaty  stipulation  between  the 
two  countries  that  now  exists  or  may  hereafter 
exist  touching  the  subject  matter  of  this  conven- 
tion. 

If  the  Republic  of  Panama  shall  hereafter  enter 
as  a  constituent  into  any  other  Government  or  into 
any  union  or  confederation  of  states,  so  as  to  merge 
her  sovereignty  .or  independence  in  such  Govern- 
ment, union  or  confederation,  the  rights  of  the 
United  States  under  this  convention  shall  not  be  in 
any  respect  lessened  or  impaired. 

ARTICLE  XXV. 

For  the  better  performance  of  the  engagements 
of  this  convention  and  to  the  end  of  the  efficient 
protection  of  the  Canal  and  the  preservation  of  its 
neutrality,  the  Government  of  the  Republic  of 
Panama  will  sell  or  lease  to  the  United  States  lands 
adequate  and  necessary  for  naval  or  coaling  stations 
on  the  Pacific  coast  and  on  the  western  Caribbean 


APPENDIX 


505 


coast  of  the  Republic  at  certain  points  to  be  agreed 
upon  with  the  President  of  the  United  States. 

This  convention  when  signed  by  the  Plenipo- 
tentiaries of  the  Contracting  Parties  shall  be  ratified 
by  the  respective  Governments  and  the  ratifica- 
tions shall  be  exchanged  at  Washington  at  the  ear- 
liest date  possible. 


In  faith  whereof  the  respective  Plenipotentiaries 
have  signed  the  present  convention  in  duplicate 
and  have  hereunto  affixed  their  respective  seals. 

Done  at  the  City  of  Washington  the  i8th  day  of 
November  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  nineteen  hundred 
and  three.  JOHN  HAY. 

P.  BUNAU  VARILLA. 


COLOMBIA-PANAMA  REPUBLIC 

JANUARY  9,  1909 
ROOT-CORTES,  ROOT-AROSEMENA,  AND  CORTES-AROSEMENA  TREATIES 


In  an  effort  to  compose  the  differences 
between  the  United  States  and  Colombia 
arising  out  of  the  revolution  at  Panama, 
and  the  differences  between  Colombia  and 
the  new  Republic  of  Panama,  three  treaties 
were  signed  at  Washington  on  Jan.  9,  1909, 
between  Secretary  Root  and  Minister 
Cortes  of  Colombia;  Secretary  Root  and 
Minister  Arosemena  of  Panama;  and 
Ministers  Cortes  and  Arosemena.  The 
treaties  were  of  a  tripartite  nature,  each 
depending  on  the  others.  They  were 
ratified  by  the  United  States  Senate  on 
Feb.  24,  1909,  but  did  not  become  operative 
by  reason  of  the  failure  of  Colombia  to 
accept  them. 

The  Root-Cortes  treaty  provided  for  peace  and 
friendship  between  the  United  States  and  Colom- 
bia; granted  freedom  of  passage  through  the 
Panama  Canal  to  the  troops  and  war  ships  of  Co- 
lombia; exempted  provisions,  cattle,  and  other 
Colombia  products  from  duty  in  the  Canal  Zone; 
granted  free  passage  of  Colombian  mails  in  the 
zone;  agreed  to  pay  $250,000  annually  to  Colombia 
instead  of  Panama,  from  1908  to  1917  inclusive,  on 
condition  that  Colombia  should  recognize  the  in- 
dependence of  Panama  and  that  Panama  should  be 
released  from  obligation  to  pay  any  of  the  public 
debt  of  Colombia;  granted  the  use  of  ports  in 
Colombia  to  American  vessels;  renounced  all 
Colombia's  rights  in  all  canal  contracts  and  con- 


cessions; and  provided  for  a  revision  of  the  old 
treaty  of  1846  (New  Granada). 

The  Root -Arosemena  treaty  provided  that  the 
annual  payment  of  $250,000  from  the  United  States 
to  Panama  should  begin  four  years  instead  of  nine 
years  from  Nov.  18,  1903;  consented  to  the  assign- 
ment and  transfer  to  Colombia  of  the  first  ten  an- 
nual payments;  provided  for  the  delimitation  of 
the  cities  of  Panama  and  Colon  and  the  adjacent 
harbors,  and  authorized  the  purchase  by  Panama 
of  such  portions  of  the  waterworks  in  those  cities 
as  lie  outside  of  the  Canal  Zone;  provided  for  the  ar- 
bitration of  all  questions  arising  out  of  the  Hay- 
Bunau-Varilla  treaty;  and  provided  for  reciprocal 
liberty  of  commerce  and  navigation,  and  granted  to 
Panama  most -favored -nation  rights  in  the  use  of 
the  Panama  Canal  facilities. 

The  Cortes-Arosemena  treaty  provided  for  the 
recognition  of  the  independence  of  Panama  by 
Colombia;  provided  for  mutual  and  inviolable  peace 
and  friendship  between  Colombia  and  Panama; 
assigned  to  Colombia  the  first  ten  annual  payments 
of  $250,000  each  payable  by  the  United  States 
to  Panama  under  the  Hay-Bunau-Varilla  treaty; 
released  Panama  from  the  payment  of  any  part  of 
the  public  debt  of  Colombia;  released  each  nation 
from  all  pecuniary  claims  held  by  the  other  on 
Nov.  3,  1903;  confirmed  the  abandonment  by  Pan- 
ama of  all  right  and  title  to  stock  of  the  New  Panama 
Canal  Co.;  granted  reciprocal  most -favored -nation 
rights  to  the  citizens  of  each  country,  and  estab- 
lished the  status  of  citizens  in  the  respective  terri- 
tories; provided  that  neither  republic  should  ex- 
tend its  territory  by  force  at  the  expense  of  the 
other;  provided  for  the  negotiation  of  additional 
treaties  covering  commerce,  arbitration,  and  other 
relations;  and  provided  for  the  establishment  of 
the  boundary  line  between  Colombia  and  Panama. 


COLOMBIA 

APRIL  6,  1914 

THOMSON-URRUTIA  TREATY 


The  failure  of  Colombia  to  ratify  the 
tripartite  treaties  was  followed  by  pro- 
longed negotiations  between  the  United 
States  and  Colombia,  looking  to  the  settle- 
ment of  their  differences.  These  negotia- 
tions resulted  in  the  signing  of  a  treaty 


on  April  6,  1914,  between  the  United 
States  Minister  to  Colombia,  Thaddeus  A. 
Thomson,  and  Francisco  Jos6  Urrutia, 
Minister  for  Foreign  Affairs  of  Colombia, 
together  with  five  other  plenipotentiaries 
representing  Colombia.  This  treaty  was 


506 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


transmitted   to   the   Senate   by   President 
Wilson  on  June  16,  1914. 

On  account  of  the  allegation  that  the 
first  article  of  the  treaty  constituted  an 
"apology"  by  the  United  States  for  the 
incidents  resulting  in  the  independence  of 
Panama,  and  also  on  account  of  the  pro- 
posed payment  of  $25,000,000  to  Colombia, 
this  treaty  met  with  opposition  in  the 
United  States  and  it  was  still  pending  in 
the  Senate  when  Congress  adjourned  March 


The  United  States  of  America  and  the  Republic 
of  Colombia,  being  desirous  to  remove  all  the  mis- 
understandings growing  out  of  the  political  events 
in  Panama  in  November,  1903;  to  restore  the  cordial 
friendship  that  formerly  characterized  the  relations 
between  the  two  countries,  and  also  to  define  and 
regulate  their  rights  and  interests  in  respect  of  the 
interoceanic  canal  which  the  Government  of  the 
United  States  is  constructing  across  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama,  have  resolved  for  this  purpose  to  con- 
clude a  Treaty  and  have  accordingly  appointed 
as  their  Plenipotentiaries: 

His  Excellency  the  President  of  the  United  States 
of  America,  Thaddeus  Austin  Thomson,  Envoy 
Extraordinary  and  Minister  Plenipotentiary  of  the 
United  States  of  America  to  the  Government  of  the 
Republic  of  Colombia;  and 

His  Excellency  the  President  of  the  Republic  of 
Colombia,  Francisco  Jose  Urrutia,  Minster  for 
Foreign  Affairs;  Marco  Fidel  Suarez,  First  Designate 
to  exercise  the  Executive  Power;  Nicolas  Esguerra, 
Ex-Minister  of  State;  Jose  Maria  Gonzalez  Valen- 
cia, Senator;  Rafael  Uribe  Uribe,  Senator;  and 
Antonio  Jos6  Uribe,  President  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  ; 

Who,  after  communicating  to  each  other  their 
respective  full  powers,  which  were  found  to  be  in 
due  and  proper  form,  have  agreed  upon  the  follow- 
ing: 

ARTICLE  I. 

The  Government  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
wishing  to  put  at  rest  all  controversies  and  differ- 
ences with  the  Republic  of  Colombia  arising  out  of 
the  events  from  which  the  present  situation  on  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama  resulted,  expresses,  in  its  own 
name  and  in  the  name  of  the  people  of  the  United 
States,  sincere  regret  that  anything  should  have 
occurred  to  interrupt  or  to  mar  the  relations  of 
cordial  friendship  that  had  so  long  subsisted  be- 
tween the  two  nations. 

The  Government  of  the  Republic  of  Colombia,  in 
its  own  name  and  in  the  name  of  the  Colombian 
people,  accepts  this  declaration  in  the  full  assurance 
that  every  obstacle  to  the  restoration  of  complete 
harmony  between  the  two  countries  will  thus  dis- 
appear. 

ARTICLE  II. 

The  Republic  of  Colombia  shall  enjoy  the  follow- 
ing rights  in  respect  to  the  interoceanic  Canal  and 
the  Panama  Railway: 


1.  The  Republic  of  Colombia  shall  be  at  liberty  at 
all   times   to   transport    through    the    interoceanic 
Canal  its  troops,  materials  of  war  and  ships  of  war, 
even  in  case  of  war  between  Colombia  and  another 
country,  without  paying  any  charges  to  the  United 
States. 

2.  The    products   of    the    soil    and    industry    of 
Colombia  passing  through  the  Canal,  as  well  as  the 
Colombian  mails,  shall  be  exempt  from  any  charge 
or  duty  other  than  those  to  which  the  products 
and  mails  of  the  United  States  may  be  subject. 
The  products  of  the  soil  and  industry  of  Colombia, 
such  as  cattle,  salt  and  provisions,  shall  be  admitted 
to  entry  in  the  Canal  Zone,  and  likewise  in  the 
islands  and  main  land  occupied  or  which  may  be 
occupied  by  the  United  States  as  auxiliary  and  ac- 
cessory  thereto,    without    paying   other   duties   or 
charges  than  those  payable  by  similar  products  of 
the  United  States. 

3.  Colombian  citizens  crossing  the  Canal    Zone 
shall,    upon   production   of   proper   proof   of   their 
nationality,  be  exempt  from  every  toll,  tax  or  duty 
to  which  citizens  of  the  United  States  are  not  subject. 

4.  During  the  construction  of  the  Interoceanic 
Canal  and  afterwards,  whenever  traffic  by  the  Canal 
is  interrupted  or  whenever  it  shall  be  necessary  for 
any  other  reason  to  use  the  railway,  the  troops, 
materials  of  war,  products  and  mails  of  the  Republic 
of  Colombia,  as  above  mentioned,  shall,  even  in  case 
of  war  between  Colombia  and  another  country,  be 
transported  on  the   Railway  between  Ancon  and 
Cristobal  or  on  any  other  Railway  substituted  there- 
for, paying  only  the  same  charges  and  duties  as  are 
imposed  upon  the  troops,  materials  of  war,  products 
and    mails    of    the    United    States.     The    officers, 
agents  and  employees  of  the  Government  of  Co- 
lombia shall,  upon  production  of  proper  proof  of  their 
official  character  or  their  employment,  also  be  en- 
titled to  passage  on  the  said  Railway  on  the  same 
terms  as  officers,  agents  and  employees  of  the  Gov- 
ernment   of    the    United    States.     The    provisions 
of   this   paragraph   shall    not,    however,    apply   in 
case  of  war  between  Colombia  and  Panama. 

5.  Coal,  petroleum  and  sea  salt,  being  the  prod- 
ucts of  Colombia,  passing  from  the  Atlantic  coast 
of  Colombia  to  any  Colombian  port  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  and  vice  versa,  shall  be  transported  over  the 
aforesaid  Railway  free  of  any  charge  except  the 
actual  cost  of  handling  and  transportation,  which 
shall  not  in  any  case  exceed  one  half  of  the  ordinary 
freight  charges  levied  upon  similar  products  of  the 
United  States  passing  over  the   Railway  and  in 
transit  from  one  port  to  another  of  the  United  States. 

ARTICLE  III. 

The  United  States  of  America  agrees  to  pay  to 
the  Republic  of  Colombia,  within  six  months  after 
the  exchange  of  the  ratifications  of  the  present 
Treaty,  the  sum  of  twenty-five  million  dollars, 
gold,  United  States  money. 

ARTICLE  IV. 

The  Republic  of  Colombia  recognizes  Panama  as 
an  independent  nation  and  taking  as  a  basis  the 
Colombian  law  of  June  9,  1855,  agrees  that  the 
boundary  shall  be  the  following:  From  Cape 


APPENDIX 


Tiburon  to  the  headwaters  of  the  Rio  de  la  Miel  and 
following  the  mountain  chain  by  the  ridge  of  Gandi 
to  the  Sierra  de  Chugargun  and  that  of  Mali  going 
down  by  the  ridges  of  Nigue  to  the  heights  of 
Aspave  and  from  thence  to  a  point  on  the  Pacific 
half  way  between  Cocalito  and  La  Arvita. 

In  consideration  of  this  recognition,  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  United  States  will,  immediately  after 
the  exchange  of  the  ratifications  of  the  present 
Treaty,  take  the  necessary  steps  in  order  to  obtain 
from  the  Government  of  Panama  the  despatch  of  a 
duly  accredited  agent  to  negotiate  and  conclude 
with  the  Government  of  Colombia  a  Treaty  of 
Peace  and  Friendship,  with  a  view  to  bring  about 
both  the  establishment  of  regular  diplomatic  re- 
lations between  Colombia  and  Panama  and  the 
adjustment  of  all  questions  of  pecuniary  liability 
as  between  the  two  countries,  in  accordance  with 
recognized  principles  of  law  and  precedents. 


ARTICLE  V. 

The  present  Treaty  shall  be  approved  and  rati- 
fied by  the  High  Contracting  Parties  in  conformity 
with  their  respective  laws,  and  the  ratifications 
thereof  shall  be  exchanged  in  the  City  of  Bogota 
as  soon  as  may  be  possible. 

In  faith  whereof,  the  said  Plenipotentiaries 
have  signed  the  present  Treaty  in  duplicate  and 
have  hereunto  affixed  their  respective  seals. 

Done  at  the  City  of  Bogota,  the  sixth  day  of 
April  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  nineteen  hundred 
and  fourteen. 

THADDEUS  AUSTIN  THOMSON. 
FRANCISCO  JOSE  URRUTIA. 
MARCO  FIDEL  SUAREZ. 
NICOLAS  ESGUERRA. 
JOSE  MARIA  GONZALES  VALENCIA, 
RAFAEL  URIBE  URIBE. 
ANTONIO  JOSE  URIBE. 


LAWS  OF  THE  UNITED   STATES   RELATING   TO   THE   PANAMA   CANAL 

THE  SPOONER  ACT 
APPROVED  JUNE  28,  1902 


An  Act  To  provide  for  the  construction  of  a  canal 
connecting  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
oceans. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives of  the  United  States  of  America  in  Congress 
assembled,  That  the  President  of  the  United  States 
is  hereby  authorized  to  acquire,  for  and  on  behalf  of 
the  United  States,  at  a  cost  not  exceeding  forty 
millions  of  dollars,  the  rights,  privileges,  franchises, 
concessions,  grants  of  land,  right  of  way,  unfinished 
work,  plants,  and  other  property,  real,  personal,  and 
mixed,  of  every  name  and  nature,  owned  by  the 
New  Panama  Canal  Company,  of  France,  on  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  all  its  maps,  plans,  draw- 
ings, records  on  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  and  in  Paris, 
including  all  the  capital  stock,  not  less,  however, 
than  sixty -eight  thousand  eight  hundred  and  sixty- 
three  shares  of  the  Panama  Railroad  Company, 
owned  by  or  held  for  the  use  of  said  canal  company, 
provided  a  satisfactory  title  to  all  of  said  property 
can  be  obtained. 

SEC.  2.  That  the  President  is  hereby  authorized 
to  acquire  from  the  Republic  of  Colombia,  for  and 
on  behalf  of  the  United  States,  upon  such  terms 
as  he  may  deem  reasonable,  perpetual  control  of  a 
strip  of  land,  the  territory  of  the  Republic  of  Colom- 
bia, not  less  than  six  miles  in.  width,  extending  from 
the  Caribbean  Sea  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  the 
right  to  use  and  dispose  of  the  waters  thereon,  and 
to  excavate,  construct,  and  to  perpetually  main- 
tain, operate,  and  protect  thereon  a  canal,  of  such 
depth  and  capacity  as  will  afford  convenient  pas- 
sage of  ships  of  the  greatest  tonnage  and  draft  now 
in  use,  from  the  Caribbean  Sea  to  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
which  control  shall  include  the  right  to  perpetually 
maintain  and  operate  the  Panama  Railroad,  if  the 
ownership  thereof,  or  a  controlling  interest  therein 
shall  have  been  acquired  by  the  United  States,  and 
also  jursidiction  over  said  strip  and  the  ports  at 


the  ends  thereof  to  make  such  police  and  sanitary 
rules  and  regulations  as  shall  be  necessary  to  pre- 
serve order  and  preserve  the  public  health  thereon, 
and  to  establish  such  judicial  tribunals  as  may  be 
agreed  upon  thereon  as  may  be  necessary  to  enforce 
such  rules  and  regulations. 

The  President  may  acquire  such  additional  terri- 
tory and  rights  from  Colombia  as  in  his  judgment 
will  facilitate  the  general  purpose  hereof. 

SEC.  3.  That  when  the  President  shall  have  ar- 
ranged to  secure  a  satisfactory  title  to  the  property 
of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company,  as  provided 
in  section  one  hereof,  and  shall  have  obtained  by 
treaty  control  of  the  necessary  territory  from  the 
Republic  of  Colombia,  as  provided  in  section  two 
hereof,  he  is  authorized  to  pay  for  the  property 
of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company  forty  millions 
of  dollars  and  to  the  Republic  of  Colombia  such  sum 
as  shall  have  been  agreed  upon,  and  a  sum  sufficient 
for  both  said  purposes  is  hereby  appropriated,  out 
of  any  money  in  the  Treasury  not  otherwise  appro- 
priated, to  be  paid  on  warrant  or  warrants  drawn 
by  the  President. 

The  President  shall  then  through  the  Isthmian 
Canal  Commission  hereinafter  authorized  cause 
to  be  excavated,  constructed,  and  completed, 
utilizing  to  that  end  as  far  as  practicable  the  work 
heretofore  done  by  the  New  Panama  Canal  Com- 
pany, of  France,  and  its  predecessor  company,  a 
ship  canal  from  the  Caribbean  Sea  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  Such  canal  shall  be  of  sufficient  capacity 
and  depth  as  shall  afford  convenient  passage  for 
vessels  of  the  largest  tonnage  and  greatest  draft 
now  in  use,  and  such  as  may  be  reasonably  antici- 
pated, and  shall  be  supplied  with  all  necessary 
locks  and  other  appliances  to  meet  the  necessities 
of  vessels  passing  through  the  same  from  ocean  to 
ocean;  and  he  shall  also  cause  to  be  constructed 
such  safe  and  commodious  harbors  at  the  termini 
of  said  canal,  and  make  such  provisions  for  defense 


508 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


as  may  be  necessary  for  the  safety  and  protection 
of  said  canal  and  harbors.  That  the  President  is 
authorized  for  the  purposes  aforesaid  to  employ 
such  persons  as  he  may  deem  necessary,  and  to  fix 
their  compensation. 

SEC.  4.  That  should  the  President  be  unable  to 
obtain  for  the  United  States  a  satisfactory  title  to 
the  property  of  the  New  Panama  Canal  Company 
and  the  control  of  the  necessary  territory  of  the 
Republic  of  Colombia  and  the  rights  mentioned  in 
sections  one  and  two  of  this  Act,  within  a  reasonable 
time  and  upon  reasonable  terms,  then  the  President, 
having  first  obtained  for  the  United  States  per- 
petual control  by  treaty  of  the  necessary  territory 
from  Costa  Rica  and  Nicaragua,  upon  terms  which 
he  may  consider  reasonable,  for  the  construction, 
perpetual  maintenance,  operation,  and  protection 
of  a  canal  connecting  the  Caribbean  Sea  with  the 
Pacific  Ocean  by  what  is  commonly  known  as  the 
Nicaragua  route,  shall  through  the  said  Isthmian 
Canal  Commission  cause  to  be  excavated  and 
constructed  a  ship  canal  and  waterway  from  a 
point  on  the  shore  of  the  Caribbean  Sea  near  Grey- 
town,  by  way  of  Lake  Nicaragua,  to  a  point  near 
Brito  on  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Said  canal  shall  be  of 
sufficient  capacity  and  depth  to  afford  convenient 
passage  for  vessels  of  the  largest  tonnage  and  great- 
est draft  now  in  use,  and  such  as  may  be  reasonably 
anticipated,  and  shall  be  supplied  with  all  necessary 
locks  and  other  appliances  to  meet  the  necessities 
of  vessels  passing  through  the  same  from  ocean  to 
ocean;  and  he  shall  also  construct  such  safe  and 
commodious  harbors  at  the  termini  of  said  canal 
as  shall  be  necessary  for  the  safe  and  convenient 
use  thereof,  and  shall  make  such  provisions  for 
defense  as  may  be  necessary  for  the  safety  and  pro- 
tection of  said  harbors  and  canal;  and  such  sum  or 
sums  of  money  as  may  be  agreed  upon  by  such 
treaty  as  compensation  to  be  paid  to  Nicaragua 
and  Costa  Rica  for  the  concessions  and  rights  here- 
under  provided  to  be  acquired  by  the  United  States, 
are  hereby  appropriated,  out  of  any  money  in  the 
Treasury  not  otherwise  appropriated,  to  be  paid 
on  warrant  or  warrants  drawn  by  the  President. 

The  President  shall  cause  the  said  Isthmian  Canal 
Commission  to  make  such  surveys  as  may  be  neces- 
sary for  said  canal  and  harbors  to  be  made,  and  in 
making  such  surveys  and  in  the  construction  of  said 
canal  may  employ  such  persons  as  he  may  deem 
necessary  and  may  fix  their  compensation. 

In  the  excavation  and  construction  of  said  canal 
the  San  Juan  River  and  Lake  Nicaragua,  or  such 
parts  of  each  as  may  be  made  available,  shall  be  used. 

SEC.  5.  That  the  sum  of  ten  million  dollars  is 
hereby  appropriated,  out  of  any  money  in  the 
Treasury  not  otherwise  appropriated,  toward  the 
project  herein  contemplated  by  either  route  so 
selected. 

And  the  President  is  hereby  authorized  to  cause 
to  be  entered  into  such  contract  or  contracts  as 
may  be  deemed  necessary  for  the  proper  excavation, 
construction,  completion,  and  defense  of  said  canal, 
harbors,  and  defenses,  by  the  route  finally  deter- 
mined upon  under  the  provisions  of  this  Act.  Ap- 
propriations therefor  shall  from  time  to  time  be 
hereafter  made,  not  to  exceed  in  the  aggregate  the 
additional  sum  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-five 


millions  of  dollars  should  the  Panama  route  be 
adopted,  or  one  hundred  and  eighty  millions  of 
dollars  should  the  Nicaragua  route  be  adopted. 

SEC.  6.  That  in  any  agreement  with  the  Repub- 
lic of  Colombia,  or  with  the  States  of  Nicaragua 
and  Costa  Rica,  the  President  is  authorized  to 
guarantee  to  said  Republic  or  to  said  States  the  use 
of  said  canal  and  harbors,  upon  such  terms  as  may 
be  agreed  upon,  for  all  vessels  owned  by  said  States 
or  by  citizens  thereof. 

SEC.  7.  That  to  enable  the  President  to  construct 
the  canal  and  works  appurtenant  thereto  as  provided 
in  this  Act,  there  is  hereby  created  the  Isthmian 
Canal  Commission,  the  same  to  be  composed  of 
seven  members,  who  shall  be  nominated  and  ap- 
pointed by  the  President,  by  and  with  the  advice 
and  consent  of  the  Senate,  and  who  shall  serve  until 
the  completion  of  said  canal  unless  sooner  removed 
by  the  President,  and  one  of  whom  shall  be  named 
as  the  chairman  of  said  Commission.  Of  the  seven 
members  of  said  Commission  at  least  four  of  them 
shall  be  persons  learned  and  skilled  in  the  science 
of  engineering,  and  of  the  four  at  least  one  shall  be 
an  officer  of  the  United  States  Army,  and  at  least 
one  other  shall  be  an  officer  of  the  United  States 
Navy,  the  said  officers  respectively  being  either 
upon  the  active  or  the  retired  list  of  the  Army 
or  of  the  Navy.  Said  commissioners  shall  each 
receive  such  compensation  as  the  President  shall 
prescribe  until  the  same  shall  have  been  otherwise 
fixed  by  the  Congress.  In  addition  to  the  members 
of  said  Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  the  President 
is  hereby  authorized  through  said  Commission  to 
employ  in  said  service  any  of  the  engineers  of  the 
United  States  Army  at  his  discretion,  and  likewise 
to  employ  any  engineers  in  civil  life,  at  his  discre- 
tion, and  any  other  persons  necessary  for  the  proper 
and  expeditious  prosecution  of  said  work.  The 
compensation  of  all  such  engineers  and  other  per- 
sons employed  under  this  Act  shall  be  fixed  by  said 
Commission,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Presi- 
dent. The  official  salary  of  any  officer  appointed 
or  employed  under  this  Act  shall  be  deducted  from 
the  amount  of  salary  or  compensation  provided  by 
or  which  shall  be  fixed  under  the  terms  of  this  Act. 
Said  Commission  shall  in  all  matters  be  subject 
to  the  direction  and  control  of  the  President,  and 
shall  make  to  the  President  annually  and  at  such 
other  periods  as  may  be  required,  either  by  law  or  by 
the  order  of  the  President,  full  and  complete  reports 
of  all  their  actings  and  doings  and  of  all  moneys 
received  and  expended  in  the  construction  of  said 
work  and  in  the  performance  of  their  duties  in  con- 
nection therewith,  which  said  reports  shall  be  by 
the  President  transmitted  to  Congress.  And  the 
said  Commission  shall  furthermore  give  to  Con- 
gress, or  either  House  of  Congress,  such  informa- 
tion as  may  at  any  time  be  required  either  by  Act 
of  Congress  or  by  the  order  of  either  House  of 
Congress.  The  President  shall  cause  to  be  provided 
and  assigned  for  the  use  of  the  Commission  such 
offices  as  may,  with  the  suitable  equipment  of  the 
same,  be  necessary  and  proper,  in  his  discretion, 
for  the  proper  discharge  of  the  duties  thereof. 

SEC.  8.  That  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  is 
hereby  authorized  to  borrow  on  the  credit  of  the 
United  States  from  time  to  time,  as  the  proceeds 


APPENDIX 


509 


may  be  required  to  defray  expenditures  authorized 
by  this  Act  (such  proceeds  when  received  to  be  used 
only  for  the  purpose  of  meeting  such  expenditures), 
the  sum  of  one  hundred  and  thirty  million  dollars, 
or  so  much  thereof  as  may  be  necessary,  and  to  pre- 
pare and  issue  therefor  coupon  or  registered  bonds 
of  the  United  States  in  such  form  as  he  may  pre- 
scribe, and  in  denominations  of  twenty  dollars  or 
some  multiple  of  that  sum,  redeemable  in  gold  coin 
at  the  pleasure  of  the  United  States  after  ten  years 
from  the  date  of  their  issue,  and  payable  thirty 
years  from  such  date,  and  bearing  interest  payable 
quarterly  in  gold  coin  at  the  rate  of  two  per  centum 
per  annum;  and  the  bonds  herein  authorized  shall 


be  exempt  from  all  taxes  or  duties  of  the  United 
States,  as  well  as  from  taxation  in  any  form  by  or 
under  State,  municipal,  or  local  authority :  Provided, 
That  said  bonds  may  be  disposed  of  by  the  Secretary 
of  the  Treasury  at  not  less  than  par,  under  such  regu- 
lations as  he  may  prescribe,  giving  to  all  citizens 
of  the  United  States  an  equal  opportunity  to  sub- 
scribe therefor,  but  no  commissions  shall  be  allowed 
or  paid  thereon;  and  a  sum  not  exceeding  one -tenth 
of  one  per  centum  of  the  amount  of  the  bonds  herein 
authorized  is  hereby  appropriated,  out  of  any  money 
in  the  Treasury  not  otherwise  appropriated,  to  pay 
the  expense  of  preparing,  advertising,  and  issuing 
the  same. 


TEMPORARY  GOVERNMENT 
APPROVED  APRIL  28,  1904 


An  Act  To  provide  for  the  temporary  government 
of  the  Canal  Zone  at  Panama,  the  protection  of 
the  canal  works,  and  for  other  purposes. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representa- 
tives of  the  United  States  of  America  in  Congress 
assembled,  That  the  President  is  hereby  authorized, 
upon  the  acquisition  of  the  property  of  the  New 
Panama  Canal  Company  and  the  payment  to  the 
Republic  of  Panama  of  the  ten  millions  of  dollars 
provided  by  article  fourteen  of  the  treaty  between 
the  United  States  and  the  Republic  of  Panama,  the 
ratifications  of  which  were  exchanged  on  the  twenty- 
sixth  day  of  February,  nineteen  hundred  and  four, 
to  be  paid  to  the  latter  Government,  to  take  pos- 
session of  and  occupy  on  behalf  of  the  United  States 
the  zone  of  land  and  land  under  water  of  the  width 
of  ten  miles,  extending  to  the  distance  of  five  miles 
on  each  side  of  the  center  line  of  the  route  of  the 
canal  to  be  constructed  thereon,  which  said  zone 
begins  in  the  Caribbean  Sea  three  marine  miles 
from  mean  low -water  mark  and  extends  to  and  across 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama  into  the  Pacific  Ocean  to 
the  distance  of  three  marine  miles  from  mean  low- 
water  mark,  and  also  of  all  islands  within  said  zone, 
and  in  addition  thereto  the  group  of  islands  in  the 
Bay  of  Panama  named  Perico,  Naos,  Culebra, 
and  Flamenco,  and,  from  time  to  time,  of  any  lands 
and  waters  outside  of  said  zone  which  may  be  neces- 


sary and  convenient  for  the  construction,  main- 
tenance, operation,  sanitation,  and  protection  of  the 
said  canal,  or  of  any  auxiliary  canals  or  other  works 
necessary  and  convenient  for  the  construction, 
maintenance,  operation,  sanitation,  and  protection 
of  said  enterprise,  the  use,  occupation,  and  control 
whereof  were  granted  to  the  United  States  by  article 
two  of  said  treaty.  The  said  zone  is  hereinafter 
referred  to  as  "the  Canal  Zone."  The  payment  of 
the  ten  millions  of  dollars  provided  by  article  four- 
teen of  said  treaty  shall  be  made  in  lieu  of  the  in- 
definite appropriation  made  in  the  third  section  of 
the  Act  of  June  twenty-eighth,  nineteen  hundred 
and  two,  and  is  hereby  appropriated  for  said  pur- 
pose. 

SEC.  2.  That  until  the  expiration  of  the  Fifty- 
eighth  Congress,  unless  provision  for  the  temporary 
government  of  the  Canal  Zone  be  sooner  made  by 
Congress,  all  the  military,  civil,  and  judicial  powers 
as  well  as  the  power  to  make  all  rules  and  regu- 
lations necessary  for  the  government  of  the  Canal 
Zone  and  all  the  rights,  powers,  and  authority 
granted  by  the  terms  of  said  treaty  to  the  United 
States  shall  be  vested  in  such  person  or  persons 
and  shall  be  exercised  in  such  manner  as  the  Presi- 
dent shall  direct  for  the  government  of  said  Zone 
and  maintaining  and  protecting  the  inhabitants 
thereof  in  the  free  enjoyment  of  their  liberty,  prop- 
erty, and  religion. 


THE  PANAMA  CANAL  ACT 

APPROVED  AUGUST  24,  1912 


An  Act  To  provide  for  the  opening,  maintenance, 
protection,  and  operation  of  the  Panama  Canal, 
and  the  sanitation  and  government  of  the  Canal 
Zone. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives of  the  United  States  of  America  in  Congress 
assembled,  That  the  zone  of  land  and  land  under 
water  of  the  width  of  ten  miles  extending  to  the 
distance  of  five  miles  on  each  side  of  the  center 
line  of  the  route  of  the  canal  now  being  constructed 
thereon,  which  zone  begins  in  the  Caribbean  Sea 
three  marine  miles  from  mean  low-water  mark  and 
extends  to  and  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  into 


the  Pacific  Ocean  to  the  distance  of  three  marine 
miles  from  mean  low -water  mark,  excluding  there- 
from the  cities  of  Panama  and  Colon  and  their 
adjacent  harbors  located  within  said  zone,  as  ex- 
cepted  in  the  treaty  with  the  Republic  of  Panama 
dated  November  eighteenth,  nineteen  hundred  and 
three,  but  including  all  islands  within  said  described 
zone,  and  in  addition  thereto  the  group  of  islands  in 
the  Bay  of  Panama  named  Perico,  Naos,  Culebra, 
and  Flamenco,  and  any  lands  and  waters  outside  of 
said  limits  above  described  which  are  necessary  or 
convenient  or  from  time  to  time  may  become  neces- 
sary or  convenient  for  the  construction,  mainte- 
nance, operation,  sanitation,  or  protection  of  the 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


said  canal  or  of  any  auxiliary  canals,  lakes,  or  other 
works  necessary  or  convenient  for  the  construction, 
maintenance,  operation,  sanitation,  or  protection 
of  said  canal,  the  use,  occupancy,  or  control  whereof 
were  granted  to  the  United  States  by  the  treaty 
between  the  United  States  and  the  Republic  of 
Panama,  the  ratifications  of  which  were  exchanged 
on  the  twenty -sixth  day  of  February,  nineteen  hun- 
dred and  four,  shall  be  known  and  designated  as  the 
Canal  Zone,  and  the  canal  now  being  constructed 
thereon  shall  hereafter  be  known  and  designated  as 
the  Panama  Canal.  The  President  is  authorized, 
by  treaty  with  the  Republic  of  Panama,  to  acquire 
any  additional  land  or  land  under  water  not  already 
granted,  or  which  was  excepted  from  the  grant, 
that  he  may  deem  necessary  for  the  operation, 
maintenance,  sanitation,  or  protection  of  the  Pan- 
ama Canal,  and  to  exchange  any  land  or  land  under 
water  not  deemed  necessary  for  such  purposes  for 
other  land  or  land  under  water  which  may  be 
deemed  necessary  for  such  purposes,  which  addi- 
tional land  or  land  under  water  so  acquired  shall 
become  part  of  the  Canal  Zone. 

SEC.  2.  That  all  laws,  orders,  regulations,  and 
ordinances  adopted  and  promulgated  in  the  Canal 
Zone  by  order  of  the  President  for  the  government 
and  sanitation  of  the  Canal  Zone  and  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Panama  Canal  are  hereby  ratified  and 
confirmed  as  valid  and  binding  until  Congress 
shall  otherwise  provide.  The  existing  courts  es- 
tablished in  the  Canal  Zone  by  Executive  order  are 
recognized  and  confirmed  to  continue  in  operation 
until  the  courts  provided  for  in  this  Act  shall  be 
established. 

SEC.  3.  That  the  President  is  authorized  to  de- 
clare by  Executive  order  that  all  land  and  land  under 
water  within  the  limits  of  the  Canal  Zone  is  neces- 
sary for  the  construction,  maintenance,  operation, 
sanitation,  or  protection  of  the  Panama  Canal,  and 
to  extinguish,  by  agreement  when  advisable,  all 
claims  and  titles  of  adverse  claimants  and  occu- 
pants. Upon  failure  to  secure  by  agreement  title 
to  any  such  parcel  of  land  or  land  under  water  the 
adverse  claim  or  occupancy  shall  be  disposed  of 
and  title  thereto  secured  in  the  United  States  and 
compensation  therefor  fixed  and  paid  in  the  manner 
provided  in  the  aforesaid  treaty  with  the  Republic 
of  Panama,  or  such  modification  of  such  Treaty 
as  may  hereafter  be  made. 

SEC.  4.  That  when  in  the  judgment  of  the  Presi- 
dent the  construction  of  the  Panama  Canal  shall  be 
sufficiently  advanced  toward  completion  to  render 
the  further  services  of  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commis- 
sion unnecessary  the  President  is  authorized  by 
Executive  order  to  discontinue  the  Isthmian  Canal 
Commission,  which,  together  with  the  present  or- 
ganization, shall  then  cease  to  exist;  and  the  Presi- 
dent is  authorized  thereafter  to  complete,  govern, 
and  operate  the  Panama  Canal  and  govern  the 
Canal  Zone,  or  cause  them  to  be  completed,  gov- 
erned, and  operated,  through  a  governor  of  the 
Panama  Canal  and  such  other  persons  as  he  may 
deem  competent  to  discharge  the  various  duties 
connected  with  the  completion,  care,  maintenance, 
sanitation,  operation,  government,  and  protection  of 
the  canal  and  Canal  Zone.  If  any  of  the  persons 
appointed  or  employed  as  aforesaid  shall  be  per- 


sons in  the  military  or  naval  service  of  the  United 
States,  the  amount  of  the  official  salary  paid  to  any 
such  person  shall  be  deducted  from  the  amount 
of  salary  or  compensation  provided  by  or  which 
shall  be  fixed  under  the  terms  of  this  Act.  The 
governor  of  the  Panama  Canal  shall  be  appointed 
by  the  President,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  con- 
sent of  the  Senate,  commissioned  for  a  term  of 
four  years,  and  until  his  successor  shall  be  ap- 
pointed and  qualified.  He  shall  receive  a  salary 
of  ten  thousand  dollars  a  year.  All  other  persons 
necessary  for  the  completion,  care,  management, 
maintenance,  sanitation,  government,  operation, 
and  protection  of  the  Panama  Canal  and  Canal 
Zone  shall  be  appointed  by  the  President,  or  by  his 
authority,  removable  at  his  pleasure,  and  the  com- 
pensation of  such  persons  shall  be  fixed  by  the 
President,  or  by  his  authority,  until  such  time  as 
Congress  may  by  law  regulate  the  same,  but  salaries 
or  compensation  fixed  hereunder  by  the  President 
shall  in  no  instance  exceed  by  more  than  twenty- 
five  per  centum  the  salary  or  compensation  paid  for 
the  same  or  similar  services  to  persons  employed  by 
the  Government  in  continental  United  States. 
That  upon  the  completion  of  the  Panama  Canal 
the  President  shall  cause  the  same  to  be  officially 
and  formally  opened  for  use  and  operation. 

Before  the  completion  of  the  canal,  the  Com- 
mission of  Arts  may  make  report  to  the  President 
of  their  recommendation  regarding  the  artistic 
character  of  the  structures  of  the  canal,  such  report 
to  be  transmitted  to  Congress. 

SEC.  5.  That  the  President  is  hereby  authorized 
to  prescribe  and  from  time  to  time  change  the  tolls 
that  shall  be  levied  by  the  Government  of  the  United 
States  for  the  use  of  the  Panama  Canal:  Provided, 
That  no  tolls,  when  prescribed  as  above,  shall  be 
changed,  unless  six  months'  notice  thereof  shall  have 
been  given  by  the  President  by  proclamation. 
No  tolls  shall  be  levied  upon  vessels  engaged  in  the 
coastwise  trade  of  the  United  States.  That  section 
forty-one  hundred  and  thirty-two  of  the  Revised 
Statutes  is  hereby  amended  to  read  as  follows: 

"SEC.  4132.  Vessels  built  within  the  United 
States  and  belonging  wholly  to  citizens  thereof; 
and  vessels  which  may  be  captured  in  war  by  citizens 
of  the  United  States  and  lawfully  condemned  as 
prize,  or  which  may  be  adjudged  to  be  forfeited  for 
a  breach  of  the  laws  of  the  United  States;  and  sea- 
going vessels,  whether  steam  or  sail,  which  have  been 
certified  by  the  Steamboat  Inspection  Service  as 
safe  to  carry  dry  and  perishable  cargo,  not  more 
than  five  years  old  at  the  time  they  apply  for  regis- 
try, wherever  built,  which  are  to  engage  only  in 
trade  with  foreign  countries  or  with  the  Philippine 
Islands  and  the  islands  of  Guam  and  Tutuila,  being 
wholly  owned  by  citizens  of  the  United  States  or 
corporations  organized  and  chartered  under  the 
laws  of  the  United  States  or  of  any  State  thereof,  the 
president  and  managing  directors  of  which  shall  be 
citizens  of  the  United  States  or  corporations  or- 
ganized and  chartered  under  the  laws  of  the  United 
States  or  of  any  State  thereof,  the  President  and 
managing  directors  of  which  shall  be  citizens  of  the 
United  States,  and  no  others,  may  be  registered  as 
directed  in  this  title.  Foreign-built  vessels  regis- 
tered pursuant  to  this  Act  shall  not  engage  in  the 


APPENDIX 


coastwise  trade:  Provided,  That  a  foreign -built 
yacht,  pleasure  boat,  or  vessel  not  used  or  intended 
to  be  used  for  trade  admitted  to  American  registry 
pursuant  to  this  section  shall  not  be  exempt  from 
the  collection  of  ad  valorem  duty  provided  in  sec- 
tion thirty-seven  of  the  Act  approved  August 
fifth,  nineteen  hundred  and  nine,  entitled  'An  Act 
to  provide  revenue,  equalize  duties,  and  encourage 
the  industries  of  the  United  States,  and  for  other 
purposes.'  That  all  materials  of  foreign  production 
which  may  be  necessary  for  the  construction  or 
repair  of  vessels  built  in  the  United  States  and  all 
such  materials  necessary  for  the  building  or  repair 
of  their  machinery  and  all  articles  necessary  for 
their  outfit  and  equipment  may  be  imported  into 
the  United  States  free  of  duty  under  such  regula- 
tions as  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury  may  pre- 
scribe: Provided  further,  That  such  vessels  so 
admitted  under  the  provisions  of  this  section  may 
contract  with  the  Postmaster  General  under  the 
Act  of  March  third,  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety- 
one,  entitled  'An  Act  to  provide  for  ocean  mail  serv- 
ice between  the  United  States  and  foreign  ports, 
and  to  promote  commerce,'  so  long  as  such  vessels 
shall  in  all  respects  comply  with  the  provisions  and 
requirements  of  said  Act." 

Tolls  may  be  based  upon  gross  or  net  registered 
tonnage,  displacement  tonnage,  or  otherwise,  and 
may  be  based  on  one  form  of  tonnage  for  warships 
and  another  for  ships  of  commerce.  The  rate  of 
tolls  may  be  lower  upon  vessels  in  ballast  than  upon 
vessels  carrying  passengers  or  cargo.  When  based 
upon  net  registered  tonnage  for  ships  of  commerce 
the  tolls  shall  not  exceed  one  dollar  and  twenty- 
five  cents  per  net  registered  ton,  nor  be  less,  other 
than  for  vessels  of  the  United  States  and  its  citizens, 
than  the  estimated  proportionate  cost  of  the  actual 
maintenance  and  operation  of  the  canal  subject, 
however,  to  the  provisions  of  article  nineteen  of  the 
convention  between  the  United  States  and  the 
Republic  of  Panama,  entered  into  November  eight- 
eenth, nineteen  hundred  and  three.  If  the  tolls 
shall  not  be  based  upon  net  registered  tonnage,  they 
shall  not  exceed  the  equivalent  of  one  dollar  and 
twenty-five  cents  per  net  registered  ton  as  nearly 
as  the  same  may  be  determined,  nor  be  less  than  the 
equivalent  of  seventy-five  cents  per  net  registered 
ton.  The  toll  for  each  passenger  shall  not  be  more 
than  one  dollar  and  fifty  cents.  The  President 
is  authorized  to  make  and  from  time  to  time  amend 
regulations  governing  the  operation  of  the  Panama 
Canal,  and  the  passage  and  control  of  vessels 
through  the  same  or  any  part  thereof,  including  the 
locks  and  approaches  thereto,  and  all  rules  and  regu- 
lations affecting  pilots  and  pilotage  in  the  canal  or 
the  approaches  thereto  through  the  adjacent  waters. 

Such  regulations  shall  provide  for  prompt  ad- 
justment by  agreement  and  immediate  payment  of 
claims  for  damages  which  may  arise  from  injury  to 
vessels,  cargo,  or  passengers  from  the  passing  of 
vessels  through  the  locks  under  the  control  of  those 
operating  them  under  such  rules  and  regulations. 
In  case  of  disagreement  suit  may  be  brought  in 
the  district  court  of  the  Canal  Zone  against  the  gov- 
ernor of  the  Panama  Canal.  The  hearing  and  dis- 
position of  such  cases  shall  be  expedited  and  the 
.judgment  shall  be  immediately  paid  out  of  any 


moneys  appropriated  or  alloted  for  canal  opera- 
tion. 

The  President  shall  provide  a  method  for  the 
determination  and  adjustment  of  all  claims  arising 
out  of  personal  injuries  to  employees  thereafter 
occurring  while  directly  engaged  in  actual  work  in 
connection  with  the  construction,  maintenance, 
operation,  or  sanitation  of  the  canal  or  of  the  Pan- 
ama Railroad,  or  of  any  auxiliary  canals,  locks,  or 
other  works  necessary  and  convenient  for  the  con- 
struction, maintenance,  operation,  or  sanitation  of 
the  canal,  whether  such  injuries  result  in  death  or 
not,  and  prescribe  a  schedule  of  compensation  there- 
for, and  may  revise  and  modify  such  method  and 
schedule  at  any  time;  and  such  claims,  to  the  ex- 
tent they  shall  be  allowed  on  such  adjustment, 
if  allowed  at  all,  shall  be  paid  out  of  the  moneys 
hereafter  appropriated  for  that  purpose  or  out  of 
the  funds  of  the  Panama  Railroad  Company,  if 
said  company  was  responsible  for  said  injury,  as 
the  case  may  require.  And  after  such  method 
and  schedule  shall  be  provided  by  the  President, 
the  provisions  of  the  Act  entitled  "An  Act  granting 
to  certain  employees  of  the  United  States  the  right 
to  receive  from  it  compensation  for  injuries  sus- 
tained in  the  course  of  their  employment,"  approved 
May  thirtieth,  nineteen  hundred  and  eight,  and 
of  the  Act  entitled  "An  Act  relating  to  injured  em- 
ployees on  the  Isthmian  Canal,"  approved  Feb- 
ruary twenty-fourth,  nineteen  hundred  and  nine, 
shall  not  apply  to  personal  injuries  thereafter  re- 
ceived and  claims  for  which  are  subject  to  deter- 
mination and  adjustment  as  provided  in  this 
section. 

SEC.  6.  That  the  President  is  authorized  to  cause 
to  be  erected,  maintained,  and  operated,  subject 
to  the  International  Convention  and  the  Act  of 
Congress  to  regulate  radio-communication,  at 
suitable  places  along  the  Panama  Canal  and  the  coast 
adjacent  to  its  two  terminals,  in  connection  with 
the  operation  of  said  canal,  such  wireless  telegraphic 
installations  as  he  may  deem  necessary  for  the  oper- 
ation, maintenance,  sanitation,  and  protection  of 
said  canal,  and  for  other  purposes.  If  it  is  found 
necessary  to  locate  such  installations  upon  territory 
of  the  Republic  of  Panama,  the  President  is  author- 
ized to  make  such  agreement  with  said  Government 
as  may  be  necessary,  and  also  to  provide  for  the  ac- 
ceptance and  transmission,  by  said  system,  of  all 
private  and  commercial  messages,  and  those  of  the 
Government  of  Panama,  on  such  terms  and  for 
such  tolls  as  the  President  may  prescribe:  Provided, 
That  the  messages  of  the  Government  of  the  United 
States  and  the  departments  thereof,  and  the  man- 
agement of  the  Panama  Canal,  shall  always  be  given 
precedence  over  all  other  messages.  The  Presi- 
dent is  also  authorized,  in  his  discretion,  to  enter 
into  such  operating  agreements  or  leases  with  any 
private  wireless  company  or  companies  as  may  best 
insure  freedom  from  interference  with  the  wireless 
telegraphic  installations  established  by  the  United 
States.  The  President  is  also  authorized  to  estab- 
lish, maintain,  and  operate,  through  the  Panama 
Railroad  Company,  or  otherwise,  dry  docks,  repair 
shops,  yards,  docks,  wharves,  warehouses,  store- 
houses, and  other  necessary  facilities  and  appur- 
tenances, for  the  purpose  of  providing  coal  and  other 


512 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


materials,  labor,  repairs,  and  supplies  for  vessels  of 
the  Government  of  the  United  States  and,  incident- 
ally, for  supplying  such  at  reasonable  prices  to  pass- 
ing vessels,  in  accordance  with  appropriations  hereby 
authorized  to  be  made  from  time  to  time  by  Con- 
gress as  a  part  of  the  maintenance  and  operation 
of  the  said  canal.  Moneys  received  from  the  con- 
duct of  said  business  may  be  expended  and  re- 
invested for  such  purposes  without  being  covered 
into  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States;  and  such 
moneys  are  hereby  appropriated  for  such  purposes, 
but  all  deposits  of  such  funds  shall  be  subject  to 
the  provisions  of  existing  law  relating  to  the  deposit 
of  other  public  funds  of  the  United  States,  and  any 
net  profits  accruing  from  such  business  shall  annually 
be  covered  into  the  Treasury  of  the  United  States. 
Monthly  reports  of  such  receipts  and  expenditures 
shall  be  made  to  the  President  by  the  persons  in 
charge,  and  annual  reports  shall  be  made  to  the 
Congress. 

SEC.  7.  That  the  governor  of  the  Panama  Canal 
shall,  in  connection  with  the  operation  of  such  canal, 
have  official  control  and  jurisdiction  over  the  Canal 
Zone  and  shall  perform  all  duties  in  connection 
with  the  civil  government  of  the  Canal  Zone,  which 
is  to  be  held,  treated,  and  governed  as  an  adjunct 
of  such  Panama  Canal.  Unless  in  this  Act  otherwise 
provided  all  existing  laws  of  the  Canal  Zone  referring 
to  the  civil  governor  or  the  civil  administration  of 
the  Canal  Zone  shall  be  applicable  to  the  governor 
of  the  Panama  Canal,  who  shall  perform  all  such 
executive  and  administrative  duties  required  by  ex- 
isting law.  The  President  is  authorized  to  deter- 
mine or  cause  to  be  determined  what  towns  shall 
exist  in  the  Canal  Zone  and  subdivide  and  from 
time  to  time  resubdivide  said  Canal  Zone  into  sub- 
divisions, to  be  designated  by  name  or  number, 
so  that  there  shall  be  situated  one  town  in  each  sub- 
division, and  the  boundaries  of  each  subdivision 
shall  be  clearly  defined.  In  each  town  there  shall 
be  a  magistrate's  court  with  exclusive  original 
jurisdiction  coextensive  with  the  subdivision  in 
which  it  is  situated  of  all  civil  cases  in  which  the 
principal  sum  claimed  does  not  exceed  three  hun- 
dred dollars,  and  all  criminal  cases  wherein  the 
punishment  that  may  be  imposed  shall  not  exceed 
a  fine  of  one  hundred  dollars,  or  imprisonment  not 
exceeding  thirty  days,  or  both,  and  all  violations 
of  police  regulations  and  ordinances  and  all  actions 
involving  possession  or  title  to  personal  property  or 
the  forcible  entry  and  detainer  of  real  estate. 
Such  magistrates  shall  also  hold  preliminary  in- 
vestigations in  charges  of  felony  and  offenses  under 
section  ten  of  this  Act,  and  commit  or  bail  in  bail- 
able cases  to  the  district  court.  A  sufficient  number 
of  magistrates  and  constables,  who  must  be  citizens 
of  the  United  States,  to  conduct  the  business  of  such 
courts,  shall  be  appointed  by  the  governor  of  the 
Panama  Canal  for  terms  of  four  years  and  until 
their  successors  are  appointed  and  qualified,  and 
the  compensation  of  such  persons  shall  be  fixed  by 
the  President,  or  by  his  authority,  until  such  time  as 
Congress  may  by  law  regulate  the  same.  The  rules 
governing  said  courts  and  prescribing  the  duties 
of  said  magistrates  and  constables,  oaths  and  bonds, 
the  times  and  places  of  holding  such  courts,  the 
disposition  of  fines,  costs,  forfeitures,  enforcements 


of  judgments,  providing  for  appeals  therefrom  to 
the  district  court,  and  the  disposition,  treatment, 
and  pardon  of  convicts  shall  be  established  by  order 
of  the  President.  The  governor  of  the  Panama 
Canal  shall  appoint  all  notaries  public,  prescribe 
their  powers  and  duties,  their  official  seal,  and  the 
fees  to  be  charged  and  collected  by  them. 

SEC.  8.  That  there  shall  be  in  the  Canal  Zone 
one  district  court  with  two  divisions,  one  including 
Balboa  and  the  other  including  Cristobal;  and  one 
district  judge  of  the  said  district,  who  shall  hold 
his  court  in  both  divisions  at  such  time  as  he  may 
designate  by  order,  at  least  once  a  month  in  each 
division.  The  rules  of  practice  in  such  district 
court  shall  be  prescribed  or  amended  by  order  of 
the  President.  The  said  district  court  shall  have 
original  jurisdiction  of  all  felony  cases,  of  offenses 
arising  under  section  ten  of  this  Act,  all  causes  in 
equity;  admiralty  and  all  cases  at  law  involving 
principal  sums  exceeding  three  hundred  dollars 
and  all  appeals  from  judgments  rendered  in  magis- 
trates' courts.  The  jurisdiction  in  admiralty 
herein  conferred  upon  the  district  judge  and  the 
district  court  shall  be  the  same  that  is  exercised 
by  the  United  States  district  judges  and  the  United 
States  district  courts,  and  the  precedure  and  prac- 
tice shall  also  be  the  same.  The  district  court  or 
the  judge  thereof  shall  also  have  jurisdiction  of  all 
other  matters  and  proceedings  not  herein  provided 
for  which  are  now  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  Canal  Zone,  of  the  Circuit 
Court  of  the  Canal  Zone,  the  District  Court  of  the 
Canal  Zone,  or  the  judges  thereof.  Said  judge 
shall  provide  for  the  selection,  summoning,  serving, 
and  compensation  of  jurors  from  among  the  citizens 
of  the  United  States,  to  be  subject  to  jury  duty  in 
either  division  of  such  district,  and  a  jury  shall 
be  had  in  any  criminal  case  or  civil  case  at  law  origi- 
nating in  said  court  on  the  demand  of  either  party. 
There  shall  be  a  district  attorney  and  a  marshal 
for  said  district.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  district 
attorney  to  conduct  all  business,  civil  and  criminal, 
for  the  Government,  and  to  advise  the  governor 
of  the  Panama  Canal  on  all  legal  questions  touching 
the  operation  of  the  canal  and  the  administration 
of  civil  affairs.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  marshal 
to  execute  all  process  of  the  court,  preserve  order 
therein,  and  do  all  things  incident  to  the  office  of 
marshal.  The  district  judge,  the  district  attorney, 
and  the  marshal  shall  be  appointed  by  the  Presi- 
dent, by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the 
Senate,  for  terms  of  four  years  each,  and  until  their 
successors  are  appointed  and  qualified,  and  during 
their  terms  of  office  shall  reside  within  the  Canal 
Zone,  and  shall  hold  no  other  office  nor  serve  on 
any  official  board  or  commission  nor  receive  any 
emoluments  except  their  salaries.  The  district 
judge  shall  receive  the  same  salary  paid  the  district 
judges  of  the  United  States,  and  shall  appoint  the 
clerk  of  said  court,  and  may  appoint  one  assistant 
when  necessary,  who  shall  receive  salaries  to  be  fixed 
by  the  President.  The  district  judge  shall  be  en- 
titled to  six  weeks'  leave  of  absence  each  year  with 
pay.  During  this  absence  or  during  any  period  of 
disability  or  disqualification  from  sickness  or  other- 
wise to  discharge  his  duties  the  same  shall  be  tem- 
porarily performed  by  any  circuit  or  district  judge 


APPENDIX 


513 


of  the  United  States  who  may  be  designated  by  the 
President,  and  who,  during  such  service,  shall  re- 
ceive the  additional  mileage  and  per  diem  allowed 
by  law  to  district  judges  of  the  United  States  when 
holding  court  away  from  their  homes.  The  dis- 
trict attorney  and  the  marshal  shall  be  paid  each  a 
salary  of  five  thousand  dollars  per  annum. 

SEC.  9.  That  the  records  of  the  existing  courts 
and  all  causes,  proceedings,  and  criminal  prosecu- 
tions pending  therein  as  shown  by  the  dockets 
thereof,  except  as  herein  otherwise  provided,  shall 
immediately  upon  the  organization  of  the  courts 
created  by  this  Act  be  transferred  to  such  new 
courts  having  jurisdiction  of  like  cases,  be  entered 
upon  the  dockets  thereof,  and  proceed  as  if  they  had 
originally  been  brought  therein,  whereupon  all  the 
existing  courts,  except  the  supreme  court  of  the 
Canal  Zone,  shall  cease  to  exist.  The  President 
may  continue  the  supreme  court  of  the  Canal  Zone 
and  retain  the  judges  thereof  in  office  for  such  time 
as  to  him  may  seem  necessary  to  determine  finally 
any  causes  and  proceedings  which  may  be  pending 
therein.  All  laws  of  the  Canal  Zone  imposing 
duties  upon  the  clerks  or  ministerial  officers  of  exist- 
ing courts  shall  apply  and  impose  such  duties  upon 
the  clerks  and  ministerial  officers  of  the  new  courts 
created  by  this  Act  having  jurisdiction  of  like  cases, 
matters,  and  duties. 

All  existing  laws  in  the  Canal  Zone  governing  prac- 
tice and  procedure  in  existing  courts  shall  be  appli- 
cable and  adapted  to  the  practice  and  procedure 
in  the  new  courts. 

The  Circuit  Court  of  Appeals  of  the  Fifth  Circuit 
of  the  United  States  shall  have  jurisdiction  to  re- 
view, revise,  modify,  reverse,  or  affirm  the  final 
judgments  and  decrees  of  the  District  Court  of  the 
Canal  Zone  and  to  render  such  judgments  as  in  the 
opinion  of  the  said  appellate  court  should  have  been 
rendered  by  the  trial  court  in  all  actions  and  pro- 
ceedings in  which  the  Constitution,  or  any  statute, 
treaty,  title,  right,  or  privilege  of  the  United  States, 
is  involved  and  a  right  thereunder  denied,  and  in 
cases  in  which  the  value  in  controversy  exceeds  one 
thousand  dollars,  to  be  ascertained  by  the  oath 
of  either  party,  or  by  other  competent  evidence, 
and  also  in  criminal  causes  wherein  the  offense 
charged  is  punishable  as  a  felony.  And  such  ap- 
pellate jurisdiction,  subject  to  the  right  of  review  by 
or  appeal  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States 
as  in  other  cases  authorized  by  law,  may  be  exercised 
by  said  circuit  court  of  appeals  in  the  same  manner, 
under  the  same  regulations,  and  by  the  same  pro- 
cedure as  nearly  as  practicable  as  is  done  in  review- 
ing the  final  judgments  and  decrees  of  the  district 
courts  of  the  United  States. 

SEC.  10.  That  after  the  Panama  Canal  shall 
have  been  completed  and  opened,  for  operation  the 
governor  of  the  Panama  Canal  shall  have  the  right 
to  make  such  rules  and  regulations,  subject  to  the 
approval  of  the  President,  touching  the  right  of  any 
person  to  remain  upon  or  pass  over  any  part  of  the 
Canal  Zone  as  may  be  necessary.  Any  person 
violating  any  of  such  rules  or  regulations  shall  be 
guilty  of  a  misdemeanor,  and  on  conviction  in  the 
District  Court  of  the  Canal  Zone  shall  be  punished 
by  a  fine  not  exceeding  five  hundred  dollars  or  by 
imprisonment  not  exceeding  a  year,  or  both,  in  the 


discretion  of  the  court.  It  shall  be  unlawful  for 
any  person,  by  any  means  or  in  any  way,  to  injure 
or  obstruct,  or  attempt  to  injure  or  obstruct,  any 
part  of  the  Panama  Canal  or  the  locks  thereof  or 
the  approaches  thereto.  Any  person  violating  this 
provision  shall  be  guilty  of  a  felony,  and  on  convic- 
tion in  the  District  Court  of  the  Canal  Zone  shall 
be  punished  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  ten  thousand 
dollars  or  by  imprisonment  not  exceeding  twenty 
years,  or  both,  in  the  discretion  of  the  court.  If 
the  act  shall  cause  the  death  of  any  person  within  a 
year  and  a  day  thereafter,  the  person  so  convicted 
shall  be  guilty  of  murder  and  shall  be  punished 
accordingly. 

SEC.  n.  That  section  five  of  the  Act  to  regulate 
commerce,  approved  February  fourth,  eighteen 
hundred  and  eighty-seven,  as  heretofore  amended, 
is  hereby  amended  by  adding  thereto  a  new  para- 
graph at  the  end  thereof,  as  follows: 

"From  and  after  the  first  day  of  July,  nineteen 
hundred  and  fourteen,  it  shall  be  unlawful  for  any 
railroad  company  or  other  common  carrier  subject 
to  the  Act  to  regulate  commerce  to  own,  lease, 
operate,  control,  or  have  any  interest  whatsoever 
(by  stock  ownership  or  otherwise,  either  directly, 
indirectly,  through  any  holding  company,  or  by 
stockholders  or  directors  in  common,  or  in  any  other 
manner)  in  any  common  carrier  by  water  operated 
through  the  Panama  Canal  or  elsewhere  with 
which  said  railroad  or  other  carrier  aforesaid  does 
or  may  compete  for  traffic  or  any  vessel  carrying 
freight  or  passengers  upon  said  water  route  or  else- 
where with  which  said  railroad  or  other  carrier 
aforesaid  does  or  may  compete  for  traffic;  and  in 
case  of  the  violation  of  this  provision  each  day  in 
which  such  violation  continues  shall  be  deemed  a 
separate  offense." 

Jurisdiction  is  hereby  conferred  on  the  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission  to  determine  questions  of 
fact  as  to  the  competition  or  possibility  of  com- 
petition, after  full  hearing,  on  the  application  of 
any  railroad  company  or  other  carrier.  Such  appli- 
cation may  be  filed  for  the  purpose  of  determining 
Whether  any  existing  service  is  in  violation  of  this 
section  and  pray  for  an  order  permitting  the  con- 
tinuance of  any  vessel  or  vessels  already  in  operation, 
or  for  the  purpose  of  asking  an  order  to  install 
new  service  not  in  conflict  with  the  provisions  of 
this  paragraph.  The  commission  may  on  its  own 
motion  or  the  application  of  any  shipper  institute 
proceedings  to  inquire  into  the  operation  of  any 
vessel  in  use  by  any  railroad  or  other  carrier  which 
has  not  applied  to  the  commission  and  had  the  ques- 
tion of  competition  or  the  possibility  of  competition 
determined  as  herein  provided.  In  all  such  cases 
the  order  of  said  commission  shall  be  final. 

If  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  shall  be 
of  the  opinion  that  any  such  existing  specified  serv- 
ice by  water  other  than  through  the  Panama  Canal 
is  being  operated  in  the  interest  of  the  public  and 
is  of  advantage  to  the  convenience  and  commerce  of 
the  people,  and  that  such  extension  will  neither 
exclude,  prevent,  nor  reduce  competition  on  the 
route  by  water  under  consideration,  the  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission  may,  by  order,  extend  the 
time  during  which  such  service  by  water  may  con- 
tinue to  be  operated  beyond  July  first,  nineteen 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


hundred  and  fourteen.  In  every  case  of  such  ex- 
tension the  rates,  schedules,  and  practices  of  such 
water  carrier  shall  be  filed  with  the  Interstate  Com- 
merce Commission  and  shall  be  subject  to  the  act 
to  regulate  commerce  and  all  amendments  thereto 
in  the  same  manner  and  to  the  same  extent  as  is  the 
railroad  or  other  common  carrier  controlling  such 
water  carrier  or  interested  in  any  manner  in  its 
operation:  Provided,  Any  application  for  extension 
under  the  terms  of  this  provision  filed  with  the 
Interstate  Commerce  Commission  prior  to  July 
first,  nineteen  hundred  and  fourteen,  but  for  any 
reason  not  heard  and  disposed  of  before  said  date, 
may  be  considered  and  granted  thereafter. 

No  vessel  permitted  to  engage  in  the  coastwise  or 
foreign  trade  of  the  United  States  shall  be  permitted 
to  enter  or  pass  through  said  canal  if  such  ship  is 
owned,  chartered,  operated,  or  controlled  by  any 
person  or  company  which  is  doing  business  in  viola- 
tion of  the  provisions  of  the  Act  of  Congress  ap- 
proved July  second,  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety, 
entitled  "An  Act  to  protect  trade  and  commerce 
against  unlawful  restraints  and  monopolies,"  or  the 
provisions  of  sections  seventy-three  to  seventy- 
seven,  both  inclusive,  of  an  Act  approved  August 
twenty -seventh,  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety-four, 
entitled  "An  Act  to  reduce  taxation,  to  provide 
revenue  for  the  Government,  and  for  other  pur- 
poses," or  the  provisions  of  any  other  Act  of  Congress 
amending  or  supplementing  the  said  Act  of  July 
second,  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety,  commonly 
known  as  the  Sherman  Antitrust  Act,  and  amend- 
ments thereto,  or  said  sections  of  the  Act  of  August 
twenty-seventy,  eighteen  hundred  and  ninety-four. 
The  question  of  fact  may  be  determined  by  the 
judgment  of  any  court  of  the  United  States  of  com- 
petent jurisdiction  in  any  cause  pending  before  it 
to  which  the  owners  or  operators  of  such  ship  are 
parties.  Suit  may  be  brought  by  any  shipper  or 
by  the  Attorney  General  of  the  United  States. 

That  section  six  of  said  Act  to  regulate  commerce, 
as  heretofore  amended,  is  hereby  amended  by  adding 
a  new  paragraph  at  the  end  thereof,  as  follows: 

"When  property  may  be  or  is  transported  from 
point  to  point  in  the  United  States  by  rail  and 
water  through  the  Panama  Canal  or  otherwise,  the 
transportation  being  by  a  common  carrier  or  car- 
riers, and  not  entirely  within  the  limits  of  a  single 
State,  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commission  shall 
have  jurisdiction  of  such  transportation  and  of  the 
carriers,  both  by  rail  and  by  water,  which  may  or 
do  engage  in  the  same,  in  the  following  particulars, 
in  addition  to  the  jurisdiction  given  by  the  Act  to 
regulate  commerce,  as  amended  June  eighteenth, 
nineteen  hundred  and  ten: 

"(a)  To  establish  physical  connection  between 
the  lines  of  the  rail  carrier  and  the  dock  of  the*  water 
carrier  by  directing  the  rail  carrier  to  make  suitable 
connection  between  its  line  and  a  track  or  tracks 
which  have  been  constructed  from  the  dock  to  the 
limits  of  its  right  of  way,  or  by  directing  either 
or  both  the  rail  and  water  carrier,  individually  or 
in  connection  with  one  another,  to  construct  and 
connect  with  the  lines  of  the  rail  carrier  a  spur  track 
or  tracks  to  the  dock.  This  provision  shall  only 
apply  where  such  connection  is  reasonably  prac- 
ticable, can  be  made  with  safety  to  the  public^  and 


where  the  amount  of  business  to  be  handled  is  suffi- 
cient to  justify  the  outlay. 

"The  commission  shall  have  full  authority  to 
determine  the  terms  and  conditions  upon  which  these 
connecting  tracks,  when  constructed,  shall  be  oper- 
ated, and  it  may,  either  in  the  construction  or  the 
operation  of  such  tracks,  determine  what  sum  shall 
be  paid  to  or  by  either  carrier.  The  provisions  of 
this  paragraph  shall  extend  to  cases  where  the  dock 
is  owned  by  other  parties  than  the  carrier  in- 
volved. 

"  (b)  To  establish  through  routes  and  maximum 
joint  rates  between  and  over  such  rail  and  water 
lines,  and  to  determine  all  the  terms  and  conditions 
under  which  such  lines  shall  be  operated  in  the 
handling  of  the  traffic  embraced. 

"(c)  To  establish  maximum  proportional  rates 
by  rail  to  and  from  the  ports  to  which  the  traffic  is 
brought,  or  from  which  it  is  taken  by  the  water  car- 
rier, and  to  determine  to  what  traffic  and  in  con- 
nection with  what  vessels  and  upon  what  terms  and 
conditions  such  rates  shall  apply.  By  proportional 
rates  are  meant  those  which  differ  from  the  cor- 
responding local  rates  to  and  from  the  port  and  which 
apply  only  to  traffic  which  has  been  brought  to 
the  port  or  is  carried  from  the  port  by  a  common 
carrier  by  water. 

"(d)  If  any  rail  carrier  subject  to  the  Act  to 
regulate  commerce  enters  into  arrangements  with 
any  water  carrier  operating  from  a  port  in  the  United 
States  to  a  foreign  country,  through  the  Panama 
Canal  or  otherwise,  for  the  handling  of  through  busi- 
ness between  interior  points  of  the  United  States 
and  such  foreign  country,  the  Interstate  Commerce 
Commission  may  require  such  railway  to  enter  into 
similar  arrangements  with  any  or  all  other  lines  of 
steamships  operating  from  said  port  to  the  same 
foreign  country." 

The  orders  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Commis- 
sion relating  to  this  section  shall  only  be  made  upon 
formal  complaint  or  in  proceedings  instituted  by 
the  commission  of  its  own  motion  and  after  full 
hearing.  The  orders  provided  for  in  the  two  amend- 
ments to  the  Act  to  regulate  commerce  enacted  in 
this  section  shall  be  served  in  the  same  manner 
and  enforced  by  the  same  penalties  and  proceedings 
as  are  the  orders  of  the  commission  made  under  the 
provisions  of  section  fifteen  of  the  Act  to  regulate 
commerce,  as  amended  June  eighteenth,  nineteen 
hundred  and  ten,  and  they  may  be  conditioned  for 
the  payment  of  any  sum  or  the  giving  of  security 
for  the  payment  of  any  sum  or  the  discharge  of  any 
obligation  which  may  be  required  by  the  terms  of 
said  order. 

SEC.  12.  That  all  laws  and  treaties  relating  to  the 
extradition  of  persons  accused  of  crime  in  force  in 
the  United  States,  to  the  extent  that  they  may 
not  be  in  conflict  with  or  superseded  by  any  special 
treaty  entered  into  between  the  United  States  and 
the  Republic  of  Panama  with  respect  to  the  Canal 
Zone,  and  all  laws  relating  to  the  rendition  of 
fugitives  from  justice  as  between  the  several  States 
and  Territories  of  the  United  States,  shall  extend 
to  and  be  considered  in  force  in  the  Canal  Zone, 
and  for  such  purposes  and  such  purposes  only  the 
Canal  Zone  shall  be  considered  and  treated  as  an 
organized  territory  of  the  United  States. 


APPENDIX 


515 


SEC.  13.  That  in  time  of  war  in  which  the  United 
States  shall  be  engaged,  or  when,  in  the  opinion  of 
the  President,  war  is  imminent,  such  officer  of  the 
Army  as  the  President  may  designate  shall,  upon  the 
order  of  the  President,  assume  and  have  exclusive 
authority  and  jurisdiction  over  the  operation  of 
the  Panama  Canal  and  all  its  adjuncts,  appendants, 
and  appurtenances,  including  the  entire  control 
and  government  of  the  Canal  Zone,  and  during  a 
continuance  of  such  condition  the  governor  of  the 


Panama  Canal  shall,  in  all  respects  and  particulars 
as  to  the  operation  of  such  Panama  Canal,  and  all 
duties,  matters,  and  transactions  affecting  the 
Canal  Zone,  be  subject  to  the  order  and  direction  of 
such  officer  of  the  Army. 

SEC.  14.  That  this  Act  shall  be  known  as,  and 
referred  to  as,  the  Panama  Canal  Act,  and  the  right 
to  alter,  amend,  or  repeal  any  or  all  of  its  provisions 
or  to  extend,  modify,  or  annul  any  rule  or  regulation 
made  under  its  authority  is  expressly  reserved. 


REPEAL  OF  TOLLS  EXEMPTION  CLAUSE 
APPROVED  JUNE  15,  1914 


An  Act  To  amend  section  five  of  "An  Act  to  pro- 
vide for  the  opening,  maintenance,  protection,  and 
operation  of  the  Panama  Canal  and  the  sanitation 
and  government  of  the  Canal  Zone,"  approved 
August  twenty  -  fourth,  nineteen  hundred  and 
twelve. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives of  the  United  States  of  America  in  Congress 
assembled,  That  the  second  sentence  in  section  five 
of  the  Act  entitled  "An  Act  to  provide  for  the 
opening,  maintenance,  protection,  and  operation 
of  the  Panama  Canal,  and  the  sanitation  and  govern- 
ment of  the  Canal  Zone,"  approved  August  twenty- 
fourth,  nineteen  hundred  and  twelve,  which  reads 
as  follows:  "No  tolls  shall  be  levied  upon  vessels 
engaged  in  the  coastwise  trade  of  the  United  States," 
be,  and  the  same  is  hereby,  repealed. 

SEC.  2.  That  the  third  sentence  of  the  third  para- 
graph of  said  section  of  said  Act  be  so  amended  as 
to  read  as  follows:  "When  based  upon  net  regis- 
tered tonnage  for  ships  of  commerce  the  tolls  shall 


not  exceed  $1.25  per  net  registered  ton,  nor  be  less 
than  75  cents  per  net  registered  ton,  subject,  how- 
ever, to  the  provisions  of  article  nineteen  of  the  con- 
vention between  the  United  States  and  the  Republic 
of  Panama,  entered  into  November  eighteenth, 
nineteen  hundred  and  three":  Provided,  That  the 
passage  of  this  Act  shall  not  be  construed  or  held  as  a 
waiver  or  relinquishment  of  any  right  the  United 
States  may  have  under  the  treaty  with  Great  Britain, 
ratified  the  twenty-first  of  February,  nineteen 
hundred  and  two,  or  the  treaty  with  the  Republic 
of  Panama,  ratified  February  twenty-sixth,  nine- 
teen hundred  and  four,  or  otherwise,  to  discriminate 
in  favor  of  its  vessels  by  exempting  the  vessels  of  the 
United  States  or  its  citizens  from  the  payment  of 
tolls  for  passage  through  said  canal,  or  as  in  any 
way  waiving,  impairing,  or  affecting  any  right  of  the 
United  States  under  said  treaties,  or  otherwise, 
with  respect  to  the  sovereignty  over  or  the  owner- 
ship, control,  and  management  of  said  canal  and  the 
regulation  of  the  conditions  or  charges  of  traffic 
through  the  same. 


ADMISSION  OF  FOREIGN-BUILT  SHIPS  TO  AMERICAN  REGISTER 

APPROVED  AUGUST  18,  1914 


An  Act  To  provide  for  the  admission  of  foreign- 
built  ships  to  American  registry  for  the  foreign 
trade,  and  for  other  purposes. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives of  the  United  States  of  America  in  Congress 
assembled,  That  the  words  "not  more  than  five 
years  old  at  the  time  they  apply  for  registry"  in 
section  five  of  the  Act  entitled  "An  Act  to  provide 
for  the  opening,  maintenance,  protection,  and 
operation  of  the  Panama  Canal  and  the  sanitation 
and  government  of  the  Canal  Zone,"  are  hereby 
repealed. 

SEC.  2.  That  the  President  of  the  United  States 


is  hereby  authorized,  whenever  in  his  discretion  the 
needs  of  foreign  commerce  may  require,  to  suspend 
by  order,  so  far  and  for  such  length  of  time  as  he 
may  deem  desirable,  the  provisions  of  law  prescrib- 
ing that  all  the  watch  officers  of  vessels  of  the  United 
States  registered  for  foreign  trade  shall  be  citizens 
of  the  United  States. 

Under  like  conditions,  in  like  manner,  and  to  like 
extent  the  President  of  the  United  States  is  also 
hereby  authorized  to  suspend  the  provisions  of  the 
law  requiring  survey,  inspection,  and  measurement 
by  officers  of  the  United  States  of  foreign-built  ves- 
sels admitted  to  American  registry  under  this  Act. 

SEC.  3.  This  Act  shall  take  effect  immediately. 


PANAMA  CANAL  TOLL  RATES 

PROCLAMATION  BY  THE  PRESIDENT,  Nov.  13,  1912 


I,  William  Howard  Taft,  President  of  the  United 
States  of  America,  by  virtue  of  the  power  and 
authority  vested  in  me  by  the  act  of  Congress 
approved  August  twenty-fourth,  nineteen  hundred 
and  twelve,  to  provide  for  the  opening,  maintenance, 


protection,  and  operation  of  the  Panama  Canal  and 
the  sanitation  and  government  of  the  Canal  Zone, 
do  hereby  prescribe  and  proclaim  the  following  rates 
of  toll  to  be  paid  by  vessels  using  the  Panama  Canal: 
I.  On  merchant  vessels  carrying  passengers  or 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


cargo,  one  dollar  and  twenty  cents  ($1.20)  per  net 
vessel  ton — each  one  hundred  (100)  cubic  feet — of 
actual  earning  capacity. 

2.  On  vessels  in  ballast  without  passengers  or 
cargo,  forty  (40)  per  cent  less  than  the  rate  of  tolls 
for  vessels  with  passengers  or  cargo. 

3.  Upon   naval   vessels,    other   than   transports, 
colliers,  hospital  ships,  and  supply  ships,  fifty  (50) 
cents  per  displacement  ton. 

4.  Upon  army  and  navy  transports,  colliers,  hos- 
pital ships,  and  supply  ships,  one  dollar  and  twenty 
cents  (#1.20)  per  net  ton,  the  vessels  to  be  measured 
by  the  same  rules  as  are  employed  in  determining 
the  net  tonnage  of  merchant  vessels. 

The  Secretary  of  War  will  prepare  and  prescribe 


such  rules  for  the  measurement  of  vessels  and  such 
regulations  as  may  be  necessary  and  proper  to  carry 
this  proclamation  into  full  force  and  effect. 

In  witness  whereof  I  have  hereunto  set  my  hand 
and  caused  the  seal  of  the  United  States  to  be  affixed. 

Done  at  the  city  of  Washington  this  thirteenth 
day  of  November,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thou- 
sand nine  hundred  and  twelve,  and  of  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  United  States  the  one  hundred  and 
thirty-seventh. 


[SEAL.] 

By  the  President: 
P.  C.  KNOX, 

Secretary  of  State. 


WM.  H.  TAFT. 


EXECUTIVE  ORDER 
JAN.  27,  1914 

CREATING  A  PERMANENT  ORGANIZATION  FOR  THE  PANAMA  CANAL,  EFFECTIVE 

APRIL  i,  1914 


By  virtue  of  the  authority  vested  in  me,  I  hereby 
enact  the  following  order,  creating  a  permanent 
organization  for  the  Panama  Canal,  under  the  Act 
of  Congress  "To  provide  for  the  opening,  main- 
tenance, protection  and  operation  of  the  Panama 
Canal  and  the  sanitation  and  government  of  the 
Canal  Zone,"  approved  August  24,  1912. 

SECTION  I.  The  organization  for  the  completion, 
maintenance,  operation,  government  and  sanitation 
of  the  Panama  Canal  and  its  adjuncts  and  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  Canal  Zone  shall  consist  of  the 
following  departments,  offices  and  agencies,  and  such 
others  as  may  be  established  by  the  Governor  of 
the  Panama  Canal  on  the  Isthmus  or  elsewhere 
with  the  approval  of  the  President,  all  to  be  under 
the  direction  of  the  Governor,  subject  to  the  super- 
vision of  the  Secretary  of  War. 

DEPARTMENT  OF  OPERATION  AND  MAINTENANCE — 
There  shall  be  a  Department  of  Operation  and  Main- 
tenance under  the  immediate  supervision  and  di- 
rection of  the  Governor  of  the  Panama  Canal. 
This  Department  shall  be  charged  with  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Canal  and  with  its  operation  and  main- 
tenance when  completed,  including  all  matters 
relating  to  traffic  of  the  Canal  and  its  adjuncts, 
and  the  operation  and  maintenance  of  beacons, 
lights  and  lighthouses;  the  supervision  of  ports 
and  waterways,  including  pilotage;  the  admeasur- 
ing and  inspecting  of  vessels,  including  hulls  and 
boilers;  the  operation  and  maintenance  of  the  Pan- 
ama Railroad  upon  the  Isthmus,  including  tele- 
phone and  telegraph  systems;  the  operation  of 
locks,  coaling  plants,  shops,  dry -docks  and  wharves; 
office  engineering,  including  meteorology  and  hydrog- 
raphy; the  construction  of  buildings  and  sanitary 
and  municipal  engineering,  including  the  con- 
struction and  maintenance  of  drainage  ditches, 
streets,  roads  and  bridges. 

PURCHASING  DEPARTMENT. — There  shall  be  a 
Purchasing  Department  under  the  supervision  and 
direction  of  the  Governor.  This  department  shall 
be  charged  with  the  purchase  of  all  supplies,  ma- 
chinery or  necessary  plant. 


SUPPLY  DEPARTMENT. — There  shall  be  a  Supply 
Department,  under  the  supervision  and  direction 
of  the  Chief  Quartermaster.  This  department  shall 
store  and  distribute  all  material  and  supplies  for 
use  of  the  Panama  Canal  and  of  its  employees; 
and  for  other  departments  of  the  Government  on 
the  Isthmus  and  their  employees;  and  for  vessels 
of  the  United  States  and  for  other  vessels,  when  re- 
quired. The  Supply  Department  shall  operate 
commissaries,  hotels  and  messes;  shall  be  in  charge 
of  the  maintenance  of  buildings,  the  assignment 
of  quarters  and  the  care  of  grounds;  shall  recruit 
and  distribute  unskilled  labor;  and  shall  have  charge 
of  the  necessary  animal  transportation. 

ACCOUNTING  DEPARTMENT. — There  shall  be  an 
Accounting  Department  under  the  supervision  and 
direction  of  the  Auditor,  with  an  assistant  in 
the  United  States.  The  duties  of  the  department 
shall  include  all  general  bookkeeping,  auditing  and 
accounting,  both  for  money  and  property,  cost- 
keeping,  the  examination  of  payrolls  and  vouchers, 
the  inspection  of  time  books  and  of  money  and 
property  accounts,  the  preparation  of  statistical 
data,  and  the  administrative  examination  of  such 
accounts  as  are  required  to  be  submitted  to  the  United 
States  Treasury  Department;  and  the  collection, 
custody  and  disbursement  of  funds  for  the  Panama 
Canal  and  the  Canal  Zone.  These  same  duties  shall 
be  performed  for  the  Panama  Railroad  Company 
on  the  Isthmus  when  not  inconsistent  with  the 
charter  and  by-laws  of  that  Company.  The  de- 
partment shall  be  charged  with  the  handling  of 
claims  for  compensation  on  account  of  personal 
injuries  and  of  claims  for  damages  to  vessels. 
Within  the  limits  fixed  by  law,  the  duties  and 
financial  responsibilities  of  the  officers  and  em- 
ployees charged  with  the  receipt,  custody,  disburse- 
ment •,  auditing  and  accounting  for  funds  and  prop- 
erty shall  be  prescribed  in  regulations  issued  by  the 
Governor,  with  the  approval  of  the  President. 
The  Auditor  shall  maintain  such  a  system  of  book- 
keeping as  will  enable  him  to  furnish  at  any  time 
full,  complete  and  correct  information  in  regard  to 


APPENDIX 


517 


the  status  of  appropriations  made  by  Congress,  the 
status  of  all  other  funds,  and  the  amounts  of  net 
profits  on  all  operations,  which  are  to  be  covered 
into  the  Treasury  as  required  by  the  Panama  Canal 
Act. 

HEALTH  DEPARTMENT. — There  shall  be  a  Health 
Department  under  the  supervision  and  direction 
of  the  Chief  Health  Officer.  This  department  shall 
be  charged  with  all  matters  relating  to  maritime 
sanitation  and  quarantine  in  the  ports  and  waters 
of  the  Canal  Zone  and  in  the  harbors  of  the  cities 
of  Panama  and  Colon,  and  with  land  sanitation  in 
the  Canal  Zone,  and  sanitary  matters  in  said  cities 
in  conformity  with  the  Canal  Treaty  between  the 
United  States  and  the  Republic  of  Panama  and 
existing  agreements  between  the  two  governments 
thereunder,  and  all  matters  relating  to  hospitals 
and  charities. 

EXECUTIVE  SECRETARY. — There  shall  bean  Execu- 
tive Secretary  who,  under  the  direction  of  the 
Governor  of  the  Panama  Canal,  shall  be  charged 
with  the  supervision  of  all  matters  relating  to  the 
keeping  of  time  of  employees;  to  postoffices,  cus- 
toms, taxes  and  excises,  excepting  the  collection 
thereof;  police  and  prisons;  fire  protection;  land 
office;  schools,  clubs  and  law  library;  the  custody 
of  files  and  records;  and  the  administration  of 
estates  of  deceased  and  insane  employees.  He  shall, 
in  person  or  through  one  of  his  assistants,  perform 
the  duties  of  a  Shipping  Commissioner.  He  shall 
conduct  all  correspondence  and  communications 
between  the  authorities  of  the  Canal  Zone  and  the 
Government  of  the  Republic  of  Panama  and  such 


other  correspondence  as  may  be  given  him  in  charge 
by  the  Governor.  He  shall  have  charge  of  the  seal  of 
the  Government  of  the  Canal  Zone  and  shall  attest 
such  acts  of  the  Government  as  are  required  by  law 
to  be  performed  and  done  under  the  seal. 

The  duties  herein  prescribed  for  the  foregoing 
departments,  offices  and  agencies  will  be  assigned  to 
divisions  or  bureaus  thereunder  by  the  Governor  of 
the  Panama  Canal,  as  the  necessities  therefor  arise. 
Each  of  the  foregoing  departments  shall  discharge 
such  further  duties  as  may  be  assigned  to  it  from 
time  to  time  by  the  Governor;  and  the  Governor, 
with  the  approval  of  the  President,  may  transfer 
from  time  to  time  specific  duties  from  one  depart- 
ment to  another. 

SECTION  2.  The  organization  provided  for  in 
Section  i  shall  be,  in  general,  in  accordance  with  the 
outline  chart  accompanying  the  memorandum  of 
Jan.  27, 1914,  entitled  "  Memorandum  to  accompany 
Executive  Order  of  Jan.  27,  1914,  providing  for  a 
permanent  organization  for  the  Panama  Canal," 
and  officers  from  certain  departments  shall  be  de- 
tailed in  accordance  with  that  memorandum. 

SECTION  3.  This  order  shall  take  effect  from  and 
after  the  1st  day  of  April,  1914,  from  which  date 
the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  together  with  the 
present  organization  for  the  Panama  Canal  and  the 
Canal  Zone,  shall  cease  to  exist,  in  accordance  with 
the  terms  of  the  above-mentioned  Act  of  Congress. 


WOODROW  WILSON. 


THE  WHITE  HOUSE, 

January  27,  1914. 


INDEX 


n Buenaventura  Is.* 
ventured* 


*  85  ft, 163.38  S<fM: 


MAP  SHOWING 

ISTHMUS  WITH  COMPLETED  CANAL 

SCALE 

Miles 


INDEX 


Abbot,  Henry  Larcom,  biography,  463 

Abendroth  &  Root  Manufacturing  Co.,  370 

Abraiba,  16 

Accessory  Transit  Co.,  100 

Accidents,  at  Bas  Obispo,  142;  see  also  Workmen's 
compensation 

Acetylene,  use  of,  403 

Acevedo,  Ramon  F.,  300;   biography,  463 

Acher,  A.  H.,  biography,  463 

Acla,  port,  24;  new  settlement,  25;  disappearance 
of,  54 

Acosta,  Josephus,  Natural  and  Moral  History  of 
the  Indies,  120 

Adams,  James  H.,  biography,  463 

Adamson,  William  C.,  242;    biography,  463 

Administration  building,  217,  412-414 

Africa,  247,  286 

Agriculture,  Canal  Zone,  243 

Agua  Dulce,  117 

Aguilar,  Geronimo  de,  16 

Aguilar,  Pedro,  Civil  Governor  of  Panama,  77 

Aix-la-Chappelle,  Peace  of,  73 

Aizpuru,  Rafael,  attempts  to  change  forms  of 
government,  82,  83;  leader  in  revolution,  82, 
84;  president  of  Panama,  83,  84;  exiled,  85 

Akron  Metallic  Gasket  Co.,  389 

Alabama,  318 

Alameda,  ship,  281 

Alange,  75 

Alanje,  Chiriqui,  founded  by  Hurtado,  31;  re- 
establishment,  31 

Alaska,  257,  278,  298 

Alaskan,  ship,  181 

Albenameche,  16 

Alberoni,  Giulio,  Cardinal,  69 

Albites,  Diego  de,  24;  establishes  posts  across 
Panama,  29 

Aleutian  Islands,  281 

Alex.  Le Valley,  ship,  181 

Alexander  VI,  Pope,  21 ;  distribution  of  lands  by,  43 

Alexander,  A.  E.,  180 

Alexander,  Joshua  W.,  243 

Alexander,  William  H.,  biography,  463 

Alexandria  Hotel,  321 

Allegheny  Mts.,  317 

Allen,  Henry  A.,  149 

Allicott  Mills,  318 

Allis-Chalmers  Co.,  372 

Allison  Coupon  Co.,  421 

Almagro,  Diego  de,  21 

Almirante  Bay,  8 

Alpha  Portland  Cement  Co.,  374 

Alvarado,  Alonso  de,  40,  293 

Alvarado,  Pedro  de,  holds  Salvador  for  Cortes,  33 

Alzuru,  Col.,  78 

Amador,  Manuel,  174;    biography,  463 

Amazon  River,  182;   discovery,  6 

America,  35,  42,  96;  derivation  of  name,  5 

American-Asiatic  steamship  routes,  278,  279 

American  Bitumastic  Enamels  Co.,  385 


American  canal  commission,  see  Canal  commission 

American  Engineering  Co.,  349 

American  firms,  list  of,  434-460 

American  Gasaccumulator  Co.,  403 

American  Hawaiian  Line,  314 

American-Hawaiian  Steamship  Co.,  304 

American  industries,  322 

American  labor,  275 

American  register,  Admission  of  foreign-built  ships 
to,  515 

American  Screw  Co.,  408 

American  Security  &  Casualty  Co.,  309 

American  Steam  Gauge  &  Valve  Manufacturing 
Co.,  384 

American  Tool  Works  Co.,  387 

American  Watchman  Time  Detector  Co.,  405 

Ammen,  Daniel,  biography,  463 

Amsterdam,  63 

Amusements,  169-171 

Anaquito,  battle  of,  38 

Anasco,  Capt.  Pedro  de  Montilla,  re-establishes 
Alanje,  31 

Ancon,  59;  hospital,  124;  fire  and  telegraph  system, 
904;  administration  building,  412 

Ancon  Hill,  117,  149,  154 

A  neon,  ship,  181 

Ancon  Quarry,  J.  A.  Loulan  in  charge,  161 

Ancona,  hospital,  205 

Andagoya,  Pascual  de,  21,  40;  alderman  of  Panama, 
31;  Inspector  General  of  the  Indies,  31,  97 

Andalucia,  Nueva,  see  Nueva  Andalucia 

Andes  Mountains,  296 

Andres,  Antonio,  59 

Andreve,  Guillermo,  300;   biography,  463 

Andrews,  Capt.  Philip,  biography,  463;  letter  from 
Secretary  Daniels,  267;  The  Panama  Canal 
from  a  Navy  Standpoint,  267-270 

Angel,  Laurence,  biography,  463 

Angostura,  congress  held  at,  76 

Aninon,  Felipe  de,  memorial  from,  54 

Annapolis,  317,  384 

Anne,  Queen  of  England,  68 

Annett,  C.  F.,  biography,  463 

Anson,  Commodore,  expedition  under,  72;  cruise 
along  South  American  coast,  73;  capture  of 
Spanish  ship,  73;  promotion,  73;  return  to 
England,  73 

Antietam,  318 

Antigua,  21,  22,  24,  60;  founding,  13;  Nicuesa 
invited  to  govern,  14;  prosperity  under  Balboa, 
18;  return  of  Balboa,  19;  bishop  of,  20;  first 
European  city  on  American  continent,  28;  seat 
of  first  bishopric,  28;  burning  of,  30;  Oviedo 
to  rule  over,  30;  disappearance  of,  54 

Antioquia,  81 

Antofagasta,  297 

Antonelli,  Jean  Baptiste,  report  of,  54,  97 

Aragon,  18 

Arango,  Jose  Agustin,  biography,  216,  463 

Arango,  Ricardo  Manuel,  biography,  463 

Arbolancha,  Pedro  de,  18;  carries  letters 'to  Spain, 
19;  arrival  of  ship,  21 


521 


522 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


Arcila,  7 

Arctic  Ocean,  285 

Argentina,  248,  320 

Arguello,  arrested  by  Pedrarias,  27;   death,  27 

Arias,  Ricardo,  biography,  463 

Arias,  Tomas,  biography,  463 

Arica,  60 

Ariza,  Andres  de,  74 

Arjona,  Aristides,  300;    biography,  463 

Armstrong  Cork  Co.,  426 

Army  engineers,  given  charge  of  work,  133 

Arosemena,  C.  C.,  113;  biography,  464 

Arosemena,    Pablo,   biography,  463;     president  of 

Panama,  82 

Arrows,  Gulf  of,  see  Samana  Bay 
Art  Metal  Construction  Co.,  406 
Artistic  features,  238 
Ashburn,  Percy  M.,  biography,  464 
Asia,  247,  256 
Asiatic  colonies,  269 
Asiatic  exclusion,  256,  268 
Aspinwall,  William  H.,  87,  88;   biography,  464 
Aspinwall,  see  Colon 
Astoria,  306 

Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Railway,  309,  319 
Athens  of  America,  see  Santo  Domingo 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  ports,  307 
Atlantic  &  Pacific  Steamship  Co.,  314 
Atlantic  Coast,  96,  97,  261,  286,  305,  319;    navy 

yards  on,  269,  270 
Atlantic  fleet,  268,  270 

Atlantic  Ocean,  62,  64,  96,  114,  205,  256,  257,  291 
Atlantic  Steamship  Lines,  313,  314 
Atlas  Portland  Cement  Co.,  374~375 
Atrato  River,  6,  10,  16,  35,  36,  98,  101;  expedition, 

23 

Atterbury,  Francis,  bishop,  70 

Auckland,  305 

Audiencia  de  los  Confines,  53 

Audiencia  Real,  abolishment,  53 

Audiencias  established,  38 

Auditor  of  the  commission,  215 

Austin,  Frederic,  biography,  464 

Austin  cube  mixer,  376-378 

Australia,  88,  248,  291 ;  coal  from,  282 

Austria,  286,  310 

Automatic  Time  Stamp  Co.,  406 

Avila,  Pedro  Arias  de  (Pedrarias  Davila),  biography, 
480;  appointed  governor,  20;  expedition  under, 
20-22;  reception  by  Balboa,  21 ;  sails  for  Cemu 
and  Careta,  24;  rebuilds  fort  at  Santa  Cruz,  24; 
arrests  Balboa's  friends,  27;  reports  adverse 
to,  28;  refounds  Nombre  de  Dios,  29;  leaves 
Oviedo  to  rule  over  Antigua,  30;  contest  with 
Saavedra,  32;  succeeded  by  Rios,  32;  appoints 
Cordoba  in  Nicaragua,  33;  becomes  governor 
of  Nicaragua,  33;  establishes  a  slave-mart  in 
Panama,  33;  searches  for  waterway,  96,  97; 
death,  34 

Ayora,  Juan  de,  20,  22 

Azuero,  79 

B 

B.  V.  D.  Company,  434 
Babcock  and  Wilcox  Co.,  366,  367 
Bachicao,  Hernando,  invades  Panama,  39 
Badajoz,  Francisco  Gonzales  de,  37 


Badajoz,  Gonzalo  de,  29,  31;  expedition  to  South 
Sea,  24;  meets  Espinosa,  25 

Badajoz,  Council  of,  96 

Bahamas,  63 

Bahia  Carabora,  36 

Bahia  Honda,  n 

Baily,  John,  100;    biography,  464 

Balboa,  Vasco  Nunez  de,  12,  13,  14,  29,  37,  97,  293, 
299;  biography,  464;  accompanies  Bastidas, 
6;  governor  of  Castilla  del  Oro,  15;  marries 
Careta's  daughter,  15,  26;  opposes  Ponca,  15; 
reduces  natives  to  subjection,  15;  treaty  with 
Careta,  15;  becomes  friends  with  Ponca,  17; 
discovers  the  South  Sea,  17;  hears  disquieting 
news  from  Spain,  17;  sends  present  to  Pasa- 
monte,  17;  denounced  by  Enciso,  19;  return 
to  Antigua,  19;  superseded  as  governor,  20; 
receives  Pedrarias,  21;  release  of,  22;  expedi- 
tion up  Atrato  River,  23;  King  Ferdinand 
repairs  injury  to,  21,  24;  gives  up  Indian  wife, 
25;  lays  out  new  settlement  at  Acla,  25;  sends 
to  Cuba  for  arms,  25;  actions  towards  Pedra- 
rias, 26-27;  sails  into  Gulf  of  San  Miguel,  26; 
searches  South  Sea  for  gold  country,  26;  trial 
and  death,  27 

Balboa,  Pacific  terminal,  117;  breakwater  at,  172; 
gates  at,  385;  stores  at,  425 

Baldwin,  J.  L.,  survey  under,  88 

Ball,  Thomas  H.,  310 

Ball  Engine  Co.,  369 

Balls  Bluff,  318 

Baltimore,  313,  314,  317 

Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad,  317 

Bank  of  England,  64 

Bankers  Trust  Co.,  Board  of,  309 

Banks,  T.  S.,  &  Co.,  394 

Barbacoas,  90 

Barbados,  orders  to  governors  of,  65;  negroes,  162; 
laborers  from,  197 

Barber,  Charles  W.,  biography,  464 

Barcelona,  31 

Bard,  Thomas  R.,  biography,  464;  offers  amend- 
ment to  Hay-Pauncefote  treaty,  492 

Bariento,  Capt.,  37 

Barneson,  John,  304 

Barneson-Hibberd  Co.,  304 

Barratt,  W.  C.,  314 

Barrett,  John,  196;   biography,  464 

Barrionuevo,  Francisco  de,  Governor  of  Castilla 
del  Oro,  35 

Bartolome,  repels  attack,  9 

Bascom,  Charles  E.,  351 

Bascom,  Joseph  D.,  biography,  464-465 

Baskerville,  Sir  Thomas,  expedition  to  Panama,  49; 
assumes  command  after  Drake's  death,  49; 
returns  to  England,  49 

Bas  Obispo,  94 

Bastidas,  Rodrigo  de,  8,  12,  293;  biography,  465; 
character,  6;  commercial  dealings,  6;  expedi- 
tion under,  6;  discovers  Panama,  6 ;  pension,  6; 
reaches  South  America,  6;  return  to  Spain,  6; 
thrown  into  prison,  6 

Bastimentos,  Island  of,  29,  56 

Basuto,  Juan,  31 

Bates,  William  H.,  465 

Baxter,  John  K.,  465 

Bayley,  S.,  proposes  route  for  canal,  100 


INDEX 


523 


Bayou  channel,  307 

Bayonna,  king  of  the  Cimarrones,  53 

Bazan,  Alvarez  de,  attacks  English  fleet,  45 

Beam,  Walter  Irvin,  465 

Beaman,  Don  H.,  biography,  465 

Bean,  E.  C.,  180 

Becerra,  Francisco,  dealings  with  the  Indians,  22 

Beck,  Edgar  P.,  biography,  465 

Belcher,  Capt.  Edward,  recommends  construction 

of  canal,  99,  100 
Belding,  W.  M.,  217,  465 
fielding  &  Franklin  Machine  Co.,  408 
Belen,  n,  13,  54 
Belen,  Nuestra  Senora  de,  8 
Belgium,  98 
Belize,  100 

Bell,  William  H.,  biography,  465 
Belly,  Felix,  interest  in  canal,  loo 
Belly,  Milaud  &  Co.,  contract  for  canal,  100 
Beninski,  98 

Bennett,  Ira  E.,  letter  from  Admiral  Dewey,  255 
Benson,  Ernest  S.,  203,  465 
Berger,  C.  L.,  &  Sons,  395 
Berger  Manufacturing  Co.,  425 
Bergin,  Ralph  William,  465 
Berlanga,  Tomas  de,  bishop  of  Panama,  35 
Berlin,  63 

Bermejo,  Juan,  40,  41 
Bertoncini,  C.  F.,  465 
Besgara,  Joaquin  Vargas,  vice-governor  of  Tierra 

Firme,  76 
Best,  W.  N.,  398 
Bethlehem,  Our  Lady  of,  8 
Bethlehem  Iron  Co.,  313 
Beyer,  W.  F.,  465 
Biddle,    Charles,    sent    to    Panama,    86;     secures 

franchise   for    a    trans-Isthmian   railroad,   86; 

secures  concession  for  railroad  across  Isthmus, 

99 ;  repudiated  by  United  States  government,  99 
Bierd,  W.  G.,  203,  215,  217,  465 
Bird-Archer  Co.,  368,  369 

Birues,  Juan  de,  expedition  against  Dabaiba,  23 
Biruquete,  24,  29 
Biscaina,  ship,  9 

Bishop,  Joseph  B.,  biography,  465 
Bitumastic  solution,  385 
Black,  W.  M.,  biography,  465 
Blackburn,     Joseph     Clay     Stiles,     Senator,     135; 

biography,  465 
Blackburn,  S.  E.,  465 
Blake,  69 
Blanco,  Cape,  61 

Blaw  Steel  Construction  Company,  373,  374 
Blount,  F.  R.,  465 
Blue,  C.  E.,  380 
Blue,  L.  V.,  381 
Blue,  Dr.  Rupert,  125;    biography,  465;    Problems 

of  Quarantine,  244-249 
Blum  &  Koch,  433 
B6,  M.,  in,  president  of  New  Panama  Canal  Co., 

107 
Bobadilla,    Gov.    Francisco    de,     10;     returns    to 

Spain,  6 

Boggs,  Maj.  Frank  C.,  423;    biography,  465-466 
Bogota,  78,  8 1,  86,  91,  99,  in,  183;  Congress  at,  83 
Bohio  dam,  192 
Bohio,  tug-boat,  349 


Boilers,  see  Equipment 
Bolich,  D.  W.,  216,  466 
Bolivar,  Simon,  president  of  Republic  of  Colombia, 

86,  98;  presides  over  congress  of  Angostura,  76 
Bolivia,   mineral    wealth,   296;    productions,   296; 

opportunities  for  development,  297;   railroads, 

297 

"Bones  of  Men,"  see  Acla 
Bonacao,  7 
Booth,  Rufus  K.,  466 
Boots,  see  Footwear 
Boston,  311,  317,  319 
Boston  Belting  Co.,  393 
Boston  Woven  Hose  &  Rubber  Co.,  393 
Boswell,  Helen  Vanck,  organizes  women's  clubs  at 

Panama,  170 
Botello,  Luis,  death,  27 
Boya,  294 

Boyd,  Federico,  300;   biography,  466 
Braddock,  General,  318 
Bradley,  H.  S.,  381 
Bradley,    Captain,    buccaneer,    58;     captures    San 

Lorenzo,  58 
Brazil,  78,  248,  320;   ceded  to  Portugal,  6;   Pinzon 

searches  coast,  6;    Portuguese  claims,  43 
Brem,  Walter,  466 
Bremerton,  naval  base,  261,  262,  269;    navy  yard 

270 

Bretons,  explore  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  44 
Brisbane,  305 
British  Columbia,  248 
British  Empire,  291 
Bristol,  63 

Bristow,  Joseph  Little,  198;    biography,  466 
British  Steamship  Co.,  197 
Brito,  101,  104 

Broderick,  John  J.,  biography,  466 
Broderick  &  Bascom  Rope  Co.,  351,  353 
Brook,  George  D.,  216,  466 

Brooke,   Lieut.    Mark,    113;    biography,   466;    re- 
ceives keys  to  Panama,  126 
Brown,  Thomas  E.,  Jr.,  biography,  466 
Brown  Hoisting  Machinery  Co.,  365 
Browning  Engineering  Co.,  365 
Bryan,  William  Jennings,  no,  113;   biography,  466 
Bryce,  James,  British  Ambassador,  114 
Bubonic  plague,  207 
Buccaneer,  derivation  of,  56 
Buchanan,  James,  President,  101,  226 
Buckeye  Engine  Co.,  370 
Bucyrus  Co.,  355 
Buda  Co.,  387 
Budd,  R.,  466 
Buenaventura,  85 
Buenos  Aires,  Plaza  hotel,  320 
Buff,  George  L.,  395 
Buff  and  Buff  Manufacturing  Co.,  395 
Buffalo  Gasoline  Motor  Co.,  419 
Buffalo  Steam  Roller  Co.,  365 
Building    Construction    Division,    216;     materials, 

412-418 

Bulwer,  Sir  Henry,  biography,  466 
Bunau-Varilla,  Philippe,  112;    biography,  466 
Burke,  Edmund,  71 
Burlington,  316 

Burr,  William  Hubert,  127;   biography,  466 
Burrows,  Lemuel,  Jr.,  letter  to,  400-401 


524 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


Burtt,  A.  M.,  467 

Butler,  Henry  V.,  biography,  467 

Byres,  James,  67 


Cable  and  telegraph  facilities,  411-412 

Cable  terminals,  407 

Cabo  Tiburon,  5 

Cabot,  John,  explorations,  43 

Cabot,  Sebastian,  expedition,  43 

Cabral,  Pedro  Alvarez  de,  discoverer  of  Brazil,  43 

Cabrera,  Pedro  de,  39 

Cadiz,  Ojeda  arrives  at,  5 

Caesar,  Julius,  251 

Caicedo,  sent  to  Spain,  17,  20 

Calderon,  Ignacio,  Bolivia  and  the  Panama  Canal, 
296-297 

Caldwell,  Bert  W.,  biography,  467 

Caledonia  Bay,  65,  67,  98,  100,  101 

California,  262,  269,  310;  Drake  takes  possession, 
48;  ceded  to  United  States,  87;  mail  steam- 
ships to,  87,  89;  gold  discovered,  88;  fuel  oil 
produced,  93,  264;  oil  fields,  304 

California  Atlantic  Steamship  Co.,  304 

Callao,  291,  313 

Calvo,  Bartolome,  becomes  attorney-general  of 
New  Granada,  79;  elected  governor  of  Panama, 

79 

Calvo,  Raoul  J.,  biography,  467 
Camargo,  Gen.  Serjio,  84 
Camden,  305 
Camino  Real,   (King's  Highway),   paved  roadway 

between  Nombre  de  Dios  and  Panama,  29,  33, 

46,  51,  86 

Campbell,  A.  I.,  467 
Campbell,   Capt.  Alexander,  defeats  Spaniards  in 

battle,  67;   governor  of  Caledonia,  67 
Campeche,  57 
Canada,    257,    269;     discovered    by    Carder,    44; 

population,  291 
Canada,  dredge,  357 
Canadian  Pacific  Railroad,  203 
Canal  Army,  131,  160-164,  166-168 
Canal  commission,  new,  appointment,  106 
Canal  Company,  85 
Canal  Napoleon  de  Nicaragua,  99 
Canal  Record,  newspaper,  156 
Canal  Zone,  117,  124,  125,  217,  300,  301,  318,  321; 

purchased  by  United  States,  92;    jurisdiction 

over,    112;    acquired,    113;     death  rate,    121; 

living  conditions,   169-171;    government,   183, 

235,  236;    Charles  E.  Magoon,  governor,  193; 

sanitation  laws  compulsory,  205 ;  fortifications, 

237,  266;   description,  266 
Canary  Islands,  7,  28 
Cannon,  Joseph  G.,  202 
Cano,  181 

Caonas,  massacre  of  Indians,  37 
Capac,  314 
Cape  Colony,  247 
Cape  Verde  Islands,  247 
Careta,  cacique  of  Cueva,  captured  by  Balboa,  15; 

opposes  Ponca,  15 
Careta,  Pedrarias  sails  for,  24 
Carew,  Frank  J.,  467 
Caria  Islands,  96 
Caribbean  Coast,  37;   locks,  193 


Caribbean  Sea,  33,  39,  52,  116,  248,  258,  261,  277, 
291,311 

Carpenter,  C.  L.,  467 

Carpenter,  George  B.,  &  Co.,  355 

Carrillo,  Luis,  41;   expedition  under,  23;    death,  23 

Carrion,  Joaquin,  76 

Carlos  I.,  28 

Carroll,  Charles,  318 

Cartagena,  35,  56,  67,  84,  90;  Drake's  expedition 
to,  45;  sacked  by  Drake,  48;  supersedes 
isthmian  cities  in  commerce,  52;  opposed  to 
Scotch  settlement,  65;  attack  on,  72;  popular 
party  overthrows  government,  76 

Cartagena  Bay,  n,  12,  13 

Cartago,  Costa  Rica,  57 

Carter,  H.  R.,  467 

Carter,  O.  M.,  310 

Carter,  S.  F.,  309 

Cartier,  Jacques,  discovers  Canada,  44;  explores 
St.  Lawrence  River,  44;  names  Montreal,  44 

Casa  Dingier,  195 

Casas,  Bartolome  de  las,  52,  293;  biography,  467; 
first  priest  ordained  in  the  colonies,  37;  Pro- 
tector of  the  Indies,  37;  conversion  to  Chris- 
tianity, 38;  frees  Indian  slaves,  38;  joins 
Dominican  Order,  38;  visits  Charles  V.  of 
Germany,  38 

Casorla,  Jose  Ricardo,  president  of  Panama,  83 

Cass,  Lewis,  79,  227 

Castaneda,  Francisco  de,  36 

Castile,  17,  1 8 

Castilla  del  Oro  (Golden  Castile),  10,  14,  38,  40,  59; 
bishop  of,  20;  transferred  to  New  Granada,  53 

Castner,  Curran  &  Bullitt,  Inc.,  400 

Castro,  Vaca  de,  governor  of  Peru,  38 

Cathcart,  Lord,  expedition  under,  72;  joined  by 
Vernon's  forces,  72 

Catherine  Moran,  tug,  418 

Cauca,  state  of,  79 

Caxinas,  Cape,  8 

Celebes,  48 

Cemaco,  Indian  Chief,  13;  flees  from  Balboa,  15; 
cacique  of  Darien,  16 

Cement  and  concrete,  use  of,  371-375;    mixing  of, 

375-379 

Central  America,  51,  91,  205,  260,  269,  277,  298, 
318,  319,  320,  321;  coast  ravaged  by  buc- 
caneers, 62;  desires  independence,  75;  British 
aggression  in,  99;  Canal  benefits,  267;  com- 
merce, 276;  ports,  314 

Central  American  and  United  States  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  Canal  Co.,  98 

Central  American  Confederation,  seeks  cooperation 
of  United  States  in  building  canal,  98 

Cenu,  Pedrarias  sails  for,  24 

Cereceda,  Antonio  de,  treasurer  of  Gonzales,  31 

Ceron,  Alvaro  de  Saavedra,  467;  conceives  idea  of 
canal,  97;  routes  proposed  by,  97;  death,  97 

Cervera,  Damaso,  82;  president  of  Panama,  83; 
impeachment  of,  83 

Chagres,  29,  75,  86,  98;  province  of,  24;  mail 
steamships  to,  87,  89 

Chagres  River,  9,  42,  58,  72,  87,  89,  101,  119,  140, 
146,  147,  180,  192,  250;  bridge  constructed 
over,  90;  made  navigable  to  Cruces,  97 

Chagres  Valley,  94 

Channeling  of  lock  floors,  341-342 


INDEX 


525 


Characas,  314 

Charles  I.,  356 

Charles  II.,  aids  Portuguese,  69 

Charles  V.,  Emperor,  28,  44,  97;   writes  New  Laws 

for  the  colonies,  38 
Charles  V.,  king  of  Spain,  97,  294 
Charles  VI.,  understanding  with  George  I.,  69 
Chauncey,  Henry,  88 
Cheops,  Pyramid  of,  115 
Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Railway,  319 
Chevalier,  Michel,  IOO 
Chiapes,  18,  38,  53 

Chiari,  Rodolfo,  300;  biography,  467 
Chicago,  115,  154,315,318,319;  drainage  canal,  366 
Chicago  and  Northwestern  Railroad,  203 
Chicago  and  Rock  Island  road,  203 
Childs,  Col.  Orville,  surveys  route  for  canal,  100 
Chile,  248,  297,  314 
Chimu,  314 
China,  51,  88,  256,  300,  314;  trade  with  Panama, 

52;    laborers  from,  90;    naval  strength,  269; 

commerce,  305 
Chinandega,  61 
Chincha,  314 

Chinese  labor,  objections  to,  197,  213 
Chipana,  314 
Chiri-Chiri  Bay,  101 
Chiriqui,  8,  79 
Chiriqui  Bay,  13 

Chiru,  24;   raided  by  Espinosa,  25 
Choate,  Joseph  Hodges,  biography,  467 
Cholera,  245 
Chuchauma,  26 
Cimarrones,  46;    organization  of,  52-53;    attempts 

to  exterminate,  53 
Cincinnati,  319 
Cities,  see  Towns 
Civil  service  law,  132,  199,  200 
Civil  Tribunal  of  the  Seine,  no 
Civil  War,  318 
Clark,  C.  A.,  355 
Clark,  Champ,  Speaker,  241 
Clark,  F.  C.,  467 
Clarke,  Ernest  W.,  467 
Clay,  Henry,  resolution  introduced  in  U.  S.  Senate, 

86;   survey  made  for  constructing  Canal,  98 
Clayton,  John  Middleton,  biography,  467 
Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty,   100,   105,   106,  232,  256, 

490-491 

Clear,  Thomas  L.,  biography,  467 
Cleveland  Twist  Drill  Company,  388 
Clio,  ship,  79 
Clothing,  433-434 
Club  houses,  223 

Coale,  Thomas  E.,  biography,  467 
Coastwise  trade,  238 
Cobb  Engineering  Co.,  394 
Cochran,  S.  A.,  386 
Cocoli,  tug-boat,  418,  419,  349 
Cocura,  18 

Coiba,  province,  Balboa  made  captain-general  of,  24 
Colancha,  Jose  Leonardo,  president  of  Panama,  81 
Cold  storage  plant,  description  of,  412 
Cole,  Harry  O.,  137,  179;   biography,  467 
Cole,  W.  Bundy,  301 
Colgate  &  Co.,  425 
Coligny,  Gaspard  de,  admiral  of  France,  44 


Collapsible  steel  forms,  372-374 

Collins,  Lorin  C.,  biography,  467 

Colmenares,  Rodrigo  Enriquez  de,  brings  supplies 
to  Antigua,  13;  brings  Nicuesa's  garrison  to 
Antigua,  15;  sent  to  Spain,  17;  arrival  in 
Spain,  20 

Coloma,  Gen.  Peregrine  Santa,  80;  president  of 
Panama,  81 

Colombia,  76,  77,  79,  81,  92,  102,  104,  226,  228; 
Darien  buffer  state  for,  74;  disturbed  by  Civil 
War,  83;  protests  against  Nicaragua  route, 
1 06;  favors  treaty  with  United  States,  107; 
denies  right  of  French  company  to  sell  property, 
1 08;  claims  indemnity  from  French  company, 
108,  in;  Senate  debates  on  Hay-Herran 
Treaty,  112;  differences  with  United  States, 
112,  113;  treaty  with  United  States,  113; 
negotiations,  227;  refuses  to  ratify  Hay- 
Herran  Treaty,  228,  229;  congress,  229;  troops 
land  at  Colon,  229;  forbidden  to  land  troops  on 
Panama,  229;  Republic  of,  298;  ports,  314; 
treaties  with  the  United  States,  489,  494-501, 

505-507 

Colombo,  248 

Colon,  Bartolome,  7;  biography,  467;  separates 
from  Ribero,  13 

Colon,  Cristobal,  see  Christopher  Columbus 

Colon,  Diego,  12,  15,  36;  biography,  467;  appoints 
Balboa  his  lieutenant,  16 

Colon,  Luis,  36;  biography,  467-468;  grandson  of 
Christopher  Columbus,  36;  titles  conferred 
upon,  36 

Colon,  89,  102,  195,  229,  250,  299,  301,  312,  313,  314; 
rebellion  in,  84,  85;  destroyed  by  fire,  85; 
Washington  Hotel,  94;  death  rate,  121; 
sanitary  improvements,  131;  street  paving,  189; 
water  supply,  189;  hospital,  205;  reign  of 
terror  threatened,  229;  cold  storage  plant,  412; 
stores,  425 

Colquichaca,  296 

Colquitt,  O.  B.,  310 

Columbia,  ship,  196 

Columbian  Rope  Co.,  354 

Columbus,  Christopher  (Cristobal  Colon),  36,  43, 
89,  1 20,  293;  biography,  468;  first  voyage,  5; 
second  voyage,  5;  third  expedition,  7;  dis- 
covers mainland  of  South  America,  7;  fourth 
voyage,  7 ;  discovers  different  parts  of  Panama, 
8;  mutiny  against,  9;  death  of,  9;  lands  dis- 
covered by,  to,  ll;  searches  for  gold,  96; 
seeks  passage  connecting  oceans,  96 

Columbus,  Fernando,  7 

Columbus,  Ohio,  319 

Columbus  Chain  Co.,  387 

Colunje,  Jil,  president  of  Panama,  81,  82 

Comagre,  baptized,  16;   visited  by  Balboa,  16 

Comayagua,  38,  53 

Comber,  William  George,  biography,  468 

Commerce,  see  Ocean  Commerce 

Commissary  equipment,  214,  425-428 

Compagnie  Universelle  du  Canal  Interoceanique  de 
Panama,  91,  250;  formation  of,  102 

Companfa  de  Transito  de  Nicaragua,  100 

Companon,  Francisco  de,  27,  29,  32 

Company  of  Scotland  Trading  to  Africa  and  the 
Indies,  64 

Compensation,  see  Salaries,  Wages 


526 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA   CANAL 


Compressed  air  plants,  216;   use  of,  338-340 

Concafuego,  galleon,  48 

Concepcion,  Veragua,  founding  of,  36 

Concepcion  River,  61 

Concha,  Jose  Vicente,  108,  no,  468;  proposes 
amendments  to  treaty,  in;  withdrawal  from 
United  States,  1 1 1 

Concrete,  see  Cement  and  concrete 

Condor,  314 

Conejo  Valley,  too 

Connecticut,  283 

Connick,  Harris  D.  H.f  311 

Connor,  M.  E.,  468 

Consular  service,  276 

Continental  Trust  Co.,  309 

Contract  work,  132,  133,  221 

Contractor's  Hill,  142 

Contreras,  Hernando,  37;  leader  of  rebellion  in 
Nicaragua,  40,  41 ;  death,  42 

Contreras,  Pedro,  leader  of  rebellion  in  Nicaragua, 
40,  41 ;  driven  to  Punta  de  Higuera,  42 

Contreras,  Rodrigo  de,  36,  37;  deprived  of  prop- 
erty, 40 

Convention  of  1739,  71 

Cook,  Captain,  buccaneer,  61;  discovers  Hawaiian 
Islands,  285 

Cooke,  Frederick  H.,  biography,  468 

Cooke,  Tom  M.,  468 

Cooper,  Peter,  318 

Coquimbo,  60 

Corcoran,  A.  T.,  468 

Cordoba,  Hernandez  de,  appointed  lieutenant  to 
Pedrarias  in  Nicaragua,  32;  founds  cities  of 
Granada  and  Leon;  explores  Mar  Dulce,  32 

Cordonez  Miguel  de,  commander  of  Spanish  troops, 

.67 

Corinto,  260 

Corn  Products  Refining  Co.,  431 

Cornish,  L.  D.,  biography,  468 

Cornthwaite,  H.  G.,  468 

Coronado,  321 

Corozal,  dredge,  182,  356,  357,  358 

Corral,  Bachiller,  succeeds  Oviedo  as  governor  of 
Antigua,  30 

Correoso,  Buenaventura,  president  of  Panama,  82, 
83;  senator  from  Panama,  83;  deprived  of 
military  rank,  85 

Corrugated  Bar  Co.,  378 

Corse,  W.  B.,  468 

Cortes,  Hernando,  8,  97,  293;  conquers  Mexico, 
1 6,  96 

Cortes-Arosemena  Treaty,  505 

Cortes,  Fernando,  see  Cortes,  Hernando 

Cosa,  Juan  de  la,  10;  biography,  468;  accompanies 
Columbus,  5;  accompanies  Bastidas,  6;  pen- 
sion received  by,  6;  appointed  mayor  of 
Uraba,  7;  death,  n 

Costa  Rica,  8,  31,  37,  61,  100,  104,  198,  199;  first 
attempt  to  colonize,  37;  congress  held  at,  100 

Costs,  of  Panama  Canal,  156-159,  234,  235;  of 
French  property,  232;  of  Canal  Zone,  234; 
of  sanitation,  121,  206;  of  hospitals,  125;  of 
excavation,  Culebra  Cut,  140,  141,  156-159; 
of  locks,  150,  156-159;  of  removing  spoil, 
156-159;  of  concrete,  156-159;  of  Panama 
Railroad,  91-95;  of  canal  under  the  French, 
103;  of  breakwaters,  178;  of  quarters,  131; 


of  supplies,  131;  of  meals,  168;  of  club  houses, 
169;  of  barracks,  173,  178;  of  transportation, 
Panama  Railroad,  198-199;  of  labor,  162,  163; 
of  food,  167;  of  administration  building,  177 

Council  meetings,  220 

Coxon,  Captain,  in  command  of  pirates,  60 

Coya,  314 

Craig,  James  G.,  biography,  468 

Crane  Co.,  394 

Cranes,  365-366 

Crassus,  Marcus  Licinius,  23 

Craven,  Lieut.  T.  A.,  101 

Crew-Levick  Co.,  398 

Cristobal,  181;  steamships  to,  93;  fire  and  tele- 
graph system,  404;  cold  storage  plant  at,  426; 
laundry  at,  43 1 

Crocker,  William  H.,  311 

Cromwell,  Oliver,  56;   demands  on  Spain,  69 

Cromwell,  William  Nelson,  no,  112,  196;  biog- 
raphy, 468;  counsel  of  New  Panama  Canal 
Co.,  106;  opposes  Nicaragua  project,  106; 
brings  about  appointment  of  new  canal  commis- 
sion, 1 06;  induces  Colombia  to  protest  against 
Nicaragua  route,  106;  obtains  charter  under 
American  laws,  106;  visits  Paris  to  arrange 
purchase,  106;  supports  Mark  Hanna,  108; 
plans  for  passage  of  act  permitting  President 
to  purchase  New  Panama  Canal  Company's 
property,  108 

Crowley,  D.  E.,  468 

Cruces,  41,  86,  87;  Drake  attacks,  46;  revenue  of 
custom-house,  52;  fortifications  of ,  55 ;  Chagres 
River  made  navigable  to,  97 

Crusades,  diseases  spread  by,  245 

Cuba,  7,  11,  22,  122,  202,  251,  257,  270,  284,  313; 
Drake  sails  for,  48;  sugar  from,  288;  iron  ore 
shipped  from,  314 

Cucaracha,  180,  181;   slide,  144,  145,  182 

Cudahy  Packing  Co.,  430 

Cueto,  13 

Culebra  Cut,  94,  115,  117,  118,  128,  131,  140,  161, 
162,  178,  180,  206;  slides,  144,  158,  179;  work 
of  Gaillard  on,  158;  force  increased,  191;  ex- 
cavation of,  193 

Cullen,  Dr.  Edgar,  recommends  route  for  canal,  100 

Cullinan,  J.  S.,  310 

Gumming,  Joseph  M.,  311 

Cummings,  E.  E.,  468 

Curac,  ship,  314 

Curl,  Holton  C,  468 

Curtis  Bay,  317 

Gushing,  Caleb,  biography,  468 

D 

Dabaiba,  Golden  Temple  of,  16,  23 

Daldorch,  ship,  182 

Dalen  inventions,  403-404 

Damages,  239 

Dampier,  William,  60;    biography,  468;    A    New 

Voyage  Around  the  World,  61 
Dams,  146-149;   see  also  Gatun  Dam;   Wachusetts 

Dam 
Daniels,  Josephus,  letter  to  Capt.  Philip  Andrews, 

267 
Darien,  5,  16,  57,  75,  97;   peaceful  condition  of,  18; 

white  man  excluded  from,  30;    gold  from,  52; 


INDEX 


527 


transferred   to  New  Granada,  53;    conditions 

at,  74 

Darien,  Gulf  of,  6,  10,  12,  13,  98 
Darien,  Isthmus  of,  64 
Darien  Colony,  failure  of,  97,  98 
Darien  Indians,  59;   subjugated  by  Balboa,  17 
Darien  scheme,  63 
Darling,  Samuel  T.,  biography,  468 
Dauchy,  Walter  E.,  468 
Dauphine,  ship,  44 
David,  City  of,  31 
David  Lupton's  Sons  Co.,  415 
Davila,    Gil   Gonzales,    biography,    472;     converts 

Indians,   31;     discovers   Lake    Nicaragua,    31; 

undertakes  to  discover  Spice  Islands,  31;    goes 

to    Mexico,    32;     defeats    intruders    sent    by 

Pedrarias,  32;   death,  32 
Davis,  Arthur  P.,  149 
Davis,  Carleton  E.,  468;    charge  of  water-supply 

department,  189 
Davis,  Gen.  George  W.  127,  423;   biography,  468- 

469;    becomes  governor  Canal  Zone,  122,  127, 

196,  197;   creates  sanitary  department,  127 
Davis,  Capt.  John,  commands  buccaneers,  61 
Declaration  of  Independence,  318 
Decks,  W.  E.,  biography,  469 
Defense,  see  Fortification 

De  Lesseps,  Ferdinand,  see  Lesseps,  Ferdinand  de 
De  Lesseps,  tug-boat,  349 
Demaquiel  River,  98 
Democratic  platform,  242 
Denmark,  78 

Denys,  John,  explorer  of  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  44 
Department  of  State,  277 
Deportation,  power  given  to  Goethals,  139 
Derrick,  C,  469 
Desaguadero  River,  52 
Deshon,  George  D.,  biography,  469 
Designers  of  canal,  216-217 
Destruction  of  the  Indies,  by  Las  Casas,  38 
Detroit  Lubricating  Co.,  400 
Detroit  Steel  Casting  Co.,  386 
Devoe,  F.  W.,  &  C.  T.  Raynolds  Co.,  417 
Devol,  Carroll  A.,  biography,  469 
Dewey,  Admiral  George,  letter  to  Ira  E.  Bennett, 

255 

Dewey,  dry  dock,  349 
Diaz,  Juan  Jose,  president  of  Panama,  82 
Diaz,  Manuel,  79;    elected  provisional  governor  of 

Panama,  80 

Diaz,  Pedro  A.,  biography,  469 
Diaz  del  Castillo,  Bernal,  21,  22 
Dickinson,  Jacob  McGavock,  biography,  469 
Dickson,  Tracy  Campbell,  biography,  469 
Diego,  see  Colon,  Diego 
Dieppe,  expedition  to  America  from,  44 
Dimensions,  see  Size 
Dingier,  M.,  195,  196 
Diocletian,  Emperor,  II 
Disbursement  office,  215 
Disease,  244-245,  247;    see  also  Bubonic  plague; 

Cholera;   Smallpox;   Yellow  fever 
Dismukes,  Douglas  E.,  biography,  469 
Distance,  saved  by  canal,  248;   between  ports,  249 
District  of  Columbia,  1 14 
Dites,  ruler  of  Pearl  Islands,  24 
Dixie,  ship,  196 


D.  O.  A.  Terminals,  407 

D'Olier,  William  Livingston,  biography,  469 

D'Olier  Engineering  Co.,  367 
Dolphin,  ship,  202 

Dominican  Republic,  first  land  settled  by  Europeans, 
293;  map  of,  294;  productions,  295 

Donahue,  John  V.,  biography,  469 

Donnelly,  E.  A.,  180 

Doying,  William  Albert  Edward,  biography,  469-470 

Drake,  Charles,  45 

Drake,  E.  A.,  letter  from,  400-401 

Drake,  Sir  Francis,  55;  biography,  49-50,  470; 
assists  in  slave  trade,  44;  sails  for  Darien  and 
Cartagena,  45;  captures  Nombre  de  Dios; 
expeditions  under,  45-47,  48-50;  attacks 
Cruces,  46;  first  Englishman  to  see  Pacific 
Ocean,  46;  captures  treasures  at  Nombre  de 
Dios,  47;  returns  to  Plymouth,  47;  expedition 
to  the  Pacific,  47 ;  expedition  to  Spanish  West- 
ern colonies,  48;  plans  to  capture  Nombre  de 
Dios,  48;  plans  to  sack  Panama,  48;  return 
to  Plymouth,  48;  knighted  by  Queen  Elizabeth, 
48;  sacks  Santo  Domingo,  48;  sails  into  harbor 
of  Cadiz,  48;  sails  for  Roanoke,  48;  sails  for 
Florida,  48;  takes  possession  of  California,  48; 
Spanish  town  destroyed  by,  49 

Drake,  John,  45 

Dredges,  182,  362-363 

Drills,  diamond,  330-331;  percussion,  332-334; 
rock,  329-341;  sub-marine,  336-338 

Drummond,  Capt.  Thomas,  66 

Du  Bois,  James  T.,  Minister  to  Colombia,  113 

Ducker  Co.,  412 

Dugan  &  Hudson  Co.,  431 

Dumfriesshire,  63 

Dumping  sites,  133 

Dunedin,  305 

Dunn,  D.  C.,  309 

Duquesne,  Pierre,  318 

Durkee,  Rodney  S.,  311 

Duncan,  W.  M.,  427 

Du  Pont  de  Nemours  Powder  Co.,  344,  345,  346 

Du  Pont  Repauno  plant,  344 

Duran,  F.  Mutis,  470 

Durham,  H.  W.,  470 

Dutch  Harbor,  281 

Dutch  Zee-roovers,  44 

Dutrow,  Howard  V.,  biography,  470 

Dynamite,  quantity  used,  142 


Eagle  Screw  Co.,  427 

Earle  Gear  &  Machine  Co.,  384 

Earn-Line  Steamship  Co.,  313-314 

Earnshaw,  Alfred,  313 

Earnshaw,  George  Edward,  314;    biography,  470 

Eason,  J.  J.,  470 

East  India  Company,  64,  65 

Eastwick,  P.  G.,  301 

Eaton,  Captain,  buccaneer,  6 1 

Economics,  273 

Ecuador,  76,  78,  314 

Edgar  Allen  American  Manganese  Steel  Co.,  385 

Edinburgh,  65 

Education,  vocational,  275,  276 

Edwards,  Clarence  R.,  biography,  470 


528 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA  CANAL 


Egyptian  pyramids,  330 

Ehle,  Boyd,  470 

Ehrman  &  Co.,  301 

Eiffel,  M.,  103 

Eight-hour  law,  132 

Einstein,  James  H.,  biography,  470 

El  Dorado,  65 

El  Draque,  45,  48 

Electricity  in  construction  and  operation  of  canal, 

323-329 

Elizabeth,  Queen,  49 
Ellicott  Machine  Co.,  362 
Elliott,  Howard,  316 
Elliott,  Malcolm,  470 
Elliott-Fisher  Co.,  411 
El  Retrete,  6,  8,  96 
Emancipation  proclamation,  227 
Embree,  C.  J.f  470 

Empire,  217;   fire  and  telegraph  system,  404 
Empire,  tug-boat,  349 
Encinasola,  Pedro  de,  36 

Enciso,  Martin  Fernandez  de,  10,  II,  12;  biog- 
graphy,  470;  appointed  mayor  of  Nueva 
Andalucia,  12;  deposed,  13;  establishes 
Antigua,  13;  goes  to  Spain,  15;  reports  to 
Spanish  king,  17;  denounces  Balboa  and 
Zamudio,  19;  accusations  by  Balboa  against,  27 
Endicott,  Rear -Admiral  Mordecai  T.,  128,  203; 

biography,  470;   opposes  sea-level  canal,  132 
Engineering  Department,  aids  Gorgas,  212;  organi- 
zation of,  215. 

Engineers,  International  Board  of,  218 
England,  43,  58,  59,  60,  182,  256,  310;  expeditions 
from,  43;  commerce,  44,  49,  71;  right  to 
supply  slaves  to  colonies,  52;  antagonism 
against  Spain,  69;  treaty  with  Spain,  67,  70, 
72;  petition  of  merchants  to  parliaments,  70; 
public  opinion  in  1738,  70;  demands  on  Spain, 
72;  Spanish  treasure  brought  to,  73 ;  expedition 
to  abolish  Spanish  rule  on  isthmus  of  Panama, 
76;  alliance  with  Japan,  269;  capital  invested 
abroad,  275 

English  Channel,  247,  258 
Epidemics,  see  Disease 
Episcopal  See,  transferred  to  Panama,  30 
Equipment,  received  from  French  Company,  212, 
322,  323;  Belgium,  322;  construction,  365-371 ; 
boilers,  366-368;  miscellaneous,  393-394;  office, 
410-411;   marine,    418-419;    payroll,  421-422; 
commissary,     425-428;      list    of    firms,     etc., 
supplying,  436-460 
Erie,  Lake,  315 

Erie  Railroad,  314,  315,  316;  charter,  315 
Ernst,  Gen.  Oswald  H.,  128,  193,  194,  203;    biog- 
raphy, 470 
Escoria,  24 

Esparza,  sacked  and  burned,  60 
Espinosa,    Caspar    de,    20,    29;     biography,    470; 
crosses  isthmus  to  Panama,  25;   attacks  Paris, 
125;    raids   territory  of  Chiru  and  Nata,  25; 
sentences    Balboa    to    death,    27;     secures    a 
quantity  of  maize,  29;   founds  colony  of  Nata, 
31;   defeated  by  Urraca,  31 
Esquemelin,  51 

Esquivel,  Juan  de,  governor  of  Jamaica,  n 
Estero  Real,  100 
Estete,  Martin,  explores  San  Juan  River,  33,  97 


Europe,  247,  248,  256,  260,  266;    beet  sugar  from, 

288;    colonies  of,  269;    war  in,  272,  276,  277, 

302,  310 

Everett,  F.  M.,  355 
Evora,  battle  of,  69 
Excavated  matter,  see  Spoil 
Excelsior  Tool  and  Machine  Co.,  383 
Executive  order,  creating  permanent  organization 

for  Panama  Canal,  516-517 
Expeditions,  see  names  of  countries  and  personal 

names 
Explosives,  342-347 

F 

Fabrega,   Jose   de,    organizes   new   government   of 

Panama,  77 

Fairbanks,  Charles  Warren,  biography,  470-471 
Fairbanks,  Morse  &  Co.,  394 
Fairmont  Hotel,  321 
Fall  River,  317 
Falmarc,    Captain,    surveys    Isthmus    of    Panama, 

86,98 

Faucett,  N.  S.,  471 
Faure,  Ad.,  471 
Fearon,  F.  B.,  301 
Federal  Reserve  Act,  274 

Ferdinand  VII.,  king  of  Spain,  10,  17,  77;   letter  of 
Columbus  to,  8;    receives  pearls  from  Balboa, 
18;     listens     to    stories   against    Balboa,    19; 
regrets  treatment  of  Balboa,  21;  death,  28 
Ferdinand  and  Juana,  18 

Fernandez  de  Oviedo  y  Valdes,  Gonzalo,  20,  27,  293; 
complaints  against  Balboa,  26;  reports  adverse 
to   Pedrarias,   28;    left   by   Pedrarias  to  rule 
Antigua,   30;    reforms  Antigua,   30;    deposed 
by  Pedrarias,    30;    accompanies  Diego   Colon 
to    Seville,   32;    complains    of    Pedrarias    32; 
sails  for  Cuba,  32;  sails  to  Hispaniola,  32 
Fernandino,  202 
Feuille,  Frank,  biography,  471 
Fields,  J.  B.,  471 
Fiji  Islands,  248 

Fillmore,  Millard,  President,  100 
Filos,  Dr.  Francisco,  300;   biography,  471 
Fine  Arts  Commission,  238 
Finley,  George  I.,  471 
Fire  alarm  and  signal  systems,  404-406 
Flamenco  Island,  172 
Flanders,  64 
Flint,  A.  L.,  471 
Florida,   96,   202,   318;     Huguenots   settle   in,   44; 

Drake  sails  for,  48;  ports,  306 
Florida  East  Coast  Railroad,  374,  378 
Flynn,  J.  H.,  biography,  471 
Foard,  Joseph  R.,  313 
Fogs,  navigation  suspended  by,  281,  282 
Fonseca,  Chiriqui,  54;   founded  by  Hurtado,  31 
Fonseca,  Gulf  of,  31,  53,  54,  99,  100 
Food  supplies,  206,  207,  214, 
Footwear,  431-433 
Forbes,  S.  G.,  biography,  471 
Foreign-built  ships,  act  to  provide  for  admission 

of,  515 

Foreign  shipping,  243 
Forsyth,  J.,  301 
Fortifications,  243 
Fortifications,  Portland  cement  used  in,  374 


INDEX 


529 


Forts,  see  names 

Foster,  A.  W.,  311 

Foster,  M.  E.,  309 

France,  78,  297,  310;   expedition  to  Brazil  from,  44; 

navy  strength,  269;    foreign  commerce,  273 
Franciscan  friars,  20 
Franco-Prussian  War,  100 
Frank,  L.  F.,  &  Co.,  430 
Frederick,  E.  P.,  351,  352 
Freeman,  F.  C.,  biography,  471 
Freeman,  John  R.,  149 
Freight  rates,  see  Toll  rates 
French,  H.  F.,  471 

French  Panama  Canal  Company,  193,  194,  226,  250 
French  pirates,  44 
Fuel,  see  Pocahontas  coal 
Fulvia,  17 
Fumigation,  246 
Fyffe,  James  Perry,  biography,  471 


Gaillard,  David  Du  Bose,  biography,  471;  com- 
missioner, 134;  work  on  Culebra  Cut,  158 

Galena,  ship,  85 

Galindo,  Vicente  Olarte,  president  of  Panama,  82; 
death,  82 

Gallego,  ship,  8 

Galvao,  Antonio,  Portuguese  navigator,  97;  pro- 
poses routes  for  canal,  97 

Galveston,  180,  378 

Gama,  Antonio  de  la,  governor  of  Castilla  del  Oro, 
35,  97;  makes  Chagres  River  navigable,  97 

Gamboa,  Ramon,  79 

Gamboa,  94,  179;  cable  connection  established  with 
White  House,  180 

Gamboa,  dredge,  182 

Gamboa  Dam,  193 

Gamboa  dike,  blowing  up  of,  180 

Gamewell  Fire  Alarm  Telegraph  Co.,  404,  405 

Ganges  River,  245 

Garavito,  Andres,  37;  plans  ruin  of  Balboa,  26 

Garcia,  Luis,  commissioned  to  subdue  French 
filibusters,  62 ;  traitor  to  Spain,  62 ;  death  of,  62 

Garcia  de  Hermosillo,  Juan,  report  advocating  port 
in  Honduras,  54 

Garella,  Napoleon,  86,  471;  recommends  canal,  86; 
surveys  for  canal  route,  99 

Garlington,  Creswell,  biography,  471 

Garrison,  Lindley  Miller,  biography,  471;  secretary 
of  war,  181 

Gasca,  Pedro  de  la,  sent  to  Peru  to  quell  revolt,  40; 
gold  sent  to  Cruces,  41 

Gates,  movement  of,  151;   equipment  for,  379-385 

Gatun,  89,  114,  116,  154,  173,  179,  180,  217,  372; 
gates  of,  116;  spillway,  148,  158,  381,  384; 
concrete  work,  157;  emergency  dam  at,  382; 
hydroelectric  station,  384;  concrete  works,  389; 
fire  and  telegraph  system,  404 

Gatun  Dam,  93,  94,  119,  161,  181,  192,  206;  ex- 
ploration, 193;  strength,  149;  machinery  and 
tools  for,  384 

Gatun  Lake,  94,  95,  147,  150,  180,  181 

Gatun  Locks,  372,  384;  concrete  in,  375-376 

Gatun,  tug-boat,  180,  349 

Cause,  Frank  A.,  biography,  471-472 

Geddes,  Albert  H.,  180 


General  Electric  Co.,  329 

General  Petroleum  Co.,  304 

Geographical  Sciences,  Congress  of,  102 

George  I.,  understanding  with  Charles  VI.,  69 

George  II.,  70,  417 

Gerig,  William,  217,  472 

Germany,  286,  297,  310,  315;    naval  strength,  269; 

foreign  commerce,  271,  272,  273,  277 
Gettysburg,  318 
Gibralta,  58 
Gibraltar,  Strait  of,  247 
Gibson,  Collins  P.,  472 
Gillespie,  D.  L.,  Co.,  416 
Gilmore,  Maurice  E.,  biography,  472 
Gisborne,  Lionel,  100 
Goethals,  George  R.,  biography,  472 
Goethals,  George  Washington,  118,  119,  169,  181; 
biography,  472;   chief  engineer  of  railroad,  93, 
94;   commends  sanitary  work  in  Panama,  123; 
chief  engineer  of  canal,  133;  continues  plans  of 
predecessor,   133;    investigates  type  of  canal, 
136;     begins    excavation    work,    136;     directs 
details,  137;   adjusts  grievances,  138;   controls 
labor  strikes,  162,  163,  164;  appointed  governor 
of  Panama  canal,  181,  185;    promotion,   186; 
institutes  cost-keeping  system,  156-159;  praised 
by   Shonts,   208,   209;    work  commended   by 
Stevens,  223;   construction  of  canal,  254 
Goitia,  Pedro,  president  of  Panama,  81 
Gold  Hill,  94,  142 
Gold  Medal  Camp  Furniture  Manufacturing  Co., 

416 

Golden-Anderson  Valve  Specialty  Co.,  392 
Golden  Castile,  see  Castilla  del  Oro 
Golden  Gate,  281,  282,  310 
Golden  Hind,  ship,  48 
Golden  Island,  59,  65 
Golden  Temple  of  Dabaiba,  16,  23 
Goldmark,  Henry,  biography,  472 
Goldschmidt  Thermit  process,  407 
Gomez,  Estevan,  96 
Gonima,  General,  83,  84,  85 
Gonzales,  see  Davila 

Good  Hope,  Cape,  48,  248;  trade  route,  249 
Goodrich,  Admiral,  196 
Goodwin  Car  Co.,  362 
Goolsby,  E.  M.,  472 

Gorgas,    Col.    William'  Crawford,    122,    189,    195; 
biography,  472;  experiments  with  yellow  fever, 
122;  acting  governor  Canal  Zone,  122;   master 
of  tropical  sanitation,   122,  123;    drafts  plans 
for  sanitation,   127;    commissioner,   135;    pro- 
motion, 1 86;   services  as  sanitation  officer,  203; 
sanitation    work   praised    by    Roosevelt,    205; 
triumph  of  science  over  disease  due  to,  206; 
director  of  Sanitary  Department,  212 
Gorgona,  217;  fire  and  telegraph  system  404 
Gorham  Manufacturing  Co.,  427 
Gourgues,  Captain  de,  44 
Governor  of  the  canal,  duties,  239 
Grace,  W.  R.,  &  Co.,  314 
Gracias  A  Dios,  Cape,  8,  10,  33,  53,  62 
Granada,  37,  40,  61 
Grant,  Ulysses  S.,  President,  101,  174 
Great  Britain,  78,  174,  256,  259,  300;   plans  attack 
on  Nicaragua,  98;  foreign  commerce,  271,  272, 
273;    objects  to  certain  treaties,  100;    treaties 


530 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


with    the    United    States,    490-494;     see   also 

England 

Great  Northern  Railway,  203 
Greek  labor,  206 
Green,  H.  T.  S.,  301 

Greene,  Civil  Service  Commissioner,  199 
Greenlee  Bros.  &  Co.,  408 
Greenslade,  George  A.,  472 
Grey,  Sir  Edward,  242 
Greytown,  101,  104 
Grogniet,  Captain,  61,  62 
Grove,  William  R.,  472 

Grunsky,  Carl  Ewald,  127;   biography,  472-473 
Gruver,  Dr.  F.,  473 
Guam,  257,  258,  270 
Guanaja,  7,  8 
Guanaja  Islands,  96 
Guanin,  trade  in,  5 
Guantanamo,  202,  258,  263;    importance  of,  261, 

270;  necessity  of  naval  base  at,  261 
Guardia,  Aurelio,  biography,  473 
Guardia,  Santiago  de  la,  79;  death  of,  80 
Guarocuya,  Indian  chief,  294 
Guatemala,  31,  38,  53 
Guayaquil,  248 

Gudger,  Hezekiah  Alexander,  biography,  473 
Guerra,    Cristobal,    member    of    expedition    under 

Nino,  5;   second  voyage,  6 
Guerrero,  Gonzalo,  16 
Guimba,  8 

Gulf,  Beaumont,  and  Texas  Railway,  309 
Guns,  172 

Guthrie,  M.  C.,  473 
Gutierrez,  Diego,  37 
Gutierrez,  Felipe,  36 
Guzman,  Capt.  Antonio  Tello  de,  detailed  to  erect 

line  of  forts,  23,  29;   discovered  original  village 

of  Panama,  29 
•  Guzman,  Hernando  Mejia  de,  39,  40 

H 

Haakon  VII,  ship,  415 

Hagan,  James  Monroe,  biography,  473 

Hagerstown,  Md.,  318 

Hahl,  C.  W.,  309 

Haines,  A.  L.,  biography,  473 

Hains,  Gen.  Peter  C.,  128,  193,  194,  203;  biography, 

473 

Hale,  Eugene,  Senator,  202 

Hale,  R.  B.,  311 

Halifax,  291 

Hamburg,  63 

Hamburg-American  Steamship  line,  273 

Hamilton,  Alexander,  establishment  of  New  Edin- 
burgh, 66 

Hammer,  J.,  biography,  473 

Hammock,  derivation  of,  417 

Hammond,  John  Hays,  biography,  473;  Our 
Foreign  Commerce,  271-277 

Hampstead  Water  Co.,  63 

Hanna,  Marcus  A.,  Senator,  115;  biography,  473; 
supports  Panama  route,  108 

Harding,  Chester,  biography,  473 

Harmon,  Daniel  W.,  biography,  473 

Harper,  A.  C.,  473 

Harpers  Ferry,  318 


Harriman,  E.  H.,  203 

Harris,  William  B.,  biography,  473 

Harris,  William  B.,  Co.,  427 

Harris  County  Navigation  District,  307 

Harrod,  Benjamin  Morgan,  127,  128,  203;  biog- 
graphy,  473;  removed  from  Isthmian  Canal 
Commission,  193 

Hartigan,  Fred  L.,  473 

Hatillo,  82 

Haupt,  Lewis  Muhlenberg,  108;  biography,  473-474 

Havana,  76,  122,  313;  settlements  burned  in,  44 

Havre  de  Grace,  317 

Hawaii,  181,  248,  270;  tidal  variation,  281;  vol- 
canoes, 283;  description,  284,  285;  immigra- 
tion, tourist  resort,  285;  sugar  industry,  285- 
290;  annexation,  reciprocity  treaty,  286; 
effect  of  tariff  on  sugar,  287-290;  concrete 
job  in,  378;  conditions,  383 

Hawaiian  Islands,  257,  285 

Hawkins,  Sir  John,  biography,  474;  slave  trade,  44- 
45;  helps  defeat  the  Invincible  Armada,  45; 
death,  49 

Hay,  John,  109,  no;  biography,  474;  treaty 
negotiations,  104 

Hay-Bunau-Varilla  Treaty,  1 12,  113,  227,  235,  300, 
501-505 

Hay-Concha  agreement,  109,  494-495 

Hay-Herran  Treaty,  no,  in,  227,  228,  495-501 

Hay-Pauncefote  Treaty,  226,  227,  232,  233,  238, 
242,  256,  261,  264,  491-494;  ratification,  105, 
107;  ambiguous  language,  174 

Hayes,  H.  S.,  180 

Hazard  Manufacturing  Co.,  353 

Hazen,  Allen,  149 

Health,  International,  246-247 

Hebard,  R.  W.,  474 

Hecker,  Frank  Joseph,  127;   biography,  474 

Helena,  Mont.,  dam  at,  378 

Heller,  Charles  W.,  397;   biography,  474 

Heller  &  Brightly,  397 

Hellman,  I.  W.,  Jr.,  311 

Helmer,  J.  H.,  474 

Henderson,  Peter  &  Co.,  418 

Henry  VII.,  43 

Henry  VIII.,  44 

Hepburn,  William  Peters,  232,  241 ;  biography,  474; 
favors  Nicaragua  route,  106 

Hepburn  bill,  107 

Heredia,  Pedro  de,  founds  city  of  Cartagena,  35 

Heroine,  ship,  84 

Herran,  Tomas,  in 

Herrick,  Alfred  B.,  biography,  474 

Hill  Clutch  Co.,  379 

Hilo,  282 

Hindostan,  90 

Hinman,  H.  D.,  474 

Hinojosa,  Pedro  de,  invades  Panama,  39,  40 

Hise,  Elijah,  biography,  474 

Hispaniola,  6,  8,  9,  10,  II,  12,  13,  38;  Spaniards 
given  permission  to  settle  in,  5;  Drake's  ex- 
pedition to,  48 

Hitner's  Sons  Co.,  Henry  A.,  393 

Hitt,  Samuel  M.,  474 

Hodges,  Harry  Foote,  134;    biography,  474 

Hoffman,  George  M.,  biography,  474 

Hoge,  W.  V.,  Jr.,  381 

Hohlfeld,  Herman  L.,  biography,  474-475 


INDEX 


53i 


Hohlfeld  Manufacturing  Co.,  417 

Hohmann  &  Maurer  Manufacturing  Co.,  396 

Holcombe,  Gales,  217 

Holland,  king  proposes  project  for  canal,  98,  99 

Holmes,  Frank,  475 

Holt  &  Co.,  427 

Holy  Island,  7 

Home  Rubber  Co.,  393 

Honduras,  8,  31,  38,  54,  100 

Honduras,  Cape,  96 

Honduras,  Gulf  of,  96 

Hongkong,  248,  262 

Honolulu,  258,  263,278,  282,314;  iron  works,  283; 

temperature  records,  284,  285 
Hore,  Alejandro  de,  brings  fresh  forces  from  Spain, 

76;   death,  77 
Horn,  Cape,  52,  60,  291 
Hosier,  Rear-Admiral,  expedition  under,  70 
Hospitals,  205,  212 
Hotel  de  la  Plague,  320 
Hotel  del  Coronado,  321 
Hotel  del  Monte,  321 
Hotels  and  restaurants,  214,  319-321 
House  of  Commons,  declaration,  70 
Housing,  provisions  for,  131 
Houston,  Gen.  Samuel,  307 
Houston,   Tex.,  319;    foundation,   307;    railroads, 

308;  description,  309;   Chamber  of  Commerce, 

309 

Houston  Chronicle,  newspaper,  309 

Houston  First  National  Bank,  309 

Houston  Guarantee  Life  Insurance  Co.,  309 

Houston  Packing  Co.,  308 

Houston  Ship  Channel,  307,  308 

Howard,  Lord,  48 

Hubbard,  Captain,  rescues  Americans  in  Colon, 
229 ;  prevents  revolution,  229 

Hudson,  W.  I.,  180 

Hudson  River,  315 

Huff,  Fred  Leon,  biography,  475 

Hughes,  Charles  R.,  biography,  475 

Hughes,  Col.  George  W.,  survey  under,  88 

Huguenot  colony,  attempt  to  settle  in  South  Caro- 
lina, 44;  settles  in  Florida,  44 

Hulse  Bros.  &  Daniel  Co.,  434 

Humble  Oil  Co.,  310 

Humboldt,  Baron  Friedrich  H.  A.  von,  98 

Humphreys,  Andrew  Atkinson,  biography,  475 

Hurtado,  Bartolome,  22 

Hurtado,  Benito,  founds  Alanje,  31 ;  founds  Fonseca, 

31 
Hurtado  de  Mendoza,  Andres,  Marques  de  Canete, 

raises  troops  against  Cimarrones,  53 
Hutcheson,  J.  C.,  309 
Hutchinson  Bros.,  427 
Hydrex  Felt  &  Engine  Co.,  418 

I 

Ibanez,  General  Wenceslao,  commands  Colombian 

troops,  83 

Ice  &  Cold  Machine  Co.,  426 
Illinois,  315,  318,  319 
Illinois  Central  Railroad,  195,  203 
India,  314;  home  of  cholera,  245 
Indian  Ocean,  96 
Indian  slaves,  property  of  Ojeda,  5 


Indiana,  315,  318,  319 

Indians,  62,  66,  67;  attack  on,  n;  attack  Nicuesa's 
men,  14;  treatment  by  Ayora,  22;  become 
aggressors,  23;  Balboa's  dealings  with,  27; 
conversion,  31;  massacre  of,  37;  slavery  abol- 
ished, 38,  294;  occupations  and  customs,  61 

Indies,  council  of,  28 

Indies,  Destruction  of  the,  by  Las  Casas,  38 

Industrial  roll  of  honor,  436-460 

Industries,  essentials  of  efficiency,  275 

Inquisition,  69 

Interborough  Rapid  Transit  Co.,  203 

Inter-Island  Steam  Navigation  Co.,  282,  283 

Interlaken  Mills,  411 

International  Banking  Corporation,  300 

International  Canal  Company,  loo 

International  Engineering  Works,  368 

International  Scientific  Congress,  102 

International  Steam  Pump  Co.,  364 

Interoceanic  Canal  Company,  101 

Interoceanic  communications,  treaties  relating  to, 
489-495 

Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  302, 314;  powers, 
239,  240-241 

Invincible  Armada,  45,  48 

Iquique,  249 

Ireland,  90 

Iron  castings,  385 

Isabela  (city),  294 

Isabella,  Queen  of  Spain,  5,  8 

Isla  Santa,  La,  7 

Island  of  Grace,  7 

Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  127,  189,  192,  234, 
237i  252;  discontinued,  128;  chairmanship, 
executive  committee,  193;  Harrod  removed 
from,  193;  civil  service  rules  imposed  upon,  199 

Isthmus  of  Panama,  see  Panama,  Isthmus 

Italy,  286,  310 

Italian  labor,  162,  206 


Jackson,  Andrew,  President,  86,  99 

Jackson,  William  H.,  biography,  475 

Jackson,  William  Kenneth,  Jr.,  biography,  475 

Jackson,  William  P.,  biography,  475 

Jacobson,  Benj.  L.,  475 

Jadwin,  Edgar,  biography,  475 

Jamaica,  7,  9,  12,  57,  58,  59,  66,  67;  captured  by  the 
British,  56,  69;  orders  to  governors  of,  65; 
British  fleet  at,  72;  Spanish  colonies  establish 
trade  with,  75;  negroes  of,  161;  government, 
196;  Taft  visits,  196 

Jamancana,  16 

James  II.,  63 

Jamestown,  N.  Y.,  315 

Japan,  247,  256,  262,  268,  286,  300,  310,  314;  com- 
merce, 305;  alliance  with  England,  269; 
navy  strength,  269 

Japanese  mail  steamers,  281 

Jaragua  harbor,  6 

Java,  48;    sugar  from,  288 

Jenkins's  ears,  fable  of,  71 

Jenks,  Prof.  Jeremiah  W.,  273 

Jeronimite  Fathers,  27 

Jersey  City,  315 

Jerusalem,  245 


532 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA   CANAL 


Jervey,  James  Postell,  biography,  475 
Jewel,   Lindsey   Louin,  biography,  475 
Jewett,  H.  J.,  315 
John,  Don,  of  Austria,  69 
Johnson,  Ben.,  biography,  475 
Johnson,  Emory  Richard,  biography,  475 
Johnson,  George  R.,  416 
Johnson,  Lucius  F.,  biography,  475 
Johnson,  M.  O.,  475;  in  charge  of  Building  Depart- 
ment, 190,  195 

Johnston,    William  C,  biography,  475 
Joice,  J.  K.,  416 
Jones,  James  Ellwood,  401 
Jones,  Jenkin,  401 
Jones,  Jesse  H.,  309 
Jones  &  Laughlin  Steel  Co.,  388 
Jordan,  O.  F.,  Co.,  392 

Journal  d'un   Voyage,  by  Raveneau  de  Lussan,  62 
Juana  and  Carlos,  29 
Judith,  ship,  45 

Judson,    William  V.,  biography,  475~476 
Jurisdiction  over  canal,  241 
Jusserand,  Jules  J.,  French  ambassador,  139 

K 

Kagy,  Levi  M.,  476 

Kahanamoku,  Duke,  285 

Karner,  William  J.,  195,  197 

Keating,  E.  F.,  Co.,  392 

Keeler,  E.,  Co.,  368 

Keiffer  Bros.  Co.,  431 

Kendall,  J.  B.,  Co.,  388 

Kenny,  Admiral,  195 

Kentucky,  319 

Keokuk,  la.,  dam,  378 

Keystone  Lubricator  Co.,  400 

Kings  Highway,  see  Camino  Real. 

Kirby,  John  H.,  309 

Kirby  Lumber  Co.,  309 

Kittredge,  Alfred  Beard,  Senator,  199;  biogra- 
phy, 476 

Knapp,  Capt.  Harry  S.,  biography,  476;  The  Navy 
and  The  Panama  Canal,  255-265 

Knowland,  Joseph  Russell,  242 

Knox,   Philander  Chase,  no,  in;    biography,  476 

Kolb,  John  J.,  421 

Konig,  ship,  312 

Korea,  286 

Korea,  ship,  314 

Kyle,  Osceola,  476 


La  Aguja,  ship,  7 

La  Boca,  bubonic  plague  at,  207 

La  Boca,  tug-boat,  349 

Labor,   213;    eight-hour  law,  200;    common,  213; 

skilled,  213 

Labor  and  quarters  division,  214 
Labor  troubles,  219;  see  also  Chinese  labor;  Strikes 
Laborers,   secured,  131;    transportation  of,  197 
La  Cruz,  Capede,  1 1 
Ladrone  Islands,  6 1 

La  Gama,  Antonio  de,  see  Gama,  Antonio  de  la 
La  Garde,  Louis,  biography,  476 
La  Hacha,  49 
Lambert,  Juan  Manuel,  president  of  Panama,  84 


La  Mona  passage,  291 

Land  leases,  237 

Landa,  42 

Lane,  Jonathan,  309 

Lang,  A.  R.f  476 

Lansdowne,    Marquis  of,   biography,  476;    directs 

Great    Britain's  foreign  policy,  105 
La  Sound  Key,  61 
Latin  America,  276,  277 
La  Vela,  Cape  de,  5,  6,  10,  n 
La  Virgen,  100 
Law,  George,  87 
Lawrence  Scientific  School,  316 
Laws,  relating  to  the  Panama  Canal,  507-517 
Lazaretto,  245 
Ledesema,  Pedro,  pilot,  96 
Lefevre,    Ernesto  Tisdel,  300;    biography,  476 
Lefevre,  Jose  Edgar,  biography,  476 
Legislation,    230-243;    constructive,  273,  274 
Lehmann,   Isaac,  433 
Leith,  Scotland,  65 
Leitz,  Ernest,  firm  of,  397 
Leon,  Vives,  president  of  Panama,  84 
Leon,  Spain,  18;   followers  of  Pedrarias  in,  33 
Lepe,  Diego  de,  expedition  under,  6 
Lepinay,  Godin  de,  objection  to  sea -level  canal,  148 
Le  Prince,   Joseph  A.,  biography,  476 
Leprosy,  245,  247 

Leschen,  A.,  &  Sons  Rope  Co.,  350 

Lesseps,  Ferdinand  de,  101,  148,  212,  250;  biogra- 
phy, 469;  enters  on  work  of  canal,  102;  decides 
on  route  from  Colon  to  Panama,  102;  charges 
against,  103;  failure  to  build  canal,  103,  322 

Lewis,  Samuel,  300;   biography,  476 

Lighting,  methods  of,  403-404 

Lima,  38,  47 

Limon  Bay,  9,  88,  89,  99,  101;  canal  to  Boca  del 
Monte  Bay,  86 

Lincoln,  Abraham,  President,  226;  Emancipation 
proclamation,  227 

Lincoln,  port,  305 

Liot,  W.  B.,  87 

Lipez,  296 

Little,  Joseph,  476 

Liverpool,  248,  291 

Lloyd,  J.  A.,  98,  476;  surveys  Isthmus  of  Panama,  86 

Lock  canal,  favored  by  Stevens,  218;  provided  for, 
236;  see  also  Panama  Canal 

Lock  floors,  channeling  of,  341-342 

Locks,  protection  of,  153;  electrical  operation,  326- 

329 

Locust  Point,  317 
Lojas  River,  100 
L'Olonnois,   Francois,  biography,  476;    buccaneer, 

56;   death,  57 
London,  63,  305 

Loomis,  Francis  Butler,  biography,  476,  477 
Lopez,  Jose  Elias,  Governor  of  Tierra  Firme,  76 
Lord  &  Taylor,  434 
Los  Angeles,  307,  314;   harbor,  306 
Louis  Philippe,  king  of  France,  99 
Louisiana,  cane  sugar  produced  in,  288 
Louisville,  319 
Loulan,   J.  A.,  biography,  477;    charge  of  Ancon 

quarry,  161 
Lovell,  Capt.  John,  44 
Lubricating  oils,  397-400 


INDEX 


533 


Lucas,  John,  &  Co.,  417 

Ludowici-Celadon  Co.,  418 

Lumbermans  National  Bank,  309 

Lupton,  David  D.f  415 

Lupton,  Edward,  415 

Lussan,  Raveneau  de,  Journal  d'un  Voyage,  62 

Lynch,  Robert  Newton,  303 

Lyster,  Theodore  C.,  biography,  477 

M 

McAlpin  Hotel,  320 

MacArthur,  Arthur  Frederic,  biography,  477;  The 
Proposal  to  Complete  the  Canal  by  Contrac- 
tors' Groups,  250-254 

MacArthur -Gillespie  group  of  contractors,  251-254 

MacArthur  Brothers  Co.,  251 

Macbeth-Evans  Co.,  404 

McClintic-Marshall  Construction  Co.,  137,  380 

MacDonald,  Donald  Francis,  biography,  477 

MacDowall,  Capt.  Patrick,  67 

Macfarlane,  James,  biography,  477 

MacGregor,  Gregor,  76 

MacGregor,  H.  T.,  310 

Machine  shop  operations,  387 

Machinery,  oiling  of  the,  397-400 

Machinery  and  tools,  384-385 

Machuca,  Diego,  arrest  of,  37 

Mcllvaine,  Cloyd  A.,  biography,  477 

McKay,  Gordon,  432 

Mackenzie,  Gen.  Alexander,  134 

McKinley,  William,  President,  104,  105;  biography, 
477;  assassination  of,  107 

McLean,  John  H.,  477 

Macondray  &  Co.,  304 

Madeira,  65 

Madrid,  treaties  of,  59,  70,  73 

Maduro,  Henry  L.,  biography,  477 

Maduro,  Joshua  L.,  biography,  477 

Magdalena  River,  35 

Magellan,  Straits  of,  198,  248,  249,  255,  258,  262, 
291,  313,  419;  discovery,  96 

Magellan  trade  route,  248,  249,  263 

Magoon,  Charles  E.,  128,  203;  biography,  477; 
supports  Gorgas,  122;  strict  orders  for  sani- 
tation, 123;  governor  of  Canal  Zone,  193 

Mahan,  Admiral,  265 

Mahana,  George  S.,  431 

Maine,  306 

Maine,  ship,  350 

Malarial  mosquito,  122,  189,  190 

Mallet,  Sir  Claude,  British  Consul,  196 

Maltby,  F.  B.,  216 

Managua,  Lake,  100 

Manchuria,  286 

Manchuria,  ship,  314 

Manhattan  Rubber  Co.,  393 

Manila,  248,  251,  258,  262,  314 

Mann,  C.  H.,  477 

Mann,  Isaac  T.,  401 

Mann,  James  R.,  241 

Mansvelt,  biography,  477;   buccaneer,  57 

Manzanillo,  motor  boat,  419 

Manzanillo  Island,  88 

Maracaibo,  58 

Maritime  Canal  Co.,  193,  194;  chartered  by  United 
States,  104;  organization  of,  104 


Mar  Dulce,  31 

Marengo,  294 

Mare  Island,  Navy  Yard,  261,  262,  269 

Margaret  of  Dundee,  ship,  67 

Margarita  Island,  116;  guns  mounted  at,  172,  173; 

forts  on,  174 

Marine  equipment,  418-419 
Mariner,  ship,  181,  349 
Markell,  J.  E.,  132 
Marks,  A.  A.,  425 
Marks,  David,  477 
Marmora,  9 
Marquez,  Diego,  20 

Marroquin,  Vice-President  of  Colombia,  in 
Martha   Washington  Hotel,  321 
Martinique  (Martinio),  7,  124 
Martinsburg,  318 
Maryland  Heights,  318 
Mason,  Charles  Field,  biography,  477 
Massachusetts,  283 
Mauna  Loa,  285 

Maxim,  Sir  Hiram  Stevens,  biography,  477-478; 
The  British  Empire  and  The  Panama  Canal, 
291-292 

May,  William  Howard,  biography,  478 

Mayabanez,  Indian  chief,  294 

Mears,  Frederick,  biography,  478 

Mediterranean  Sea,  247,  285,  312 

Melbourne,  305 

Mendoza,  Carlos  A.,  300;   biography,  478 

Menendez,  Pedro,  wipes  out  Huguenots,  44; 
governor  of  Porto  Bello,  56;  surrenders  to 
Capt.  William  Parker,  56 

Menocal,  Lieut.,  surveys  Nicaraguan  territory,  104 

Merchant  marine,  241,  263,  264,  274 

Metcalf,  E.  D.,  355 

Metcalf,  E.  F.,  355 

Metcalf,  H.  G.,  355 

Metcalfe,  Richard  L.,  biography,  478 

Meteorology  and  River  Hydraulics  Division,  216 

Mexican  Coast,  61,  280 

Mexico,  8,  16,  38,  53,  61,  87,  260,  300;  Cortes  sends 
troops  to,  32;  suffers  from  buccaneers,  62; 
treasures,  70;  moves  for  independence,  75; 
commerce,  276 

Mexico,  Gulf  of,  248,  307,  319 

Meyer,  Adolph,  202 

Meyer,  George  von  L.,  Secretary  of  Navy,  256 

Michler,  Lieut.  Nathaniel,  101 

Milla,  Manuel,  makes  survey  for  canal,  98 

Millard,  Joseph  Hopkins,  biography,  478 

Miller,  Jacob,  Sons  &  Co.,  433 

Miller,  R.  C.,  309 

Mindanao,  61 

Minion,  ship,  45,  46 

Minot,  Charles,  315 

Miraflores,  93,  157,  158,  372,  373;  locks,  117,  137, 
179,  180,  382,  384;  dams,  149;  concrete  work 
at,  389 

Miraflores  Lake,  117,  119;  spillway  gates  at,  381 

Miraflores,  tug-boat,  349 

Miro,  Gregorio,  president  of  Panama,  82 

Mississippi  River,  318 

Missouri  River,  87 

Mollendo,  297 

Moltke,  ship,  312 

Moluccas,  see  Spice  Islands 


534 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


Mongolia,  ship,  314 

Monniche,  T.  B.,  biography,  478 

Monocacy,  318 

Monotype  machine,  409 

Monroe  Doctrine,  256,  257,  261,  267,  269,  277 

Montalvo,  Francisco,  76 

Montbar,  Pierre  le  Grand,  buccaneer,  56 

Monterey,  306,  321 

Montoya,  M.,  85 

Montreal,  naming  of,  44 

Moore,  Charles  C.,  311 

Moore,  F.  H.,  478 

Moore,  J.  Hampton,  biography,  478;  Panama 
Canal  Legislation,  231-243 

Morales,  Eusebio  A.,  300;   biography,  478 

Morales,  Caspar  de,  expedition  to  Pacific  Coast,  24; 
wages  war  on  Dites,  24;  retakes  possession  of 
the  South  Sea,  24;  changes  name  of  island,  24; 
returns  to  Antigua,  24 

Moran  Towing  and  Transportation  Co.,  418 

Morant  Keys,  7 

Morazan,  Francisco,  president  Central  American 
Federation,  99 

Morden  Frog  &  Crossing  Works,  407 

Morgan,  Sir  Henry,  buccaneer,  51,  57,  72;  destroys 
castle  of  Triana,  57;  sold  as  a  slave,  57;  sack 
of  Panama  City,  58;  appointed  deputy 
governor  of  Jamaica,  59;  biography,  478 

Morgan,  J.  P.,  &  Co.,  113 

Morgan,  John  T.,  Senator,  biography,  478;  cham- 
pions Nicaragua,  106;  opposes  canal  commis- 
sioners' recommendations,  108;  opposes  Hay- 
Herran  Treaty,  in 

Morillo,  Pablo,  Mariscal  de  Campo,  commands 
Spain's  fleet,  76 

Morocco,  7 

Morris  Machine  Works,  363,  364 

Morris,  Philip,  &  Co.,  Ltd.,  421 

Morris,  R.  K.,  478 

Morse-Boulger  Destructor  Co.,  424 

Morton,  Paul,  202 

Mosaic  Tile  Co.,  384 

Moscow,  315 

Mosquera,  79 

Mosquito  Coast,  100 

Mosquitoes,  122,  123,  189,  245,  246;  see  also 
Malarial  Mosquito;  Yellow  Fever  Mosquito 

Motsett,  C.  H.,  478 

Mourgeon,  Juan  de  la  Cruz,  77 

Municipal  Engineering  Division,  216 

Munn,  W.  C.,  309 

Munoz,  Hernan,  death,  27 

Myers,  F.  E.,  &  Bro.,  423 

N 

Najallo,  294 
Naos  Island,  118,  172,  173;    breakwater,  143,  144, 

178 

Naples,  expedition  abandoned  by  Ferdinand,  20 
Napoleon,  Louis,  emperor  of  France,  99,  100,  294 
Narragansett  Bay,  306 
Nashville,  gunboat,  1 1 2,  229 
Nata,  24,  32,  41,75;  raided  by  Espinosa,  25;  colony 

founded  by  Espinosa,  31 
Natal,  247 

National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters,  406 
National  Cash  Register  Co.,  421 


National  City  Bank  of  New  York,  274 

National  Fire  Proofing  Co.,  412,  414 

National  Malleable  Castings  Co.,  389 

Natural  and  Moral  History  of  the  Indies,  by  Josephus 
Acosta,  1 20 

Naval  Academy,  384 

Naval  base,  see  Bremerton,  Mare  Island,  New  Or- 
leans, Pearl  Harbor,  Pensacola,  San  Francisco 
Bay 

Navy,  effect  of  Panama  Canal  on,  255-265 

Navy  Department,  261,  265 

Negroes,  imported  from  Portuguese  settlements,  52 ; 
Spanish  colonies  supplied  with,  52 

Neira,  Gabriel,  president  of  Panama,  82 

Nelson,  Horatio,  biography,  478;  arrives  at 
Panama,  98 

Nemacolin  Path,  318 

Neumeyer  &  Dimond,  419 

New  Albion,  see  California 

New  Andalusia,  10,  20 

New  Bedford,  317 

New  Edinburgh,  98;  colony  founded  and  deserted, 
65,  66,  67 

New  England,  316;  orders  to  the  governors  of,  65 

New  Granada  (Colombia),  53, 54,  75,  76,  78,  88,  89, 
98;  mails  from,  91;  treaty  with  the  United 
States,  87,  227,  489 

New  Haven,  203 

New  Haven  System,  The,  317 

New  Home  Sewing  Machine  Co.,  422 

New  Jersey,  305,  313,  315 

New  London,  317 

New  Orleans,  87,  93,  248,  249,  255,  311,  318;  naval 
station,  261;  port,  306 

New  Panama  Canal  Company,  91,  104,  126,  127; 
refuses  to  sell  property,  1 06;  desires  price 
fixed  by  arbitration  or  valuation,  107;  nego- 
tiates with  the  United  States,  107;  titles  de- 
fended by  Cromwell,  108;  investigation  of 
titles,  no;  transfer  of  property,  113 

New  Rice  Hotel,  309 

New  River  coal,  400,  401 

New  Spain,  see  Mexico 

New  Testament,  67 

New  Voyage  and  Description  of  the  Isthmns  of 
America,  by  Lionel  Wafer,  61 

New  Voyage  Around  the  World,  A,  by  William 
Dampier,  6 1 

New  World,  possibilities  of,  5 

New  York  (state),  66,  85,  92,  247,  248;  orders  to 
governor  of,  65;  legislature,  88 

New  York  (City),  197,  198,  255,  260,  262,  292,  315, 
317,  3*8,  319,  320;  steamships  from,  87,  93; 
Wallace  goes  to,  129;  traffic,  199;  canal 
shortens  distances  to,  268;  exports,  271; 
National  City  Bank,  274;  greatest  seaport, 
291;  canal  routes  to,  302;  transatlantic 
steamers  to,  313 

New  York  and  Erie  Railroad,  315 

New  York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  Lines,  316,  317 

New  York  Shipbuilding  Co.,  305 

New  Zealand,  291,  305;  commerce,  248 

Newfoundland,  44,  96 

Newport  News,  93,  314,  319 

Newport  News  Shipbuilding  and  Dry  Dock  Co.,  305 

Nicaragua,  8,  31,  38,  39,  260;  bishop  of,  35;  rebel- 
lion, 40;  efforts  to  interest  France  in  canal 


INDEX 


535 


route,  99;  proposed  treaty,  99,  100;  canal  bill 
passed  by  House,  106;  pressure  on  United 
States  for  canal  route,  in 

Nicaragua  Canal  route,  193,  226;  selected  by 
United  States,  104-105,  106;  Colombia  pro- 
tests, 106;  opposition  of  Cromwell,  106;  rec- 
ommended by  commission,  107;  cost,  194 

Nicaragua  Lake,  40,  98,  100,  101;  canal  proposed 
through,  97 

Nichols,  A.  B.,  478 

Nicholson,  Samuel  M.,  408 

Nicobar  Islands,  61 

Nicuesa,  Diego  de,  biography,  478-479;  governor  of 
Castilla  del  Oro,  10,  1 1 ;  invited  to  Antigua, 
13;  places  Olano  in  chains,  14;  driven  from 
Antigua,  14;  sails  to  Porto  Bello,  14;  garrison 
at  Norn  ore  de  Dios,  15;  accusations  of  Balboa 
against,  27 

Nile  River,  120 

Niles-Bement-Pond  Co.,  387 

Nina,  ship,  6 

Nino,  Andres,  attempt  to  discover  Spice  Islands, 
31;  searches  for  waterway,  96 

Nino,  Pedro  Alonso,  biography,  479;  accompanies 
Columbus,  5;  second  expedition  under,  5; 
reaches  South  American  coast,  5;  returns  to 
Spain,  5;  cast  into  prison,  5-6 

Nixon,  Courtland,  biography,  479 

Noble,  Alfred,  biography,  479 

Noble,  Robert  E.,  biography,  479 

Nollman  &  Co.,  430 

Nombre  de  Dios,  6,  7,  32,  33,  36,  38,  39,  46,  48 
52,  53,  86,  96,  97,  120,  154,  158;  founding,  14; 
terminus  of  trans-isthmian  trade,  29;  attacked 
and  captured  by  Drake,  45,  46-47,  48,  49; 
abandonment  recommended,  54;  route  from 
Panama  to,  54;  disappearance  of,  54;  settle- 
ment moved  to  Porto  Bello,  55 

Norfolk,  93,  314,  318 

Norfolk  &  Western  System,  318 

North  America,  51,  88,  266;  Cabots  sight  conti- 
nent, 43;  British  colonies,  72 

North  Atlantic  trade  route,  247 

North  Carolina,  319 

North  German  Lloyd  steamship  line,  273 

North  Sea,  41,  60 

Northern  Pacific  &  Great  Northern  system,  319 

Norway,  286 

Nueva  Andalucfa,  see  New  Andalusia 

Nuevo  Cartago,  37 

Nugent,  William  W.,  &  Co.,  400 

Nunez,  Rafael,  83 

Nutting,  Daniel  C.,  biography,  479 

Nye  Steam  Pump  &  Machinery  Co.,  365 

O 

Oahu,  Island  of,  283 

Obaldia,  Jose  Domingo  de,  79;  biography,  479 

Obarrio,  Nicanor  A.,  biography,  479 

Ocean  commerce,  changes,  249 

Ocean  trade  routes,  247 

Ogle,  Sir  Chaloner,  expedition  under,   70;    joined 

by  Vernon's  forces,  72 

O'Gorman,  James  A.,  Senator,  241 ;  biography,  479 
Ohio,  302,  315,  318,  319 
Oil,  366-367 


Ojeda,  Alonso  de,  44,  120,  293;  biography,  479; 
accompanies  Columbus,  5;  expedition  under,  5; 
first  to  sight  Panama,  5;  Indian  slaves  prop- 
erty of,  5;  returns  to  Spain,  5;  sails  from  Santa 
Maria,  5;  reaches  South  America,  5;  governor 
of  Nueva  Andalucfa,  10,  n;  founder  of  San 
Sebastian,  11;  placed  in  chains,  n;  kindness 
of  Esquivel  to,  12;  death,  12;  separates  from 
Nicuesa,  13 

Olano,  Lope  de,  13 

Oliver,  Jack,  78 

Oliver  Iron  &  Steel  Co.,  388 

Olympic,  ship,  118 

Open  Door  in  the  Far  East,  256 

Oram,  H.  P.,  479 

Oregon,  203;  boundary  dispute,  87;  mail  steam- 
ships from,  87 

Oregon,  ship,  105,  231 

Oregon  Railway  &  Navigation  Co.,  203 

Oregon  Society  of  Engineers,  204 

Orsted,  recommends  route  for  canal,  100 

Ortega,  Jerardo,  president  of  Panama,  83 

Ortega,  Juan  de,  pursues  Oxenham,  47 

Oruro,  296 

Osborne,  T.  M.,  355 

Osorio,  Diego  Alvarez,  first  bishop  of  Nicaragua,  35; 
precentor  of  Panama  cathedral,  35 

Otis  Elevator  Co.,  382 

Otoque,  60 

Ovando,  Don  Nicolas  de,  10,  37;  supersedes  Boba- 
dilla,  6 

Oviedo  y  Valdes,  Gonzalo  Fernandez  de,  see  Fer- 
nandez de  Oviedo  y  Valdes 

Owen,  Wesley  M.,  biography,  479 

Oxenham,  John,  46;  accompanies  Sir  Francis 
Drake,  45;  expedition  under,  47-48;  death  of, 
48 


Pacific  Coast,  17,  59,  87,  96,  97,  101,  260,  261,  263, 
264,  267,  276,  278,  291,  302,  303,  304,  305,  319; 
expedition  to,  24;  navy -yards  on,  269,  270; 
commerce,  302-306 

Pacific  Coast  States,  321 

Pacific  Mail  Steamship  Co.,  85,  280,  282,  314 

Pacific  Ocean,  61,  64,  96,  100,  114,  117,  118,  256, 
257,  267,  268,  276;  fogs,  281;  discovery  of, 
300 

Pacific  reserve  fleet,  270 

Pacific  slope,  locks  on,  193 

Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Co.,  91,  312,  313 

Pacific  trade  routes,  248 

Pain  Fireworks  Display  Co.,  420,  421 

Paish,  Sir  George,  273 

Palisades,  372 

Palmer,  Aaron  H.,  479 

Palos,  5,  6 

Pamiento,  Don  Juan,  67 

Pamplona,  53 

Panama  (Republic),  91,  196,  228,  298-301;  inde- 
pendence declared,  53,  220;  Audiencia  Real  y 
Chancelleria  established,  53;  treaties,  81; 
presidents,  81,  82,  83,  84;  troops  landed  in, 
82;  mail  steamships  to,  87;  United  States 
takes  possession  of  French  property,  126,  127; 
ship  channel,  127;  recognition  of,  225;  finan- 
cial stability,  298 ;  mountains,  298 ;  schools  and 


536 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA   CANAL 


industries,  298,  299;  National  Assembly,  299; 
Supreme  Court,  300;  president,  300;  factors 
in  business,  301;  tourist  travel,  311;  treaties 
with  the  United  States,  501-505;  see  also 
Tierra  Firme. 

Panama  (City),  88,  97,  101,  102,  103,  104,  123, 
*95»  I96i  26°;  original  fishing  village,  29; 
Pedrarias  founds  town,  29;  made  a  city,  30; 
expedition  from,  30;  Gasca  arrives  at,  41; 
plaza  at,  42;  Drake  plans  to  sack,  48;  loca- 
tion, 51;  population,  51;  growth  and  prosper- 
ity, 51;  decline  of,  51;  abandonment  recom- 
mended, 54;  sack  of,  58;  rebuilding  of,  59; 
shipment  of  gold  to,  60;  annual  fair,  71;  con- 
ditions at,  74;  insurrection  in,  84;  center  of 
trade,  86;  improvements,  131,  205;  street  pav- 
ing, 189;  society,  196,  197;  sanitation,  298 

Panama,  Gulf  of,  18,  299 

Panama,  Isthmus  of,  8,  9,  38,  57,  63,  98,  226,  250, 
304;  Ojeda  first  to  sight,  5;  discoverer  of,  6; 
Columbus  discovers  parts  of,  8;  significance  of 
name,  23;  forts  established  across,  25,  29; 
slave-mart  on,  33;  Royal  Audiencia  estab- 
lished, 35;  growth  of,  35;  Tomas  de  Berlanga, 
bishop  of,  35;  La  Merced  Convent  on,  35; 
Pizarro  tries  to  seize,  38,  39;  invasion  of,  39; 
peace  restored,  42;  governor  punishes  marau- 
ders, 47;  commerce,  51-52;  provinces  of,  53; 
Audiencia,  53;  route  to  Nombre  de  Dios,  54; 
blockade  of,  60;  governor  of,  62;  decision  to 
expel  Scotch  settlers,  65;  treasurer  of,  70; 
attacks  on,  72 ;  decline  of  cities  on,  74;  Darien, 
buffer  state  for,  74;  permanent  military  force 
established,  75;  England  seeks  to  abolish 
Spanish  rule,  76;  English  defeated  by  Spanish 
forces,  76;  constitution,  77;  granted  the  right 
of  suffrage,  77;  passes  from  dominion  of  Spain, 
77;  annexation  to  Colombia,  77,  80;  guard 
established,  78;  unfavorable  conditions  in,  78, 
79;  assumes  title  of  sovereign  state,  80;  dis- 
turbances in,  83;  survey  of,  86;  canal  com- 
pleted, 87;  explored  for  waterway,  96;  inde- 
pendence proclaimed,  112;  republic  recognized 
by  United  States,  112;  revolution  in,  112; 
death  rate  in,  121;  sanitation,  121-125;  sewer- 
age system,  189;  water  supply,  189;  civil-serv- 
ice rules,  199,  200;  building  on,  207;  revolu- 
tions, 227-229 

Panama  Banking  Co.,  301 

Panama  Bay,  names  of  forts  at,  60,  62,  91,  144,  174 

Panama  Canal,  91,  285,  291, 312;  laborers,  health  of, 
103;  extravagance  of  officials,  103-104;  con- 
struction of,  no;  transfer  to  United  States, 
113;  description,  114-120;  lock  and  sea -level 
types,  132;  gates,  150,  151,  152;  locks,  de- 
scription of,  150-155;  water  tunnels,  150,  151; 
labor  employed,  160-164;  laborers,  quartering 
and  feeding,  165-168;  defenses,  172-174;  ter- 
minal facilities,  175-178;  construction  of  piers, 
177;  operation  of,  179-182,  237;  first  vessel  to 
pass  through,  181;  Goethals,  first  governor  of, 
181,  185;  government,  181,  183-186,  237;  re- 
quirements for  chief  engineer,  187,  188;  yellow 
fever  prevents  work  on,  195;  organizers  of 
work  on,  203;  three  fundamental  problems,  205 ; 
acquisition  and  building  free  from  scandal,  225 ; 
payment  for,  235;  completion  and  opening  of, 


237,  243,  270,  316,  317;  a  sieve  to  sift  out  dis- 
ease, 246;  plan  of  contractors'  groups,  251; 
effect  on  navy,  255-265;  routes  shortened  and 
effect  on  trade,  255,  262,  264,  268,  276,  302, 
303,  304;  control  of,  256;  fuel  transportation, 
263;  neutrality,  269;  ship  subsidies,  274;  trans- 
portation, effect  on,  302,  303,  304;  laws  rela- 
tive to,  507-517;  toll  rates  proclamation,  515- 
516;  permanent  organization  for,  516-517 

Panama  Canal  Act,  237,  241,  314,  509-515 

Panama  Canal  Commission,  authority  changed,  160, 
161;  instructions  received  from  President 
Roosevelt,  188 

Panama  Canal  Company,  104;  see  also  New  Panama 
Canal  Company. 

Panama  Canal  route,  193;  commission  to  study, 
106;  adversely  reported,  107;  cost,  194;  econ- 
omy of,  263 

Panama  Cathedral,  35 

Panama-Pacific  International  Exposition,  243,  300, 

310.  3ii 

Panama  Railroad,  82,  95,  98,  102,  203,  214-215,  313; 
charter,  88,  127;  emigrants  transported,  89; 
completion  of,  90;  president,  90;  controlled  by 
United  States,  91;  dividends,  91;  loses  Cali- 
fornia trade,  91;  bought  by  United  States,  92; 
rates,  93,  198,  199;  improvement  of,  93-95; 
transfer  to  United  States,  113;  reorganization, 
128;  control  of,  197,  198;  vice-president,  198; 
essential  to  construction  of  canal,  204;  recon- 
struction, 207,  208;  superintendent,  215;  sub- 
mergence of  right  of  way,  408;  new  station, 
412 

Panama  steamship  line,  93,  419 

Panama  trade  route,  249 

Pan-American  Defensive  Alliance,  277 

Pan-American  Supreme  Court,  277 

Panamome,  24 

Panciaco,  son  of  Comagre,  16;  aids  Pocorosa,  23 

Paraiso,  94,  217 

Paraiso,  dredge,  182 

Paria,  Gulf  of,  6,  7 

Parizao  Pariba,  24 

Paris,  cacique,  29,  62;  attacks  Spaniards,  24;  es- 
capes Espinosa,  25 

Paris,  Congress  of  Geographical  Sciences,  held  at, 
1 02 

Parker,  Charles  Libermann,  biography,  479 

Parker,  Capt.  William,  trades  with  natives  of 
Darien,  44;  burns  Triana,  56;  sails  from  Ply- 
mouth, 56 

Parsons,  William  Barclay,  127,  188;  biography, 
479;  letter  to  J.  F.  Wallace,  187 

Pasamonte,  treasurer  at  Santo  Domingo,  15;  com- 
missions Balboa  captain-general  of  the  colony, 
17;  receives  embassy  from  Balboa,  17 

Pasco,  Samuel,  biography,  479 

Pasha,  ship,  45 

Paterson,  William,  biography,  479-480;  author  of 
the  Darien  scheme,  63;  goes  to  America,  63; 
founder  of  the  Bank  of  England,  64;  helps  to 
found  New  Edinburgh,  65;  member  of  Parlia- 
ment, 68;  rewarded  by  Queen  Anne,  68;  pro- 
poses construction  of  canal,  98,  100 

Pauncefote,  Sir  Julian,  105;  biography,  480 

Pay  roll  equipment,  421-422 

Payne,  Sereno  E.,  commends  Stevens'  work,  224 


INDEX 


537 


Pearl  Harbor,  270;   naval  base,  261,  262 

Pearl  Islands,  18,  24,  26,  27,  29,  39,  47,  60,  299; 
attacked  by  buccaneers,  62;  English  cruise 
along  coast,  44 

Pearls,  trade  in,  5 

Pedrarias  Davila,  see  Avila,  Pedro  Arias  de 

Pedro,  chief  of  Cimarrones,  46 

Pedro  Miguel,  94,  117,  119,  149,  157,  158,  173,  179, 
217,  372,  373;  locks,  1 80,  1 8 1,  216,  384;  emer- 
gency dam,  382;  concrete  works,  389 

Penberthy  Injector  Co.,  368 

Penn,  Admiral  William,  takes  Jamaica,  69;  English 
expedition  under,  294 

Pennsylvania,  315,  318 

Pennsylvania  Canal,  347 

Pennsylvania  Flexible  Metallic  Tubing  Co.,  393 

Pennsylvania  Railroad,  94 

Pennsylvania  Steel  Co.,  313,  391 

Pensacola,  naval  station,  261 

Pepperman,  W.  Leon,  203;  biography,  480 

Perez,  Benito,  viceroy  of  New  Granada,  76 

Perez,  Rodrigo,  26 

Perico  Island,  172 

Perkins  Hotel,  321 

Perry,  James  Clifford,  biography,  480 

Peru,  16,  19,  21,  30,  33,  35,  45,  54,  78,  291,  297, 
314;  riches  of,  18;  revolt  in,  39,  40;  Tierra 
Firme  under  viceroy  of,  53;  treasures,  70;  dep- 
redations on,  72 

Petroleum  products,  402 

Peynado,  Francisco  J.,  biography,  480;  The 
Dominican  Republic  and  the  Panama  Canal, 

293-295 

Pheasant,  Port,  45 

Philadelphia,  89,  255,  270,  314,  317,  319 

Philip  II.,  70;   forbids  construction  of  canal,  97 

Philip  III.,  97 

Philip  IV.,  51 

Philip  V.,  62 

Philippi,  318 

Philippine  Islands,  48,  51,  61,  125,  248,  257,  262, 
270,  300;  trade  with  Panama,  52;  concrete 
job  in,  378 

Phillips,  Capt.  John  L.,  419;  biography,  480 

Phinotas  Chemical  Co.,  423 

Pierce,  Claude  Connor,  biography,  480 

Pike,  Robert,  46 

Pines,  Isle  of,  45 

Pintsch  compressed  gas,  315 

Pinzon,  Martin  Alonso,  biography,  480 

Pinzon,  Vicente  Yanez,  96;  biography,  480;  expe- 
dition under,  6;  sails  from  Palos,  6;  crosses 
equator,  6;  reaches  coast  of  Brazil,  6;  returns 
to  Palos,  6 

Pisa,  Alonso  de,  brings  supplies  to  Costa  Rica,  37 

Pittsburgh  Forge  and  Iron  Co.,  392 

Pittsburgh  Steel  Co.,  388 

Pizarro,  Francisco  de,  293;  biography,  480;  con- 
quers Peru,  10,  II ;  leads  expedition,  23;  ex- 
pedition to  Pacific  Coast,  24;  arrests  Balboa, 
27;  defeated  by  Urraca,  31 

Pizarro,  Gonzalo,  36;  defeats  Vela,  38;  desires  to 
conquer  Tierra  Firme,  38,  39;  sends  force  to 
seize  Panama,  39;  controls  highway  to  Peru, 
39;  victories  at  Anaquito,  40;  death  of,  40 

Plague,  245,  247,  248 

Plate  River,  see  Rio  de  la  Plata. 


Plenty,  Port,  45 

Plymouth,  Drake  sails  from,  48 

Plymouth  Harbor,  48 

Pocahontas  coal,  400-402 

Pocahontas  Consolidated  Collieries,  401 

Pocahontas  Fuel  Co.,  401 

Pocorosa,  chief,  22,  24;  attacks  Santa  Cruz,  23; 
subjects  punished,  25 

Police,  189,  220 

Polk,  James  K.,  President,  99 

Poison,  Major,  expedition  from  Great  Britain,  98 

Ponca,  15 

Ponce,  Gen.  Fernando,  president  of  Panama,  82; 
leads  negroes  in  revolt,  82 

Ponce  de  Leon,  Hernando,  29,  293 ;  defends  post  at 
Panama,  25 

Porque,  ruler  of  Quarequa,  17 

Porras,  Belisario,  biography,  480;  president  of 
Panama  Republic,  300 

Porras,  Pedro  Ruiz  de,  succeeds  to  military  com- 
mand, 77 

Port  Brito,  100 

Port  improvements,  306-310 

Port  Royal,  Jamaica,  59 

Porter,  Ambassador,  113 

Portland,  248,  306,  314 

Portland  cement,  see  Cement  and  concrete. 

Portland  hotel,  321 

Porto,  Gen.  Eloi,  83 

Porto  Bello,  6,  49,  52,  55,  56,  57,  75,  86,  87,  154, 
178;  Columbus  reaches,  8;  Columbus  arrives 
at,  9;  advantages  of,  54;  prey  to  pirates,  59; 
blockade  of,  70;  expedition  to,  71;  attacked 
by  English,  76;  stone  plant  at,  372;  concrete 
job  in,  378;  crushing  plant  at,  379 

Porto  Bello,  tug-boat,  349 

Porto  Rico,  257,  261,  286;  trade  with  English  ves- 
sels, 44;  sanitation,  122 

Portugal,  78,  96,  286;  cession  of  Brazil  to,  6; 
claims  Brazil,  43 

Portuguese  Islands,  286 

Portuguez,  Bartolome,  buccaneer,  56 

Post,  William,  417 

Potosf,  296 

Power  distribution,  324-326 

Prescott,  H.  G.,  197 

Press,  disloyal  attitude,  214 

Pressed  Steel  Car  Co.,  360,  361 

President,  control  of  commission  authorized,  235 

Presidio,  military  reservation,  310 

Preston,  Pedro,  84;  threatens  Americans  in  Colon, 
85;  leads  rebellion  in  Colon,  85;  hanging  of,  85 

Price,  William  Jennings,  biography,  480 

Prince  George  Hotel,  320,  321 

Prinz,  ship,  312 

Proclamations,  royal,  permitting  settlement  in  His- 
paniola,  5;  Panama  Canal  toll  rates,  515-516 

Providence,  306,  307,  319 

Puente,  Alonso  de  la,  20 

Puerto  Bono,  9 

Puerto  de  Caballos,  54 

Puerto  Principe,  Cuba,  57 

Puget  Sound,  248,  260,  263,  280,  303 

Pumps,  363-365 

Punta  de  Higuera,  42 

Punta  Manzanillo,  29 

Punta  Mosquito,  9 


538 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


Purchas  His  Pilgrimes,  extract  from,  120 
Purchasing  and  Supply  Department,  215 
Pyramid  of  Menkaura,  330 

Q 

Qualquojou,  Camilo,  biography,  480-481 

Quantity,  of  cubic  yards  of  earth  removed  by  French 
Company,  103;  by  Americans,  136,  140-145; 
of  materials  in  Gatun  dam,  146;  of  materials 
in  slides,  179,  182;  of  material  in  locks,  154; 
of  water  handled  by  culverts,  147;  of  flood 
water  of  Chagres  River,  147 

Quarantine,  problems,  244-249;  regulations,  246 

Quarequa,  17 

Quarrier,  H.,  381 

Queen's  Gardens,  7 

Quevedo,  Juan  de,  bishop,  20,  21,  27;  intervenes 
between  Balboa  and  Pedrarias,  25;  makes  re- 
ports adverse  to  Pedrarias,  28 

Quibo,  60 

Quito,  47,  76 


Railroads,  transcontinental,  243;  trans-Andean, 
248;  rates,  302,  303;  see  also  Atchison,  Topeka 
&  Santa  Fe  Railway;  Atlantic  Seaboard ;  Ches- 
apeake and  Ohio  Railway;  Erie  Railroad; 
Gulf,  Beaumont  &  Texas  Railway;  Houston 
railroads;  New  York  and  Erie  Railroad;  New 
York,  New  Haven  &  Hartford  Lines;  Norfolk 
and  Western  railway  system;  Northern  Pacific 
&  Great  Northern  system;  Panama  Railroad 
Company;  Southern  Pacific  Railroad  Company; 
Southern  Railway. 

Railway  Traction  and  Supply  Co.,  Chicago,  379 

Raleigh,  Sir  Walter,  colony  of,  48 

Rancheria,  49 

Randolph,  Isham,  biography,  481 

Randolph,  Gen.  W.  F.,  174 

Rats,  plague  carriers,  246 

Rauschenberg,  E.  C.,  381 

Rause,  Capt.  James,  joins  Drake,  45;  returns  to 
England,  45 

Rawles-Cobb  Co.,  394 

Real,  Jose  Maria  del,  76 

Realejo,  54,  61 

Recreations,,  420-421 

Redfern,  Samuel  Edward,  biography,  481 

Reed,  Dr.  Walter,  122 

Reeder,  D.  F.,  biography,  481 

Registry  of  ships,  see  Ships,  registration. 

Reinach,  Baron,  103 

Reliance,  tug-boat,  349,  389 

Remington  typewriters,  410 

Renteria,  37 

Repauno  plant,  see  Du  Pont  Repauno  plant. 

Repeal  of  tolls  exemption  clause,  see  Tolls  exemp- 
tion clause. 

Republic  Rubber  Co.,  393 

Rerdell,  Montfort  C.,  biography,  481 

Reyes,  Gen.  Rafael,  85,  112;  elected  president  of 
Colombia,  113;  sails  for  Paris,  113 

Reynolds,  William  T.,  biography,  481 

Rhode  Island,  283,  306,  307 

Rhodesia,  247 


Ribero,  Diego  de,  companion  of  Columbus,  13; 
slain  by  Indians,  30 

Richmond,  319 

Riviera,  American,  309 

Rio  Cubita,  61 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  248 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  ship,  281 

Rio  de  la  Plata,  248 

Rio  de  las  Balsas,  25 

Rio  del  Media,  101 

Rio  Grande,  90,  100,  101 

Rio  Hacha,  44 

Rio  Negro,  convention  held  at,  81 

Rios,  Pedro  de  los,  33;  appointed  governor  of  An- 
tigua, 32;  expelled  from  the  Indies,  35;  gover- 
nor of  Castilla  del  Oro,  35 

Ripley,  Joseph,  217;  biography,  481 

Rising  Sun,  ship,  67 

Ritz-Carlton  hotel  system,  319,  320 

Roads,  built  by  Engineering  Department,  212 

Roanoke,  Drake  sails  for,  48 

Robb  Mumford  Boiler  Co.,  368 

Robinson,  Arthur  L.,  biography,  481 

Robles,  Doctor,  governor  of  Castilla  del  Oro,  35; 
attempts  on  Nicaragua  fail,  37 

Rock  drill,  description  of,  329-341 

Rock  Island  Railroad,  203 

Roderick  Random,  by  Smollett,  cited,  73 

Rodman,  Hugh,  biography,  481 

Roebling,  John  A.,  347 

Roe-Stephens  Manufacturing  Co.,  392 

Rogers,  H.  A.,  Co.,  386 

Rogers,  Richard  Reid,  481;  counsel  to  Isthmian 
Commission,  203 

Rojas,  Gabriel  de,  32;  explores  San  Juan  River,  33, 

97 

Rolph,  James,  Jr.,  311 

Romain,  Cape,  So.  Carolina,  44 

Roosevelt,  Theodore,  President,  105,  112,  118,  202, 
203,252;  biography,  481;  calls  commission  to 
consider  offer  of  canal  company,  107;  denounces 
treaty  with  Colombia,  113;  appoints  Isthmian 
Canal  Commission,  127;  appoints  executive 
committee  to  the  commission,  128;  favors  lock 
canal,  132;  concentrates  authority  of  commis- 
sion, 1 60,  161;  orders  club  houses  built,  169; 
instructions  to  commission,  188;  instructions 
from,  189;  appoints  Shonts,  202-203;  praises 
sanitation  work  of  Gorgas,  205;  wisdom  of 
orders,  209;  relations  with  Stevens,  223;  How 
the  United  States  Acquired  the  Right  to  Dig 
the  Panama  Canal,  225-230;  denies  usurping 
authority,  225;  messages  relative  to  canal,  225; 
defends  position,  226-229;  sends  naval  vessels 
to  isthmus,  229 

Roosevelt  dam,  378 

Root,  Elihu,  biography,  481;  negotiations  as  Sec- 
retary of  State,  no,  113;  attitude  in  tolls  con- 
troversy, 241 

Root-Arosemena  Treaty,  505 

Root-Cortes  Treaty,  505 

Rose,  William  H.,  biography,  481 

Rosedale  Foundry  and  Machine  Co.,  384 

Ross,  David  W.,  203,  215;  biography,  481 

Ross,  John  W.,  481 

Ross,  Maj.  Roland,  proves  mosquito  cause  of  ma- 
laria, 122,  189 


INDEX 


539 


Ross-Meehan  Foundry  Co.,  392 

Rotisserie  Sportsman  Hotel,  320 

Rourke,  Louis  Keegan,  biography,  481-482 

Rousseau,  Harry  H.,  commissioner,  134,  161;  biog- 
raphy, 482;  designs  terminal  plants  for  canal, 
178,  186 

Royal  Mail  Steam  Packet  Co.,  312,  313 

Rua,  Alonzo  Perez  de  la,  31 

Rubberhide  Co.,  433 

Ruggles,  George  H.,  biography,  482 

Ruggles,  W.  B.,  482 

Ruiz,  Gen.  Benjamin,  president  of  Panama,  83,  84 

Runnels,  Ran,  78 

Russia,  310,  314,  315;  Czar  of,  119 

Ryswick,  Peace  of,  62 ;  Treaty  of,  65 


Saavedra,  deputy  for  Cortes,  32 

Sacramento,  87 

St.  Andrew,  Fort,  65 

St.  Augustine,  Fla.,  burned  by  Drake,  48 

St.  Augustine,  Cape,  6,  96 

St.  Augustine,  Fort,  44 

St.  Lawrence,  Gulf  of,  44 

St.  Lawrence  River,  Cartier  explores,  44 

St.  Louis,  154,  318 

St.  Mary's,  ship,  79 

St.  Peter's,  310 

St.  Petersburg,  315 

St.  Philip,  ship,  48 

Salaries,  215,  238;  see  also  Wages. 

Salcedo,  Diego  Lopez  de,  33 

Salguero,  Rodrigo,  40,  41 

Salina  Cruz,  248 

Salinas  Bay,  100 

Salvador,  31 

Samana  Bay,  description  of,  293-295 

Samano,  Viceroy,  77 

Samballas  Islands,  61 

Samuel,  Frank,  386 

San  Bias,  101 

San  Bias,  motor  boat,  419 

San  Diego,  248,  269,  270,  306;  exposition,  310 

Sands,  Robert  Marcena,  biography,  482 

San  Felipe  fortress,  56 

San  Francisco,  87,  199,  248,  249,  255,  258,  260,  263, 
268,  278,  282,  292,  300;  variation  of  tides  at, 
281;  Chamber  of  Commerce,  303;  Palace 
hotel,  321 ;  Union  Iron  Works,  305,  306 

San  Francisco  Bay,  303,  304,  310;  desirable  naval 
base,  261,  262,  269 

San  Francisco  Exposition,  310 

Sanitary  appliances,  423 

Sanitary  Department,  125,  212 

Sanitation,  211 ;  laws,  205;  cost  of,  206 

San  Gil  de  Buenavista,  53 

San  Juan  del  Norte,  seized  by  Great  Britain,  99 

San  Juan  del  Sur,  100 

San  Juan  de  Nicaragua,  49 

San  Juan  de  Pinos,  fort,  48 

San  Juan  de  Ulloa,  see  Vera  Cruz. 

San  Juan  harbor,  49 

San  Juan  River,  33,  37,  39,  97,  100,  101 

San  Lorenzo,  58,  59;  strong  citadel,  55;  capture  of 
fort,  72 


San  Lucar,  40,  96;  harbor,  9;  Pedrarias  sails  from, 
20 

San  Miguel,  Gulf  of,  18,  26,  31,  47,  97,  98;  new 
settlement  established  on,  22 

San  Pedro,  port,  306 

San  Pedro,  ship,  60 

San  Sebastian,  12,  35;  founding  of,  n;  disappear- 
ance of,  54 

Sao  Paulo,  320 

Santa  Barbara,  306 

Santa  Catalina,  ship,  314 

Santa  Catarina,  57,  58 

Santa  Clara,  ship,  314 

Santa  Fe  de  Bogota,  53,  75,  76 

Santa  Gloria,  9 

Santa  Maria,  59,  60,  62 

Santa  Maria  de  la  Consolacion,  6 

Santa  Maria  River,  60 

Santa  Cruz,  n,  25;  naming  of,  22;  garrison  estab- 
lished, 22,  23;  capture  of,  23;  Pedrarias  re- 
builds fort,  24 

Santa  Cruz,  ship,  314 

Santa  Cecilia,  ship,  314 

Santa  Marta,  40,  49,  76 

Santiago,  56,  82;  audiencia  transferred  to,  53; 
town-council,  54;  Vernon  at,  73 

Santiago  al  Angel,  31 

Santiago  de  Guatemala,  53 

Santiago  de  los  Caballeros,  31 

Santiago  del  Principe,  53 

Santiago  de  Veragua,  80 

Santo  Domingo,  6,  10,  II,  12,  15,  17;  arrival  of 
Columbus  at,  9;  English  vessels  arrive  at,  44; 
description,  293 

Santos,  248 

Sapoa  River,  100 

Saunders,  William  Lawrence,  biography,  482 

Savannah,  87 

Saville,  Caleb  Mills,  biography,  482;  work  at 
Gatun,  148 

Savoy  hotel,  321 

Sawkins,  Captain,  attacks  Pueblo  Nuevo,  60;  suc- 
ceeds Coxon  in  command  of  pirates,  60 

Schafer,  Lt.  George  C,  197,  482 

Schiavoni,  Mario  J.,  482 

Schieren,  Charles  A.,  Company,  389 

Schildhauer,  Edward,  biography,  482 

Schuyler,  James  D.,  149 

Scotland,  66;  sends  expedition  to  America,  65 

Scott,  J.  W.,  309 

Screw  spike  tie  plates,  390-391 

Scully,  M.  E.,  tug-boat,  349 

Sea -level  canal,  see  Panama  Canal. 

Sealing  device,  382-383 

Seattle,  260,  306,  314,  321 

Segari,  S.,  &  Co.,  430 

Segovia,  62 

Sesostris,  king,  1 20 

Sessions,  Arthur,  biography,  482 

Seville,  6,  20;  Treaty  of,  70,  71 

Sewerage  system,  189 

Sewing  machines,  422 

Sexton,  S.  B.,  Stove  &  Manufacturing  Co.,  427 

Shaler,  Col.  J.  R.,  197,  198 

Shanghai,  262 

Shannon,  E.  P.,  217 

Shanton,  George  R.,  482 


540 


HISTORY  OF  THE   PANAMA   CANAL 


Sharp,  Capt.  Bartholomew,  59;  biography,  482; 
tried  for  piracy,  60,  61 

Sharp,  H.  S.,  314 

Shenandoah,  ship,  84 

Sherman,  Edward  C.,  biography,  482 

Sherman,  Gen.  W.  T.,  174 

Sherman  law,  274 

Ship  subsidy,  274 

Shipping,  hygiene,  244-249 

Ships,  registration,  239,  243;  supplies,  239;  rail- 
road-owned, 239,  243;  foreign-built,  242;  san- 
itation, 246-247;  inspection,  247 

Shoes,  see  Footwear. 

Shonts,  Theodore  P.,  biography,  482-483 ;  chairman 
of  Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  128,  129,  193, 
202-203;  favors  contract  plan,  132;  resigna- 
tion, 133;  The  Railroad  Men  at  Panama,  202- 
209;  addresses  Atlanta  Chamber  of  Commerce, 
208;  praises  Goethals,  208,  209 

Shontz,  C.  M.,  483 

Shovels,  see  Steam  shovels. 

Siberia,  ship,  314 

Sibert,  Lt.-Col.  Wm.  Luther,  158;  biography,  483; 
commissioner,  134;  promotion,  186 

Sierra  Leone,  48 

Simons,  William,  Co.,  356 

Singapore,  248 

Size,  of  Panama  Canal,  114;  of  locks,  118,  150-155; 
of  lock  gates,  151;  of  Culebra  Cut,  118;  of 
Gatun  Dam,  146;  of  Gatun  Lake,  117;  see 
also  map,  521;  of  wharves  and  piers,  177;  of 
Balboa  dry  dock,  176;  of  Naos  Island  break- 
water, 178;  of  Toro  Point  breakwater,  178; 
of  guns,  172-173;  of  coaling  plants,  175;  of 
Miraflores  Lake,  117;  of  Spillway  gates,  147 

Skiff,  F.J.V.,  311 

Slides,  144,  158,  179,  182;  see  also  Cucaracha;  Cule- 
bra, West  Culebra. 

Slifer,  H.  J.,  483 

Sloss,  Leon,  311 

Smallpox,  245,  248 

Smith,  H.  A.  A.,  biography,  483 

Smith,  J.  A.,  biography,  483 

Smith,  Jackson,  135,  203,  214;   biography,  483 

Smith,  Ray  Low,  biography,  483 

Smith,  T.  L.,  Co.,  378 

Smollett,  Roderick  Random,  73 

Sneed,  J.  W.,  biography,  483 

Snyder,  199 

Societe  Civile  Internationale  du  Canal  Inter- 
oceanique,  102 

Soconusco,  53 

Solis,  Juan  Diaz  de,  96;   biography,  483 

Soo  Canal,  114,  154 

Sosa,  Juan  de,  36 

Sosa,  Lope  de,  governor  of  Antigua,  28;   death,  30 

Sosa  Hill,  119,  149 

Soto,  Hernando  de,  21,  32 

South  African  trade  route,  247 

South  America,  38,  51,  61,  91,  205,  248,  266,  269, 
274,  291,  298,  305,  312,  319,  320,  321;  expedi- 
tions to  coast,  5;  Bastidas  reaches,  6;  main- 
land discovered,  7;  coast  ravaged  by  buc- 
caneers, 62;  commerce,  69,  70,  276;  canal 
benefits,  267 

South  Carolina,  318;  Huguenots  attempt  to 
settle,  44 


South  Mountain,  318 

South  Sea,  16,  17,  20,  36;  discovery  of,  19;  fleet 
equipped  to  explore,  22;  expedition  of  Badajoz 
to,  24;  Morales  takes  possession,  24;  Balboa 
seeks  for  gold  country,  26 

South  Sea  Company,  52;    assiento  conferred    on, 

69,  70,  73 

South  Sea  Islands,  286 

Southampton,  313 

Southern  and  Pacific  Railroads,  319 

Southern  Pacific  Railroad,  314 

Southern  Railway,  318 

Spain,  33,  96,  286;  erects  forts  in  the  colonies,  55; 
antagonism  against  England,  69;  defeat  by 
Portugal,  69;  demands  by  Cromwell,  69; 
trade  interference,  69;  treaty  with  England, 
69;  war  with  England,  69,  70,  72;  decision  of 
court,  70;  demands  on,  72;  ships  destroyed  at 
Cartagena,  72;  force  sent  to  maintain  rule  in 
colonies,  76 ;  proposes  Caledonian  Bay  route,  98 

Spalding,  A.  G.,  &  Bros.,  420 

Spanish  America,  desires  independence,  75 

Spanish-American  War,  105 

Spanish  labor,  162,  206,  213-214 

Spanish  Main,  312 

Spanish  Succession,  War  of  the,  52,  62 

Speedy  Return,  ship,  67 

Spencer  Otis  Co.,  391 

Sperr,  John,  419 

Spice  Islands,  48,  51;    attempts  to  discover,  31,  96 

Spillway,  94,  147;    gate  machinery,  379-382 

Spoil,  disposal,  143,  358;  cost  of  removing,  156 

Spooner,  John  Coit,  Senator,  108,  232;   biography, 

483 

Spooner  act,  no,  127,  193,  194,  232-233,  507-509 

Spooner  bill,  substituted  for  Hepburn  bill,  109 

Spratling,  L.  W.,  483 

Squier,  Ephraim  George,  suggests  treaty,  100 

Stackpole  &  Sons,  395 

Standard  Atlantic  Fleet,  259 

Standard  Pacific  Fleet,  259 

Standard  Sanitary  Manufacturing  Co.,  424 

Stanton,  F.  C.,  483 

Standard  Underground  Cable  Co.,  407 

Steacy -Schmidt  Manufacturing  Co.,  381 

Steam  shovels,  description  of  work,  142 

Stearns,  Frederick  Pike,  149;   biography,  483 

Steel  and  iron  castings,  385 

Stephens,  John  Lloyd,  88,  90;  biography,  483; 
confidential  mission  to  Central  America,  99; 
recommends  Nicaraguan  route,  99 

Stephens-Adamson  Manufacturing  Co.,  379 

Sterling,  R.  S.,  310 

Sterns,  F.  E.,  483 

Stetson,  John  B.,  Co.,  433 

Stetson  Shoe  Co.,  431 

Stevens,  John  F.,  203,  210;  biography,  483-484; 
succeeds  Wallace,  130;  perfects  transportation 
facilities,  131;  favors  lock  canal,  132;  chairman 
of  commission,  133;  resignation,  133;  address 
by,  204-205;  Truth  of  History,  210-224; 
relations  with  President,  etc.,  223 

Stickle,  H.  W.,  biography,  484 

Stimson,  Henry  L.,  174;  biography,  484 

Stone,  A.  K.,  biography,  484 

Stone,  T.  H.,  310 

Strain,  Lieutenant,  surveys  route  for  canal,  100 


INDEX 


54i 


Strathdon,  ship,  280 

Street,  G.  C.,  310 

Strickland,  G.  B.,  484 

Strikes,  waiters',  139;  see  also  Labor  troubles 

Strom,  Carl  E.,  484 

Stuebner,  G.  L.,  Iron  Works,  379 

Suez  Canal,  102,  114,  247,  262,  274 

Suez  Canal  trade  route,  247 

Suez,  Isthmus  of,  101 

Sugar,     tariff,     287-290;     see    also    Cuba;     Java; 

Hawaii 

Sullivan,  J.  G.,  203,  484 
Sullivan  Machinery  Co.,  340 
Sulzberger  &  Sons  Co.,  430 
Surena,  23 
Surre  River,  37 

Surveying  instruments,  395~397 
Swan,  Captain,  buccaneer,  61 
Swan,  ship,  45 
Swindell  Brothers,  418 
Sydney,  248,  305 


Tabira,  Juan  de,  20;  expedition  against  Dabaiba,  23 

Taboga  Island,  60,  91,  124 

Tabor,  24 

Tacoma,  Wash.,  182 

Taft,  William  Howard,  President,  94,  122,  202; 
biography,  484;  sanitation  orders,  123;  orders 
resignation  of  Wallace,  129;  visits  Panama,  134, 
149,  196;  visits  Jamaica,  196;  signs  exposition 
act,  311;  tolls  proclamation,  515-516 

Tahiti,  248 

Talavera,  hanging  of,  12 

Taracuri,  24 

Tariff,  see,  Sugar;    Underwood  tariff 

Tataracherubi,  24 

Taussig,  Rudolph  J.,  311 

Taylor,  Chas.,  Sons  Co.,  418 

Taylor,  J.  M.,  396 

Taylor,  William  H.,  362 

Taylor  Instrument  Companies,  396 

Taylor,  S.  G.f  Chain  Co.,  391 

Tehuantepec,  97,  98,  101 

Tehuantepec,  Isthmus  of,  304 

Tehuantepec  route,  181 

Telegraph  system,  404 

Telephones,  217 

Teneriffe,  Santa  Cruz  castle,  69 

Teniente  Rodriguez,  ship,  182 

Tennessee,  319 

Tenney,  M.  W.,  484 

Texas,  310;  cattle  produced,  308 

Texas  Company,  397 

Texas  Gulf  Coast,  309 

Thatcher,  Maurice  Hudson,  biography,  484 

Thearle,  Harry  Bishop,  420 

Thelma,  ship,  415 

Theobald  &  Oppenheimer  Co.,  421 

Thew  Automatic  Shovel  Co.,  357 

Thierry,  Baron  Amedee  Simon  Dominique,  98 

Thorn,  Leslie  Grant,  484 

Thomas  E.  Coale  Lumber  Co.,  415 

Thompson,  F.  du.  Pont,  381 

Thompson,  John  W.,  484 


Thomson,  Thaddeus  Austin,  biography,  484;  sent 
to  Bogota,  1 13 

Thomson-Urrutia  Treaty,  505-507 

Thonet  Bros.,  418 

Thorne,  Charles  S.,  401 

Three-In-One  Oil  Co.,  399 

Thurston,  Lorrin  Andrews,  biography,  484;  The 
Effect  of  the  Panama  Canal  on  Hawaii,  278-290 

Tiburon,  Cape,  9,  58 

Tides,  see  Hawaii;  San  Francisco 

Tierra  de  Guerra,  see  Tuzulutan 

Tierra  Firme  (Isthmus  of  Panama),  10,  12,  15,  19, 
27,  30,  31,  38,  41,  55,  61,  62,  63,  75,  77;  mines 
and  trade  of,  51;  government  of,  53;  placed 
under  viceroy  of  Peru,  53;  sets  up  government 
as  Republic  of  Panama,  53;  port  of  entry  not 
removed,  54;  threatened  by  pirates,  56 ;  depre- 
dations on  coast,  72;  peaceful  condition,  74; 
proposes  confederation  of  colonies,  76;  proj- 
ects for  a  ship  canal  on,  97;  see  also  Panama 
(Republic) 

Tiger  Island,  seized  by  Great  Britain,  99 

Titanic,  ship,  118 

Tivoli,  94 

Tivoli  Club,  170 

Tivoli  Hotel,  139,  170 

Tobey,  E.  C.,  484 

Toledo,  Maria  de,  attempts  colonization,  36 

Toll  rates,  237;  contention  relative  to,  238-239; 
controlled  by  Interstate  Commerce  Com- 
mission, 241 ;  proclamation  relative  to,  515-516 

Tolls  exemption  clause,  repeal,  241,  242,  515 

Tomlinson,  M.,  386 

Toponcante,  67 

Tordesillas,  treaty  of,  21,  43 

Toreba,  32 

Toro  Island,  breakwater,  178 

Toro  Point,  116;   guns  and  forts  at,  172,  173,  174 

Toro  Point,  motor  boat,  419 

Tortuga,  headquarters  for  buccaneers,  56 

Totonagua,  24 

Totten,  Col.  George  M.,  91;  railroad  constructor,  88 

Tourist  accommodations,  319-321 

Tower,  A.  C.,  390 

Tower  Manufacturing  and  Novelty  Co.,  411 

Townley,  Captain,  buccaneer,  61;   death  of,  62 

Towns,  location  of,  239 

Transportation  rates,  240 

Transvaal,  247 

Trautwine,  John  C.,  railroad  constructor,  88 

Treaties,  interoceanic  communications,  489-495; 
see  also  Clayton-Bulwer  Treaty;  Cortes- 
Arosemena  Treaty;  Hay-Bunau-Varilla  Treaty; 
Hay-Concha  Agreement;  Hay-Herran  Treaty; 
Hay-Pauncefote  Treaty;  Root-Arosemena 
Treaty;  Root-Cortes  Treaty;  Thomson-Ur- 
rutia Treaty;  names  of  countries 

Treaty  of  1670,  71 

Triana,  6;   burning  of,  56;   castle,  57 

Tribunal  Civile  de  la  Seine,  103 

Tropics,  description,  311,  312 

Trujillo,  32,  54 

Tubanama,  post  established  at,  22 

Tubby,  W.  G.,  203 

Tucker,  Herman  Franklin,  biography,  484 

Tumaco,  18 

Tumbez,  40 


54* 


HISTORY  OF  THE  PANAMA  CANAL 


Trade  routes,  see  Good  Hope,  Cape  of;  Magellan 
trade  route;  North  Atlantic;  Ocean;  Pacific; 
Panama;  South  African;  Suez  Canal 

Tutuila,  257 

Tuzulutan,  inhabitants  converted  to  Christianity,  38 

Two  Ocean  Standard,  257,  259 

Typhus,  245 

U 

Ulua,  River,  53 

Umstead,  Ambrose  B.,  314 

Unalaska,  Island  of,  281 

Underwood,  F.  D.,  315 

Underwood,  Oscar  W.,  241 ;    quoted,  274 

Underwood  tariff,  272 

Underwood  Typewriter  Co.,  410 

Union  National  Bank,  309 

Union  Oil  Co.,  366 

Union  Pacific  Railroad,  91 

United  Fruit  Co.,  182,  311,  318 

United  Fruit  Line,  93 

United  Kingdom,  see  Great  Britain 

United  Shoe  Machinery  Co.,  432 

United  States,  78,  79,  119,  120,  124,  125,  174,  193, 
205,  248,  263,  264,  265,  267,  268,  283,  286,  297, 
300,  305,  314;  troops  landed  in  Panama,  82; 
treaty  with  New  Granada,  87;  completes 
canal,  87;  purchase  of  Panama  Railroad,  91, 
92;  purchases  Canal  Zone,  92;  Senate  resolu- 
tion favors  Nicaraguan  route,  99;  proposed 
treaty  with  Nicaragua,  99,  100;  Congress 
appoints  Canal  Commission,  104;  Nicaraguan 
route  decided  on,  104-105;  recognition  of 
Panama  Republic,  112,  229;  treaty  with 
Colombia,  113;  government  of  Canal  Zone, 
183;  payment  for  sanitation,  206;  forbids 
Colombia  to  land  troops,  229;  merchant 
marine,  263,  264;  expansion,  266;  commerce, 
271,  272,  302;  invisible  exports  from,  272,  273; 
relations  with  Latin  America,  277;  tariff  on 
sugar,  288,  289;  population,  291;  productions, 
291,  292;  revival  in  ship  building,  305,  306; 
government,  307;  military  reservation,  310 

United  States  of  Colombia,  see  Colombia 

United  States  Topographical  Corps,  88 

Uraba,  7,  97 

Uraba,  Gulf  of,  see  Darien,  Gulf  of 

Urraca,  chieftain  of  Veragua,  31 

Ursua,  Pedro  de,  53 

Utrecht,  Treaty  of,  52,  62,  69 


Vaca  de  Monte,  99 

Valderrabano,  Andres  de,  26;  death,  27 

Valdes,  Ramon  M.,  300;  biography,  484-485 

Valdivia,  13,  17,  293;  sent  to  Antigua,  15;  brings 
provisions  to  Antigua,  16;  in  wreck  near 
Yucatan,  16;  return  from  Hispaniola,  16; 
death,  16;  shipwrecked,  19 

Valdivieso,  Bishop  of  Leon,  40 

Valladolid,  9 

Valparaiso,  262,  313;  Drake  captures  ships,  48 

Van  Buren,  Martin,  President,  99 

Vancouver,  248,  291 

Van  Nuys  hotel,  321 

Vasquez,  Pedro,  governor  of  Castilla  del  Oro,  35 


Vela,  Vasco  Nunez,  viceroy  of  Peru,  38;   imprisons 

Vaca  de  Castro,  38;   death,  38 
Velasco,  Diego  Fernandez  de,  governor  of  Castilla 

del  Oro,  97 

Velazquez,  Diego  de,  293 

Venables,  General,  English  expedition  under,  69,  294 
Venezuela,  6,  58,  76 
Vera  Cruz,  45 
Veragua,  7,  8,  29,  46,  60,  75,  79,  96;    Columbus 

anchors  at,  8;    description  of,  8;   fertility  and 

mineral  wealth  of,  10;  Nicuesa  in  search  of,  13; 

gold  from,  52 ;  transferred  to  New  Granada,  53 ; 

depredations  of  buccaneers  on  coast  of,  62 
Vera  Paz,  53 

Verdugo,  Melchior,  seizes  ships,  39 
Vernon,  Edward,  71,  72;  biography,  485;   proceeds 

to  Cuba,  73;  recalled,  73 

Verrazano,  Giovanni,  expedition  to  America,  44 
Vespucci,   Amerigo,   43;     member   of   party   with 

Columbus,  5 
Vessels,  see  Ships 
Victoria,  Queen  of  England,  312 
Victoria  Louise,  cruising  steamer,  312 
Vienna,  Treaty  of,  70 
Vila,  Gen.  Ramon  Santodomingo,  83;   president  of 

Panama,  83 
Villa  de  los  Santos,  61 
Virginia,  305;  orders  to  governors  of,  65 
Vladivostock,  282 
Voorhees  Rubber  Co.,  393 

W 

Wachusetts  Dam,  148 

Wafer,  Lionel,  New  Voyage  and  Description  of  the 
Isthmus  of  America,  61 

Wage-earners,  272,  274,  275 

Wages,  131,  215;  see  also  Salaries 

Wales,  314 

Walker,  J.  A.,  485 

Walker,  Rear-Admiral  John  G.,  107,  127,  202; 
biography,  485;  conference  with,  1 88;  letter  to 
Wallace,  199 

Walker  Commission,  148 

Wallace,  John  Findley,  93,  122,  196,  203;  biog- 
raphy, 485;  appointed  chief  engineer,  127; 
dissatisfaction  and  resignation,  128,  129;  suc- 
ceeded by  Stevens,  130;  letter  from  Parsons, 
187;  Building  the  Foundations,  187-201; 
household  of,  195;  yellow  fever  in  family,  195; 
elected  vice-president  of  railroad,  198;  secures 
control  of  railroad,  198;  letter  from  Walker, 
199;  resignation  from  railroad,  201 ;  inspection 
of  proposed  route,  355 

Walpole,  Sir  Robert,  70,  71 

Ward,  Charles,  192 

Wardlaw,  R.  H.,  biography,  485 

Warren,  H.  P.,  485 

Warwick,  Walter  W.,  biography,  485 

Washington,  George,  318 

Washington  (State),  269 

Washington,  D.  C.t  128,  202,  317 

Washington  Hotel,  170,  321,  412,  414,  424 

Washington  monument,  114 

Waste  material,  see  Spoil 

Water  supply,  189,  211 

Water  Supply  Department,  189 


INDEX 


543 


Waterloo,  battle  of,  227 

Watervliet,  N.  Y.,  118 

Watling  John,  succeeds  Sharp,  60;   death,  60 

Watt,  John  M.  G.,  485 

Wellington,  305 

Wearing  apparel,  see  Clothing 

Weather  Bureau,  278,  279,  280,  281 

Weather  records,  216 

Weaver,  John  Heisley,  biography,  485 

Weaver,  J.  H.,  &  Co.,  402-403 

Weber,  F.,  &  Co.,  396 

Weidman,  Charles  E.,  biography,  485 

Wellington  Hotel,  321 

Wells,  George  M.,  biography,  485 

Werweer,  General,  98 

West  Culebra  slide,  145 

West  Disinfecting  Co.,  423 

West  Indian  negro,  163,  166,  206,  207 

West  Indian  ports,  314 

West  Indies,  9,  55,  61,  62,  64,  261;  secret  agent  for 
English  merchants  in,  44;  trade  with  England, 
44;  free  trade  with,  69;  British  fleet  sent  to, 
70;  British  trade  interrupted,  70;  coast  guard 
in,  70;  cruising  service,  312 

West  Virginia,  318,  319 

Western  Wheeled  Scraper  Co.,  359 

Westinghouse  Machine  Co.,  382 

Wheeling  Mold  and  Foundry  Co.,  380 

White,  Henry,  biography,  485 

White  House,  202;  cable  connection  with  Gamboa, 
1 80 

Whitmer,  Robert  Foster,  biography,  485 

Whitmore,  Samuel  Washington,  biography,  485 

Whitmore  Manufacturing  Co.,  398 

Wickwire  Bros.,  423 

Wilkinson,  E.  T.,  415 

William  III.,  64,  65 

Williams,  Edward  J.,  203,  215;  biography,  486 

Williams,  Brown  &  Earle,  Inc.,  397 

Williamson,  S.  B.,  486 

Willson,  F.  D.,  biography,  486 

Wilmington,  317 

Wilson,  Eugene  Trimble,  biography,  486 

Wilson,  Jas.  G.,  Co.,  416 

Wilson,  William  A.,  310 

Wilson,  Woodrow,  President,  1 80,  181,  184,  241, 
310;  biography,  486;  appoints  Goethals 
governor,  185;  promotions  made,  1 86;  de- 


mands "free  tolls"  clause,  238;  executive  order, 

516-517 
Winchester,  318 

Winds,  effect  on  sea  transportation,  281,  282,  283 
Winn,  H.  J.,  396 
Wire  rope,  use  of,  347~355 
Wireless  telegraph  stations,  239 
Women's  clubs,  170 
Wood,    Maj-Gen.   Leonard,    122;    biography,  486; 

The  Defense  of  the  Canal  Zone,  266 
Wood,  Robert  E.,  biography,  486 
Wood,  William  M.,  biography,  486 
Wood  Drill  Works,  342 
Woodruff,  George  W.,  401 
Workmen's  compensation,  236 
Wright,  Daniel  E.,  137,  486;  biography,  486 
Wyse,    Lieut.    Lucien    Napoleon    Bonaparte,    486; 

selects  route  for  canal,  102 


Xagua,  37 

Xaquixaguana,  battle,  40 
Ximenes,  Cardinal  Francisco,  38 


Yanez  Pinzon,  Vicente,  discovers  Brazil,  43 

Yankee  ingenuity,  275 

Yavisa  River,  62 

Yellow  fever,  122-123,  204,  211;  epidemic  and 
deaths  from,  189,  190,  195;  extirpation,  195, 
204,  245,  248,  266;  see  also  Gorgas,  Dr.  William 
Crawford;  Reed,  Dr.  Walter 

Yellow  fever  mosquito,  122,  189 

Yokohama,  248,  262,  278,  280,  305 

Yoratuba,  67 

York  Safe  &  Lock  Co.,  422 

Young,  M.  H.  de.,  311 

Young  Men's  Christian  Association,  169,  206,  223 

Youngstown  Sheet  and  Tube  Co.,  371 

Yucatan,  8,  16,  38,  96 


Zamudio,  Martin,  13;  goes  with  Enciso  to  Spain, 
15;  writes  of  rumored  recall  of  Balboa,  17; 
denounced  by  Enciso,  19 

Zinn,  A.  S.,  biography,  486 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 
LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


29Matf58MH| 

1    1*1 

1RECD 

V'               »                     l^'"'^ 

iprsreires": 

19M^65Mg 

IOWay'60BS 

1  OJWoi/  'ir^u 

'J°°^5 

RETC'O  Ln 

WITS    '65-pp.j 

toW  3    I960 

MOV  1  *?  ioct:  o  i 

nu¥  JL  (  loot)  £  1 

APtf  i  i  jgg5 

REC'D 

ADD    1   1    'IMh4 

MOV   9'65-£pM 

,.'!•','      I     '      l..;M.< 

-       15Maj'63/^ 

i  DAN  DEPT 

- 

SEP  2  6  19P 

LD  21A-50m-8,'57          **ll*> 
(C8481slO)476B 

-  ^  5      General  Library 
University  of  California 
Berkeley 

U.  C.  BERKELEY  LIBRARIES 


CDS^lfifl^fl 


313169 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


